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Northian grammar, particularly in nouns, has been important to the reconstruction of Proto-Erani-Eracuran owing to its conservativeness.  Though the Galic corpus is hardly large, its 12,000 or so words have been endorsed by historical linguists as a trove of relics that are either unique or  corroborating forms for unique items elsewhere.  As C. Cloverdale said, "Northian Gales are valued in this science for their fidelity in transmission and consistency in grammar."  However, the outward conservativeness of Northian is attributed to the early date of its compositions, where archaic formations are expected, and its exceptional position in the field owes mainly to the fidelity of the transmission that has prevented the loss of relics.
Northian grammar, particularly in nouns, has been important to the reconstruction of Proto-Erani-Eracuran owing to its conservativeness.  Though the Galic corpus is hardly large, its 12,000 or so words have been endorsed by historical linguists as a trove of relics that are either unique or  corroborating forms for unique items elsewhere.  As C. Cloverdale said, "Northian Gales are valued in this science for their fidelity in transmission and consistency in grammar."  However, the outward conservativeness of Northian is attributed to the early date of its compositions, where archaic formations are expected, and its exceptional position in the field owes mainly to the fidelity of the transmission that has prevented the loss of relics.
==Ablaut==
{{wp|Indo-European ablaut|Ablaut}} is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not the meaning of the morpheme in which they are located, that is inherited from Proto-Erani-Eracuran.  It affects most classes of words in Northian. 
Though ablaut was a regular process closely associated with {{wp|Indo-European accent|accent}} in the reconstructed proto-language, with some authorities proposing a direct correspondence between the accent and the full-grade *e vowel, by Galic times any precise corresondence had been lost (probably already by the final stage of the proto-language).  Moreover, existing ablaut formulae have been disrupted by sound change and both general and sporadic analogical replacement.  The result that surfaces in Galic Northian is a rich yet unpredictable plethora of alternate morphologies that confuse even later Hamruvunts, whose theses about correct grammar, when such a discipline arose, are sometimes woefully misguided by modern standards.
In nouns, there are four main ablaut patterns inherited and evolved, which are in scholarly discourse termed acrostatic, proterokinetic, amphikinetic, and hysterokinetic.  The medieval Northian grammarians astutely observed that the position of the accent in the dative singular predicts the correct set of endings: where it was on the final syllable (oxytone or '''OX'''), full-grade endings (e.g. -ṓ, -aí) was used in the oblique cases, and where not on the final syllable (paroxytone or '''PX'''), the zero-grade set of endings (e.g. -i) were used.  The former situation regularly developed from amphikinetic and hysterokinetic patterns, and the latter from the acrostatic and proterokinetic ones.  The OX nouns were characterized by the nearly-universal genitive singular ending -ṓ, while the PX nouns had unpredictable endings there owing to the vagaries of sound change.
The medieval grammarians were not able to distinguish between the proterokinetic and acrostatic ablaut patterns because the latter were quite few and subject to the heaviest erosion in identifiable morphs and thus taught by rote.  Surprisingly, Himinastainas observed that such "irregularities" arose mostly in body parts and the commonest animals and objects, so learning them by rote "is imperative".  Amphikinetic and hysterokinetic nouns were not distinguished, on the other hand, because they differed principally in the nominative singular, which, synchronically, was largely irregular and must be learned by rote anyway.
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Accent !!style="width: 4em"| Root !!style="width: 4em"| Suffix !!style="width: 4em"| Ending !!style="width: 6em"| Pre-form !!style="width: 4em"| Root !!style="width: 4em"| Suffix !!style="width: 4em"| Ending !!style="width: 6em"| Outcome !! Galic
|-
!rowspan="3"| Acrostatic
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|rowspan="2"| ó ||rowspan="2"| Ø ||rowspan="2| Ø || *nókʷ-t-s ||rowspan="3"| ó ||rowspan="3"| Ø ||rowspan="3"| Ø || noxṯ
!rowspan="6"| Paroxytone
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''acc'''}} 
| *nókʷ-t-m̥ || noxtam
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''gen'''}} 
| é || Ø || Ø || *nékʷ-t-s || noxš
|-
!rowspan="3"| Proterokinetic
! {{smallcaps|'''nom'''}} 
|rowspan="2"| é ||rowspan="2"| Ø ||rowspan="2"| Ø || *mér-tis ||rowspan="2"| é, Ø ||rowspan="2"| Ø ||rowspan="2"| Ø || mərətiš
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''acc'''}} 
| *mér-tim || mərətim
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''gen'''}} 
| Ø || é || Ø || *mr̥-téi̯-s || Ø || é || Ø || mərətaiš
|-
!rowspan="3"| Amphikinetic-I
! {{smallcaps|'''nom'''}} 
| é || ō || Ø || *léy-mō || é || ō || Ø || láimō
!rowspan="9"| Oxytone
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''acc'''}} 
| é || o || Ø || *léy-mon-m̥ || e || ṓ, ó, Ø || Ø || limṓnąm
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''gen'''}} 
| Ø || Ø || é || *li-mn-és || Ø || Ø || ó || limnō
|-
!rowspan="3"| Amphikinetic-II
! {{smallcaps|'''nom'''}} 
| é || Ø || Ø || *kré-tu-s || Ø || Ø || Ø || xarətuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''acc'''}} 
| Ø || é || Ø || *kr̥-téw-m̥ || Ø || Ø || Ø || xarətā̊<ref>via {{wp|Stang's law}}</ref>
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''gen'''}} 
| Ø || Ø || é || *kr̥-tu-és || Ø || Ø || ó || xarəźuuō
|-
!rowspan="3"| Hysterokinetic
! {{smallcaps|'''nom'''}}
| rowspan="2"| Ø ||rowspan="2"| é ||rowspan="2"| Ø || *ph₂-tḗr ||rowspan="2"| Ø ||rowspan="2"| é ||rowspan="2"| Ø || ptō
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''acc'''}}
| *ph₂-tér-m̥ ||  piterəm
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''gen'''}}
| Ø || Ø || é || *ph₂-tr-és || Ø || Ø || ó || fϑrō
|}
<references />
In the most summary way, the acrostatic nouns had a persistent accent on the root syllable, while the proterokinetic ones shifted the accent one syllable to the right (namely to the suffix) in the oblique cases.  The amphikinetic nouns were of two types, differing only in the nominative singular: one type, the more common, had a lengthened o-grade in the suffix, while the other one had the zero grade there.  In both, the root was accented in the nominative singular, and the ending in the oblique cases; the accent of the accusative is disputed.  The sources of both the unaccented o-grade and its length are also disputed.  The hysterokinetic nouns had an accented suffix in the direct cases and accented ending in the oblique.
In their evolution to Galic Northian, the following changes have occurred.  For amphikinetic nouns with an o-grade suffix, the nominative stem extended to the accusative; this must have been a fairly late alteration as the accusative suffix often has the long vowel of the nominative, showing that the long vowel was no longer analyzable as a full grade plus a lengthening element specific to the nominative, i.e. out of place in the accusative.  There are also sporadic appearances of a short accusative suffix, which must be interpreted as the result of an earlier layer of levelling.
Amphikinetic nouns with the zero-grade suffix had irregular developments. Where the stem ended in -u or -i, the zero-grade suffix usually spread to accusative; perhaps this occurred under the influence of the proterokinetic, as with them these amphikinetics shared a zero-grade suffix in the nominative, cp. amphikinetic ''xrétuš'' "will" and proterokinetic ''xrétuš'' "powerful". The vocalized approximant was re-analyzed as a full-grade vowel, wherewith the zero-grade root was introduced, e.g. ''xarətuš'' < *kr̥tus.  Accusatives ending in -ā̊ must be the outcome of the short suffix introduced from a full-grade nominative plus accusative ending -m, i.e. *-VR-m̥. It is impossible to distinguish the o-grade from the e-grade here, but where there was no o-grade in the paradigm, an original e-grade is assumed, cp. ''ziiā̊'' "deum" from ''ziiaōš'' "deus". 
Where the stem did not end in an approximant (-r, -s, -m, -n), the development was largely arbitrary, e.g. acc. sing. both more common ''xmąm'' (formed from the oblique stem xm- plus acc. ending -am) and (clearly) more archaic ''xā̊'' < *dʰǵʰḗm < dʰǵʰem-m̥.
Proterokinetic nouns had their root syllables levelled nearly completely in favour of the zero grade, unless this produced an impermissible sequence of consonants, but the accent position is usually not altered and often discloses a former full grade.  There are sporadic survivals of the full-grade root, but none in the productive suffixes of -ti- and -tu-, as accented zero-grade suffixes are universal there, perhaps also under the influence of the hysterokinetics.  This produced a morphologically proterokinetic but accentually static pattern that became dominant for these suffixes in later Northian.  The hysterokinetic declension survives particularly well in Northian, preserving a distinct full-grade in the accusative and a zero-grade in the oblique cases. 
It is notable that, perhaps owing to a lack of ablaut in the root syllable, the hysterokinetic pattern was the most stable and productive (the acrostatic pattern is assumed to be vestigial even in the proto-language).  The patterns with root ablaut, namely amphikinetic and proterokinetic, either lost productivity or were levelled to remove ablaut in the root.  Many suffixes which have original amphikinetic patterns developed hysterokinetic compounds which later became productive, while the amphikinetic suffix lost productivity.  Issinar asserted in 1940 that, taking the root and suffix together as a unit and allowing for the long-grade in the nominative, Northian nouns could have a maximum of two distinct stems; this rule appears to hold in many cases, though not without exception.
Ablaut rules developed differently in many suffix classes.  For example, the mn-stems usually had the long suffix original to the nominative intruding the accusative, but the wn-stems often has a zero-grade suffix in the accusative; possibly this is because the combination C-wn- was vocalized as C-un- early, and the -u- there was thought of as an original, full-grade vowel, after the u-stems.  Additionally, many words show compounds of suffixes, particularly derived feminines in -ī and -ū, and the accentual rules in these words sometimes depends on the character of the root, compulsorily it is verbal, and in other times becomes static on the suffix.  Some classes of words apparently had vacillating accent or even no recorded accent, suggesting that these derivations were not common enough to have a widely-recognized pattern even if their meanings can be worked out.


==Historical development==
==Historical development==
===Periodization===
{{main|History of Northian}}
The Galic corpus, divided by genre, is usually analyzed to obtain three language periods, named Early Galic, Late Galic, and Didaskalic Galic.  Early Galic is the language of the Period I Gales and any scattered Old Material in them, Didaskalic Galic was the language of the Didaskalic Material, and Late Galic refers to everything else.
 
===Proto-Erani-Eracuran to Pre-Galic===
====Compensatory lengthening====
In the history the Erani-Eracuran proto-language, there was sweeping compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel following the dropping of final resonants.  These long syllables then generally lost their final consonants in pre-Galic, creating preponderating quantities of open final syllables for which Galic is known.  Named {{wp|Szemerenyi's law}}, this dropping of final resonants is reflected in one way or another in all Erani-Eracuran languages.
 
On the one hand, owing to its early attestation, Northian reflects the law's operation with greater regularity and fewer analogical restorations than most other languages; on the other hand, Northian presents idiosyncratic restorations that post-date the split-up of the proto-language and the generalization of some outcomes of Szemerenyi's law as regular forms, in the process probably deleting an *-s restored in the parent language.  Thus, the absence of final *-s is not conclusive evidence that Szemerenyi's law operated in that phonetic environment in the parent language or that *-s was not then restored.  A second wave of dropping final resonants in Pre-Galic has rendered many forms open to different interpretations and possible analogy.
 
For example, the genitive ''huiiō'' from ''huiiuš'' is usually held to be evidence that the genitive *-s was deleted in the proterokinetic u-stems *-ow-s > *-ōw > Northian -ō.  While outwardly this form is similar to the hysterokinetic ending *-os > Northian -ō, the possibility that this ending was transposed to the u-stems can be excluded because ''huiiō'' never shows final *-s in sandhi, while the -ō ending from *-os does.  Thus, the operation of the law is consonant to the deletion of final -i and perhaps part of the same process.  Yet all the other daughter languages show final -s or a reflex thereof, so Northian is held to be archaic.
 
But in the case of ''zmerū'' from ''zmerun'' "marrow", the final long syllable would reflect *-ūn < *-un-s, which is unexpected in the proterokinetic paradigm (expected is *-wen-s > *wən-h).  *-un-s must therefore have arisen from an otherwise-unattested acrostatic form, if it existed in the proto-language.  Linguists are therefore ambivalent to ascribe ''zmerū'' as an archaicism and instead are wont to think of it as a non-ablauting innovation.  The observation that most un-stem terms are Northian derivations buttresses that assessment, even though the root of this word is a sure inheritance from the parent language.
 
In principle, the following final consonants are dropped at the Proto-Northian level:
# *-s
#*always after *w- and *y-
#**{{smallcaps|gen}} ''huyōʷ'' < *huyōw "child's"; {{smallcaps|gen}} ''mātō'' < *mātōi or *matēi "mind's"
#*after *un- and *in-, but not after *en- or *on-
#**{{smallcaps|gen}} ''hmerūš'' < *smerun-s "marrow's"; {{smallcaps|gen}} ''parī'' < *parin-s "doorway's"
#**{{smallcaps|gen}} ''huwənh'' < *sh₂wen-s "sun's"
#*not dropped after *m-
#**{{smallcaps|gen}} ''tə̄mps'' < *dem-s "house's"
# *-i
#*after *w- and *y-
#**{{smallcaps|loc}} ''huyō'' < *huyōw "in a child"; {{smallcaps|loc}} ''mātō'' < *matēi "in mind"
# *-h₂
#*after another laryngeal -h₂ is dropped without a trace
#**{{smallcaps|nom du}} ''fə̄ṇtōi ahō tuš-tə'' "two paths, [one] of good and [one] of evil"
#*after *n-, *r-, and *s-
#**{{smallcaps|nom pl}} ''nə̄mā̊'' < *Hnómonh₂ "names", {{smallcaps|nom pl}} ''rawhā̊'' < *lewkesh₂
 
====Cloverdale's Law====
Like most Erani-Eracuran languages, Northian vocalized the resonants functioned as vowels in their absence.  But in contrast to most other languages, the vocalized resoants (at least as they appear in manuscripts) apparently had no lexical or phonemic length; their length was instead phonologically determined, in a phenomenon called Cloverdale's Law, named for Julia Cloverdale who formulated it in 1881.  Whenever a vocalic resonant followed a heavy syllable or merely two consonants in initial position, it was pronounced short; otherwise, it was long.  Though the rule seems completely arbitrary, its reality is all but confirmed by grammatical changes that address and remedy its effects, most visibly the athematic {{smallcaps|nom pl}} and {{smallcaps|acc pl}} endings.
 
Cloverdale's Law could be seen in light similar to that of Sievers's Law, which made semivowels syllabic in response to a preceding heavy syllable; in this terminology, Cloverdale's Law either added or deleted a mora based on the weight of a preceding combination of sounds. 
 
====Sievers's Law====
Sievers's Law accounts for the Erani-Eracuran phenomenon where a semivowel in any environment became an independent syllable if it followed a heavy syllable.  It operated to different extents in the daughter languages, and only for [y] did it operate without exception.  For [w], the law was limited to initial syllables where it followed two consonants (which did not form a syllable).  At one time forms like ''huweni'' "we are" were considered exceptions to the law, since this form was thought to reflect *sweni, where [w] preceded only a single consonant.  Yet the Laryngeal Theory requires that the pre-form be *h₁sweni, so ''huweni'' is no longer in violation of the law, as [w] would thus follow two consonants.
 
====Kent's Law====
This law states that the sequence -VdʰH in auslaut became -Vha.  This is responsible for {{smallcaps|1 pl mid}} ending -máha < *-médʰh₂, which perfectly fulfilled the condition of the law.  Though there are few doubts about the law's validity, there is disagreement on the phonetics of Kent's Law.  *dʰ is usually seen as a voiced consonant, and its usual outcome before a laryngeal is its voiceless counterpart /ϑ/; moreover, a syllabic laryngeal almost universally is reflected as /i/, not /a/, which occurs only before /m/.  It has been suggested that /h/ is actually the reflex of the final laryngeal *H and not of *dʰ, which must therefore have dropped.  The final vowel is then deemed epenthetic, since in a few instances it appears as -maho.
 
====Lord Taunton's Law====
It has been well known that before nasals and liquids, the Erani-Eracuran short vowels *e and *o merge as ə, but in some cases the resulting vowel became long.
 
===Early Galic===
The Early Galic verb has formerly been analyzed according to the tripartite system of present, aorist, and perfect systems plus subsidiary stems, but though this analysis is feasible, it has been found somewhat limiting and failing to reflect diachronic developments.  In works after the 1980s, it has been commoner to assume a more basic, bipartite system between the present-aorist and perfect.  This re-analysis is founded on that present and aorist stems share a single set of endings, which stand in contrast to that of the perfect, and the only material difference between them is that only present verbs may take the primary marker *-i. 
 
Indeed, when a verb is transmitted to the other aspect via a derivational marker, i.e. present to aorist or vice versa, only indicative forms and not the modal forms are natively generated.  Thus, in Galic, there are sigmatic aorist indicatives but no sigmatic aorist subjunctives or optatives; when these are called for, they remain, at the very least, identical to the non-sigmatic present subjunctives and optatives.  This behaviour is comparable to factitives, desideratives, and futures, which do not have their own modal forms and rely on those of the stem from which they themselves derive.  Thus, a naw-present like ''xarənammi'' "I am making" is akin to a secondary form to the root aorist ''xarā'' "I make", just as the co-ordinating future ''xarištō'' "I hope to make" is.
 
Nevertheless, the Northian verb shows strong signs of movement towards the canonical tripartite aspectual system.  Ticker says "the internal grammar of  Pre-Galic speakers probably had an emerging three-aspect system, but the available morphology has yet to catch up.  This suggests that the Gales were probably composed in quite a conservative register that rejected novel, useful, but yet-competing formations that had appeared relatively recently or post-date dialectalization."
 
Northian presents many clues for the controversial {{wp|h₂e-conjugation theory}}.  Directly preserved h₂e-conjugation endings are few and then only in the plural: {{smallcaps|1 pl}} attested but once as -me, {{smallcaps|2 pl}} in the perfect imperative as -s, and {{smallcaps|3 pl}} as -r more generally in the injunctive forms of ''xaŋzat''-aorists.  Indirect clues that mostly take the form of mismatches with the mi-conjugation are, however, more frequent.  Evidently when the h₂e-aorists were renewed in the prehistory of Northian, the creation of mi-aorist indicative forms must have occurred first, relegating the old h₂e-aorist forms to injunctives and then displacing them, leaving only the {{smallcaps|3 pl}} in -r attested. But the mi-forms created showed root e-grade in the {{smallcaps|3 pl}}, which is only explainable via the e-grade in the {{smallcaps|3 pl}} of the h₂e-aorist; otherwise, mi-conjugation root aorists had zero grade in the root there.
 
Many verbs in Galic are defective in the middle or active.  Indeed, philologist Kremann has observed that "non-defective verbs are exception" and called them "bivalent verbs".  Such defects are particularly apparent when they are remedied in the late, prosaic Didaskalic Material.  Verbs defective in the active are common in the other daughters, but those defective in the middle are only common in Northian.  Such verbs are often cited as members of the h₂e-conjugation, primordially linked to the middle, but renewed with mi-endings in Northian.  So, h₂e-turned-mi Northian verbs could not have an inherited middle voice, and where it is found it always shows signs of lateness, like the {{smallcaps|3 pl}} ending -ā̆tro where -ro would be expected for an inherited form.  But this explanation is only possible for some ''activa tantum'', and others are ostensibly mi-verbs with firm word equations with mi-verbs Hittite.
 
There may be some h₂e-conjugation verbs that became ''media tantum'', but this mechanism has received far less elaboration owing to its obscurity though h₂e-conjugation endings are hardly extricable from the middle.  Recently, Brent has argued that the entire perfect was formed on the basis of h₂e-conjugation verbs by analogy to reduplicated present verbs on the basis of mi-conjugation aorists.  He further considers that all h₂e-conjugation verbs that have not become ''activae tanta'' automatically became perfects by assimilation within Northian, to explain the large number of perfect stems in Northian that have the o-grade root in the {{smallcaps|1 pl}} and {{smallcaps|2 pl}}.  That appears at least possible given the unexpected {{smallcaps|2 pl}} perfect imperative ending -s, which could not have arisen from the mi-conjugation imperative that is attested in all other daughters.
 
All in all, even the earliest Northian presents only badly-mangled vestiges of a former h₂e-conjugation, and interpretations are yet controversial. 
 
 
The Early Galic verb:
*middle mismatch with active
**middles formed to actives typically follow the weak grade of active
**''media tantum'' in e-grade throughout, oppositional middles frequently follows weak grade in active
***''media tantum'' often no aspectual distinction
 
===Late Galic===
The language of the Gales, across its three generally-recognized periods, is internally consistent, whose morphologies and vocabularies have consistent meanings.  Nevertheless, scholars have argued there have been diachronic differences amongst the three periods, seen most clearly in the creation of suffixed subjunctive formations, first attested in Period III (c. 1200 BCE) material and used in conjunction with root formations of the subjunctive.  Most descriptions of Galic language considers it to be fully contemporary to the Galic poets, since few, if any, difference in register are detectable.  Little study has been done for the False Gales and the Sacerdotal Verses, though they are thought to be alike to the Gales.
 
Between the Galic poetry and prose, exemplified by the Didaskalic Material, a noticeable change is the disappearance of the sigmatic present stems, e.g. ''fā-s-'' "protect" and ''wak-š-'' "say", resulting in the confinement of that sign to the aorist aspect.  The only s-stem that still took primary endings in the DM was ''rax-š-'' "protect".
 
===Galic to Epic changes===
It has been well noted that the change from the Galic to Epic language was a gradual but non-linear process that mostly occurred between 1200 and 600 BCE.  This is based on the assumption that at least the Epic language was contemporary and not an artificial dialect.  There is considerable difference in opinions whether the language of the Gales was spoken natively by its poets.  On the one hand, there seem to be mild changes in grammar that suggests the language was not dogmatically taught; on the other hand, analogical replacements are nearly unknown, and exceedingly opaque forms surface when their replacement should have been only too certain.  For example, ''ā̊'' "mouth" has {{smallcaps|gen}} ''hōḫ'', {{smallcaps|loc}} ''hā̊'' etc.; forms are so perfectly regular as to be astounding.
 
In terms of morphology, the Epic language outright lost very little of the richness of the Galic language and, additionally, continued to reflect faithfully the grammatical peculiarities occasioned by ablaut.  A few immediately-noticeable changes can be interpreted solely phonetically, e.g. Epic {{smallcaps|3 sg inj}} ''štōd'' "praises" vs. Galic ''štəōd'' "''id''", where the diphthong /aw/ has monophthongized to /ō/.  This process must have commenced before the earliest Galic, since all diphthong have weakened allophones in front of stops compared to full forms in front of vowels.  Compare Galic {{smallcaps|2 sg}} ''štō'' < *stāw < *staws, with regular dropping of final *-s.
 
The aorist system experienced a process of renewal earlier in the Epic period.  The root aorist was the main aorist formation of the Galic language, but it had several varieties that owe above all to stem-final laryngeals.  If a root ended in vowel and laryngeal, the root aorist appeared to have a long vowel before the ending in the singular active, which in {{smallcaps|1p & 2p}} absorbed the personal ending, giving -ā̊, -ā̊, -āt; if it ended in a stop plus laryngeal, the laryngeal was vocalized and gave the endings -am, -iš, and -it in the singular.  The dual and plural endings of both were identical, because in the former situation, as the root ablauted to the zero grade ({{smallcaps|2 pl act}} *-iϑé), the laryngeal always vocalized, just as in the latter ({{smallcaps|2 pl act}} *-iϑé). 
 
If there was no root-final laryngeal, the endings -əm, -s, -t were encountered in the Gales.  These endings were intensely prone to disfiguring the root as they were non-syllabic.  Some roots adopted the short laryngeal endings, but more were transferred into the thematic aorist category, with endings -õm, -ā, -et; they are distinguished from genuine thematic aorists by their full-grade stem, the latter having a canonically zero-grade root.
 
The sigmatic aorist with -s-, which signified roots of present origin for aorist tense, also developed several varieties based on the shape of the root.  All inherited sigmatic aorists have long-grade root in the singular active and full-grade elsewhere, and this contrast is preserved in the Epics.  Present roots which end in laryngeals developed the sigmatic endings -ištam, -iš, -išṯ, and those without laryngeals had -žam/-ham, -s, -šṯ.  Once again, the laryngeal-final endings prevailed, and the {{smallcaps|2p & 3p}} forms were whence introduced and used indiscriminately, thus ''áxānišṯ'' and ''áxānṯ'', both "he/she/it sang".  The {{smallcaps|1p}} form in -zam or -ham (depending on the root shape) seems to have been left out of the replacement process and persisted through the Epic period.
 
The main difference noted by linguists was in the frequency and productivity of various formations.  Like other Erani-Eracuran languages, most athematic stems and their derivational strategies became vestigial and unproductive; the exception was the ''nəō ~ nu'' suffix, which was attached to a variety of both native and borrowed terms.
 
===Post-epic changes===
The language changed rapidly in all manners after the Epic period, with some perhaps having begun during the Epic period, to judge from Northian epigraphy that begin to appear marginally in the 5th century and more abundantly after the 2nd.  Perhaps this suggests the Epic dialect was deliberately archaizing in some respects, which would be consonant with the stylistic premise of telling a story originating from long ago.  Some authorities have sought to connect this change with the mass expulsion and consequent migration of Northians to the modern territories of DNS.
 
The largest post-Epic change was the wholesale replacement of athematic present verbs with "activized" passive verbs in -y-.  A verb like ''štuyṓy'' "I am stood up (by)", which is the y-passive of the u-stem present ''štaꜤuʸmi'', came to acquire thematic active forms ''štuyṓ''.  ''štuyṓ'' then came to replace ''štaꜤumi'' in the active voice.  Verbs like ''štuyṓ'' were also defective in the middle voice, since its middle forms were already used to form a specific passive.  This defect also presaged the decline of the middle voice as a whole.  The timeframe for this replacement is difficult to ascertain, as it is absent in the Epic corpus but common in Late Canon materials, even as they briefly overlapped in time; perhaps its use was dispreferred in poetry.  It is likely to have existed in Epic times, since the commensurate co-ordination of an agent in the genitive case may underlie some other Epic constructions.
 
The sigmatic aorist sign -s-, added to roots of present origin, became a generalized past tense sign, built to most stems that ended in -y-, giving a composite past-tense stem in -ās-, to which was added the thematic secondary endings.  The thematic aorist became productive during Epic times and left a considerable number of non-sigmatic past tenses.  The imperfect to the present stem loses its vitality apparently quite early, and the sigmatic aorist itself disappeared whenever its marker was transferred to the present stem; however, both formations leave detectable relics in certain lexical items.  The synthetic perfect tense, other than the item woyd- "know", remained in suspended animation for some time, only slowly losing ground to the periphrastic perfect based on the activized version of the perfect passive participle; the perfect active participle, on the other hand, disappeared almost completely after Epic times.
 
The subjunctive mood was already losing ground in Epic times and gradually became confined to frozen constructions.  The future meaning of the subjunctive was transferred to a synthetic future tense already in the Epics.  The other meanings of the subjunctive such as potentiality or uncertainty became indistinguishable from the optative, which became prominent in the Epics and very nearly supplanted it after the them.  The subjunctives of a few verbs survives in expressions indicating doubt or hesitation in Imperial and Medieval Northian.  The third-person imperative is survived by the third person future imperative, which are often used in oaths and contracts; the future imperative for the second person disappears.  The various uses of the injunctive were completely lost.
 


==Nominals==
==Nominals==
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! colspan="3"| Singular !! colspan="3"| Dual !!colspan="2"|  Plural !!rowspan="2" style="width:6em" | Collective
! colspan="3"| Singular !! colspan="3"| Dual !!colspan="2"|  Plural !!rowspan="2" style="width:6em" | Collective
|-
|-
! style="width:6em" | OX !!style="width:6em" | PX !!style="width:6em"| Ntr. !!style="width:6em" |  OX !!style="width:6em" | PX !!style="width:6em"| Ntr. !!style="width:8em"| M/F !!style="width:6em"| Ntr.
! style="width:6em" | OX !!style="width:6em" | PX !!style="width:6em"| NTR !!style="width:6em" |  OX !!style="width:6em" | PX !!style="width:6em"| NTR !!style="width:8em"| M/F !!style="width:6em"| NTR
|-
|-
! Nominative  
! Nominative  
|style="background:#9F9"| -ō, -ā̊, -s ||style="background:#FA0"| -s, -š  ||style="background:#FA0" rowspan="3"| {{font color|gray|-Ø}} ||rowspan="3" style="background:#9F9"| -ōy, -ā, -ō ||rowspan="3" style="background:#FA0"| -i, -ī, -ū, -ōy ||rowspan="3"| {{font color|gray|-ī, -Ø, -ū}} ||rowspan="2" style="background:#9F9"| -aŋhāʰ, -āʰ, -ōʰ ||style="background:#9F9" rowspan="3"| {{font color|gray|-a, -ō, -ā̊}} ||rowspan="3" style="background:#9F9"| {{font color|gray|-ō}}
|style="background:#9F9"| -ō, -ā̊, -s ||style="background:#FA0"| -s, -š  ||style="background:#FA0" rowspan="3"| {{font color|gray|-Ø}} ||rowspan="3" style="background:#9F9"| -ōi, -ā, -ō ||rowspan="3" style="background:#FA0"| -i, -ī, -ū, -ōi ||rowspan="3"| {{font color|gray|-ī, -Ø, -ū}} ||rowspan="2" style="background:#9F9"| -aH, -aHaH ||style="background:#9F9" rowspan="3"| {{font color|gray|-a, -i, -ō}} ||rowspan="3" style="background:#9F9"| {{font color|gray|-ō}}
|-
|-
! Vocative  
! Vocative  
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|-
|-
! Accusative  
! Accusative  
|style="background:#9F9" colspan="2"| -m, -ā̆, -ā̊, -amā || style="background:#FA0"| -ā̊, -āʰ, -ō, -ūš, -ī
|style="background:#9F9" colspan="2"| -m, -n, -ā̆, -ā̊, -ō, -ōi || style="background:#FA0"| -ā̊, -ā, -ō, -ūš, -ī
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
|style="background:#9F9" colspan="3"| -Ø, -i ||style="background:#FA0" rowspan="2"| -ō ||colspan="2"| -ū || -hū, -štū ||colspan="2"| {{font color|gray|-eC-Ø}}
|style="background:#9F9" colspan="3"| -Ø, -i ||style="background:#FA0" rowspan="2"| -Hō ||colspan="2"| -Hū || -hū, -šū ||colspan="2" style="background:#FA0"|{{font color|gray|-Ø}}
|-
|-
! Genitive  
! Genitive  
|rowspan="2"| -ōʰ, -ā̊ ||rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background:#9F9"| -s, -š, -ō, -h, -ā̊, -Ø ||colspan="2"| -uš, -āʰ, -ō || colspan="3" style="background:#FA0"| -õm, -ą̄m
|rowspan="2"| -ō, -ā̊, -ā ||rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background:#9F9"| -š, -ō, -ŋh, -ā̊, -Ø ||colspan="2"| -Huš, -Hū, -Hā, -Hō || colspan="3" style="background:#FA0"| -Hõm
|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| rowspan="3"| -mō ||rowspan="3" colspan="2"| -mō, -ma || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| -muš
| rowspan="3" colspan="3"| -mō || rowspan="2" colspan="3"| -muš
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
| -ə̄, -ay ||colspan="2" style="background:#9F9"| -i, -aē
| -ā ||colspan="2" style="background:#9F9"| -i
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| -ōy ||colspan="2"| -i, -Ø || colspan="3"| -(m)βyōʰ, -(m)βiyōʰ, -βiš, -βīš  
| -ōi ||colspan="2"| -i, -Ø || colspan="3"| -(m)βyō, -(m)βiyō, -βiš, -βīš  
|}
|}


{{smallcaps|'''nom sing'''}} A general discussion of the athematic declension cannot omit the comment that, while many divergent forms are phonetically conditioned, there too are divergences resulting from divergent proto-forms.  In no other place is this statement truer than in the nominative singular.   
{{smallcaps|'''nom sing nntr'''}} A general discussion of the athematic declension cannot omit the comment that, while many divergent forms are phonetically conditioned, there too are divergences resulting from divergent proto-forms.  In no other place is this statement truer than in the nominative singular.   


The marker of the nominative singular has been a tormented subject, in part also for the radical schism on the parent language's {{wp|morphosyntactic alignment}}.  By sole comparison, animate (= masculine and feminine) nouns may have been in the proto-language sigmatic, that is ending in *-s, or asigmatic, that is without final *-s and taking a long o-grade suffix; as root nouns had no suffix, they were thought to have been obligatorily marked by *-s.   
The marker of the nominative singular has been a tormented subject, in part also for the radical schism on the parent language's {{wp|morphosyntactic alignment}}.  By sole comparison, animate (= masculine and feminine) nouns may have been in the proto-language sigmatic, that is ending in *-s, or asigmatic, that is without final *-s and taking a long-grade suffix; as root nouns had no suffix, they were (at least thought to have been) obligatorily marked by *-s.  Neuter nouns, in contrast, generally have the zero-grade of the suffix in the nominative and correspond well with the accent.


Because the long o-grade and final -s are mostly in complimentary distribution, some authorities regard the long o-grade as the legacy of compensatory lengthening having dropped final *-s after a resonant, but others hold there was no *-s originally and attribute the long vowel to ablaut variation sensitive to the case.  On the other hand, there are also nouns that have an exceptional zero-grade suffix, e.g. ''hanuš'' "jaw" and notoriously ''ϑaˀā'' "earth", and some of these could not have had *-s.  There are also forms that show simultaneous *-s and the long-grade ending, in some root nouns and the present/aorist active participle *-ōnt-s.  Some such forms in root nouns appear to have been results of monosyllabic lengthening, though this process cannot explain the forms that are not monosyllabic.
Because the long-grade and final -s are mostly in complimentary distribution, some authorities regard the long-grade as the legacy of compensatory lengthening having dropped final *-s after a resonant, but others hold there was no *-s originally and attribute the long vowel to ablaut variation sensitive to the case.  On the other hand, there are also nouns that have an exceptional zero-grade suffix, e.g. ''hanuš'' "jaw" and notoriously ''ϑeɣā'' "earth", and some of these could not have had *-s.  There are also forms that show simultaneous *-s and the long-grade ending, in some root nouns and the present/aorist active participle *-ōnt-s.  Some such forms in root nouns appear to have been results of monosyllabic lengthening, though this process cannot explain the forms that are not monosyllabic.


In Northian, final *-s has been suffixed to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistory, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution; many words have alternative forms differing by -s.  We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants.
In Northian, final *-s has been suffixed to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistory, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution; many words have alternative forms differing by -s.  We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants.
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{{smallcaps|'''voc sing'''}} The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases.  Where the nom. had *-s it is dropped, and where it did not the voc. is the full- or short-vowel-grade.   
{{smallcaps|'''voc sing'''}} The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases.  Where the nom. had *-s it is dropped, and where it did not the voc. is the full- or short-vowel-grade.   


{{smallcaps|'''acc sing'''}} In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m and, as it contained no vowel, could theoretically not bear an original accent; this rule is violated by the semivowel (i-, u-) stems, where the vocalized vowel usually does bear and accent. In stems ending in non-resonants, the ending is vocalized as -m̥ > -ā̆, which varies in length according to Cloverdale's law.  The form -ā̆mā reflects a doubled ending *-m̥-m̥, which is normally not allowed by phonetic rules. Final *-m is preserved in u-stems, e.g. ''huyúm''.  If the stem ended in a long vowel, such as effected by {{wp|Stang's law}} after *y, *w, and *m, the deletion of final nasals yielded -ā̊, e.g. ''zyā̊'' < *dyēm.
{{smallcaps|'''acc sing nntr'''}} In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m and, as the morph contained no vowel, could theoretically not bear an original accent; this rule is violated by the semivowel (i-, u-) stems, where the vocalized vowel usually does bear accent.  
 
'''Normal ending.''' In stems ending in non-resonants, the ending is vocalized as -m̥ > -ā̆, length varying according to Cloverdale's law.   
 
'''Ending after semivowels.''' For the semivowel i- and u-stems, the accusative singular ended in -in and -um. Technically, these forms violate the normal vocalization pattern, which requires the first sonorant from the right in a sequence of multiple to vocalize when not bordering a true vowel; under this canon words like ''huiium'' are expected to be *huuiuuā̆, since both semivowels and nasals are sonorants. Semivowels are not preferred to nasals in vocalization in other places, ''viz''. ''kr'''auu'''ati'' vs. ''karə'''nu'''te'' (reflex of *-nu- in the proto-language '''bolded'''). For this and other considerations, the semivowels are often deemed an anomalous class of athematic nouns, and indeed some view them as i-thematic and u-thematic, respectively, given the observed overriding tendency to preserve the semivowel as vowel at all other costs.
 
'''Ending after long vowels.''' If the stem contained a long vowel, such as effected by compensatory lengthening for the deletion of like consonants or {{wp|Stang's law}} after *y, *w, and *m, the deletion of codas yielded -ā̊, -ō, or -ōi, e.g. ''ziiōi'' < *dyēm. This is particularly salient in the case of n-stems, where the accusative singular was in long vowel.


{{smallcaps|'''loc sing'''}} The locative generally took the accusative stem and either added final -i or was endingless.  Thus, for PX nouns, the locative and dative were often syncretized.  For the effects of -i on the preceding vowel, see dat. sing. entry.
{{smallcaps|'''loc sing'''}} The locative generally took the accusative stem and either added final -i or was endingless.  Thus, for PX nouns, the locative and dative were often syncretized.  For the effects of -i on the preceding vowel, see dat. sing. entry.


{{smallcaps|'''gen sing'''}} In OX the gen. singular always ended in -ōḫ < PNN *-os; its consistency led grammarians to consider it a feature of the OX declension.   
{{smallcaps|'''gen sing'''}} In OX the gen. singular nearly always ends in -ō < *-os; its consistency led grammarians to consider it a feature of the OX declension.  But there are a handful of instances where the genitive ending was -ā, which only occurs sporadically in the environment of *-h₂es > *-ah.  Thus, both alloforms of the genitive singular in the parent language were inherited into Northian, but where *-es did not follow *h₂ it was replaced wholesale by *-os, so the original distribution of the two forms cannot be readily detected from Northian.


In PX, the ending *-s when attached to the stem reflects a motley of forms, and this (compared to OX) irregularity in turn is the feature of the PX declension.  The Northian evidence is important to the discourse on the phonetic process known as {{wp|Szemerényi's law}}: by its regular operation, final *-s is dropped after resonants and lengthens the preceding vowel, but in Northian as in most languages, regular exceptions appear.  In n-stems, *-s was either not dropped or was early on restored and became something like a glottal stop, as in ''fūváṇġ'' < *ph₂wén-s "of fire"; yet in the in- and un-stems, *-s was apparently not restored, resulting in gen. endings -ī and -ū, obtained by *-īn < *-in-s and *-ūn < *-un-s.
In PX, the ending *-s when attached to the stem generated a motley of forms, and this (compared to OX) irregularity in turn is deemed the feature of PX nouns.  The Northian evidence is important to the phonetic process {{wp|Szemerényi's law}}: by its regular operation, final *-s is dropped after resonants and lengthens the preceding vowel, but in Northian as in most languages, restorations are common.  In n-stems, *-s was either not dropped or was early on restored and became something like a glottal stop, as in ''puwaŋh'' < *ph₂wén-s = fire's; yet in the in- and un-stems, *-s was not restored, resulting in gen. endings -ī and -ū, obtained by *-in-s and *-un-s.


In liquid stems, final *-s is usually retroflexed, as in ''māϑrš'' < PEE *meh₂tr̥s.  If the stem contained a long vowel, usually indicating a laryngeal, the result is -ā̊ < *-ās, e.g. ''jñiϑriyā̊''.  In s-stems, the ending generally disappears, e.g. ''mā̊'' < *mn̥s-s.   
In liquid stems, final *-s is usually retroflexed, as in ''māϑrš'' < PEE *meh₂tr̥s.  If the stem contained a long vowel, usually indicating a laryngeal, the result is -ā̊ < *-ās, e.g. ''zñiϑriyā̊''.  In s-stems, the ending generally disappears, e.g. ''mā̊'' < *mn̥s-s.  In the semivowel stems (i- and u-) the ending *-s, obeying Szemerényi's law, disappeared and caused compensatory lengthening.  But such long diphthongs in final position, as in other long syllables closed by resonants, lost the final glide, giving in the i-stems the ending *-ei̯-s > -ā and u-stems *-ou̯-s > -ō.  For at least the u-stems, the intermediate form *-ōw must have obtained, since a following enclitic *-kʷe delabializes to -ke.
 
In the semivowel stems (i- and u-) the ending *-s, obeying Szemerényi's law, disappeared and caused compensatory lengthening.  But such long diphthongs in final position, as in other long syllables closed by resonants, usually lost the final glide, giving in the i-stems the ending *-ei̯-s > -ē and u-stems *-ou̯-s > -ō.  For at least the u-stems, the intermediate form *-ōw must obtain, since the enclitic *-kʷe delabializes and becomes -kə after u-stem genitives.


{{smallcaps|'''abl sing'''}} For all athematic nouns, the ablative singular was syncretized wtih the genitive singular.
{{smallcaps|'''abl sing'''}} For all athematic nouns, the ablative singular was syncretized wtih the genitive singular.
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{{smallcaps|'''dat sing'''}} In OX the dat. sigular ending was originally *-ei̯.  This ending susceptible to colouring by a preceding *h₂- or *h₃-, as well as the influence of i̯- and *u̯-, to become -ai and -oi respectively.   
{{smallcaps|'''dat sing'''}} In OX the dat. sigular ending was originally *-ei̯.  This ending susceptible to colouring by a preceding *h₂- or *h₃-, as well as the influence of i̯- and *u̯-, to become -ai and -oi respectively.   


In PX, the ending was regularly *-i.  But this ending was replaced by the OX ending in the i-stems early.  For all nasal and laryngeal stems, the ending -i caused a preceding /e/ or /a/ to mutate to /i/ and /ai/ (written <aē>).  For stems ending in -n, the -n sandwiched between i became /ñ/.  In nouns of the type ''taēuuīḥ'', the ending was full-grade even if the PX endings are otherwise employed, and there it appears after the suffix as -iiaē. In all cases the dat. singular ending following a vowel was a separate syllable.  In u-stems, the ending is dropped just like final *-s of the genitive; the result is identical forms for the gen., dat., and loc. in the singular.
In PX, the ending was regularly *-i.  But this ending was replaced by the OX ending in the i-stems early.  For all nasal and laryngeal stems, the ending -i caused a preceding /e/ or /a/ to mutate to /i/ and /ai/ (written <aē>).  For stems ending in -n, the -n sandwiched between i became /ñ/.  In nouns of the type ''taēuuī'', the ending was full-grade even if the PX endings are otherwise employed, and there it appears after the suffix as -iiaē. In all cases the dat. singular ending following a vowel was a separate syllable.  In u-stems, the ending is dropped just like final *-s of the genitive; the result is identical forms for the gen., dat., and loc. in the singular.


{{smallcaps|'''ins sing'''}} The OX ending -ōi̯ for the ins. singular originated as *-eh₁ in the proto-language.  This ending is rarely problematic by phonological processes, but it is liable to be replaced in some stems, e.g. endings -ī and -ū in the i- and u-stems respectively, from the PX declension.  The PX ending evolved from *-h₁.  This ending was preserved only after plosives as -a.  Following resonants, the preceding vowel was lengthened and opened.  Following laryngeals, it disappeared.
{{smallcaps|'''ins sing'''}} The OX ending -ōi for the ins. singular originated as *-eh₁ in the proto-language.  This ending is rarely problematic by phonological processes, but it is liable to be replaced in some stems, e.g. endings -ī and -ū in the i- and u-stems respectively, from the PX declension.  The PX ending evolved from *-h₁.  This ending was preserved only after plosives as -a.  Following resonants, the preceding vowel was lengthened and opened.  Following laryngeals, it disappeared.


{{smallcaps|'''nom-voc-acc du'''}} For animate nouns in plosives and resonant stems, the du. ending for all direct cases in OX was generally -ōi < *-ē, which is coloured in the usual ways to -ā and -ō, which do not mutate.  After stems ending in laryngeals, there are concomitant spelling changes.  In semivowel stems and all PX stems, the ending -a is visible after only after plosives, as it had the proto-form of *-h₁.  After i- and u-stems stems, the ending was dropped causing the preceding vowel to lengthen, e.g. ''dorūḥ''.  After laryngeals, it disappeared.   
{{smallcaps|'''nom-voc-acc du'''}} For animate nouns in plosives and resonant stems, the du. ending for all direct cases in OX was generally -ōi < *-ē, which is coloured in the usual ways to -ā and -ō, which do not mutate.  After stems ending in laryngeals, there are concomitant spelling changes.  In semivowel stems and all PX stems, the ending -a is visible after only after plosives, as it had the proto-form of *-h₁.  After i- and u-stems stems, the ending was dropped causing the preceding vowel to lengthen, e.g. ''dorū''.  After laryngeals, it disappeared.   


{{smallcaps|'''nom-voc-acc du ntr'''}} For all neuter nouns, other than the u-stems, the ending was -ī.
{{smallcaps|'''nom-acc du ntr'''}} For all neuter nouns, other than the u-stems, the ending was -ī.


{{smallcaps|'''loc du'''}} In OX the dual loc. ending was -ō < *-ou̯. In PX, the ending was -ū, which developed from original *-u lengthened in final position.
{{smallcaps|'''voc du nntr'''}} Northian has a unique vocative in the dual, which is -ū, appearing only sometimes. The ancestry of the form is debated, and recent conclusions hold that while superficially similar to {{smallcaps|loc du}} -ū, it is associated instead with recessive accent and is not length-variable, suggesting *-u-H, which could be an ablaut variant of something given the recessive accent.


{{smallcaps|'''gen du'''}} The proto-form of the dual genitive is sometimes considered that of the locative with added *-s at the end, borrowed from the singular.  Thus in OX the ending was usually -ō < *-ōw < *-ou̯-s, which was identical to the loc. form even in sandhi.  But in some instances, the loc. form takes the strong grade stem, which provides a difference with the gen.  In PX, the ending was -uš, which like the locative dissimilated to *-āḫ if there was a preceding u.  In this case, the ending was -ōḫ.  For the feminine nouns ending in *-eh₂, which are athematic in origin, the ending was a special -ō < *-eu̯s; see below.
{{smallcaps|'''loc du'''}} In OX the {{smallcaps|loc du}} ending was -ō < *-ou̯.  In PX, the ending was -ū, which developed from original *-u lengthened in final position.
 
{{smallcaps|'''gen du'''}} The proto-form of the dual genitive is sometimes considered that of the locative with added *-s at the end, borrowed from the singular.  Thus in OX the ending was usually -ō < *-ōw < *-ou̯-s, which was identical to the loc. form even in sandhi.  But in some instances, the loc. form takes the strong grade stem, which provides a difference with the gen.  In PX, the ending was -uš, which like the locative dissimilated to *-āḫ if there was a preceding u.  In this case, the ending was -ō.  For the feminine nouns ending in *-eh₂, which are athematic in origin, the ending was a special -ō < *-eu̯s; see below.


The gen. du., unlike any of the other oblique cases outside the locative, was sometimes a strong case taking the full grade of the suffix.  It has been argued the weak stem was replaced to disambiguate this form from the gen. sing. and that the strong grade was taken over from the collective; if the latter be true, the practice would probably be ancient.  But neither explanation has received general acclaim because very few items are attested uniquely in the strong stem.
The gen. du., unlike any of the other oblique cases outside the locative, was sometimes a strong case taking the full grade of the suffix.  It has been argued the weak stem was replaced to disambiguate this form from the gen. sing. and that the strong grade was taken over from the collective; if the latter be true, the practice would probably be ancient.  But neither explanation has received general acclaim because very few items are attested uniquely in the strong stem.


{{smallcaps|'''abl-dat-ins du'''}} These three forms were syncretized in Northian as -mō in OX and -ma in PX.
{{smallcaps|'''abl-dat-ins du'''}} These three forms were syncretized in Northian as -mō.


{{smallcaps|'''nom-voc pl'''}} The proto-form here was *-es, which regularly became *-ah, unless it followed *-u, in which case it bcame -ōḫ.  An alternate Galic reflex of *-es is attested in compounds, where it appears as -iš or -iž in unaccented positions.  The independent ending of *-ah > *-ā is rarely attested, in all likelihood because it became too similar to the athematic neuter ending -a and homophonous with the thematic ending -ā < *-eh₂.  Instead, the form -ahā is seen, representing *-es-es.  Such an innovation is independently attested in Xevednite and Nordic languages.
{{smallcaps|'''nom-voc pl nntr'''}} There were two proto-forms here. The simplex ending in full grade was *-es, regularly > -aH. However, if it followed a stem ending in -w or (in some cases) -uH, w-colouring operates and generates -ō instead.  A zero-grade version of this ending *-s is also found following -iH and (likely secondarily) -uH.  In sandhi, the uncoloured ending can appear as -eš or -ē.  The simplex ending -ā is attested only rarely, possibly because it was similar to the thematic {{smallcaps|nom pl ntr}} ending -ā.


{{smallcaps|'''nom-voc pl ntr'''}} The ending prehistorically was *-h₂.  After a stop, the ending became -ă.  In the n- and s-stems, the laryngeal dropped and triggered compensatory lengthening of the full-grade suffix vowel.  The resulting syllable was subsequently opened and became -ō in the n-stems (''fnumō'' < *pnew-men-h₂) and -ā̊ for es-stems (''neβā̊'' < *nebʰ-es-h₂).  In the i- and u-stems, the ending caused the zero-grade stem vowel to lengthen, resulting in endings -ī and -ū.  After another laryngeal, the ending disappeared without a trace.
Instead, the form -aHaH is seen, representing reduplicated < *-es-es.   


{{smallcaps|'''acc pl'''}} This ending was derived from *-m̥s following consonants or *-ms following vowels.  In the case of semivowel stems, which occur in the weak grade in this form: for *-i-ms, the resulting ending was just -ī, except uniquely in the word for "three", where it remains as -īš (not *-īs!); for *-u-ns, the outcome was regularly -ūš, though -ū is also seen from time to time, probably an imitation of the i-stems.  That the pre-form contained -ms is argued to indicate Northian was more archaic than most other daughter languages, which mostly show the reflex of *-ms > *-ns; in Northian, *-ms is diagnosed because at least *-ums seems to have a different reflex than *-uns, which occurs regularly in the wn-stems of nouns.
{{smallcaps|'''nom-voc pl ntr'''}} The ending prehistorically was *-h₂.  After -m, it became -ă, and after any other stop, -i.  In the n- and s-stems, the laryngeal dropped and triggered compensatory lengthening of the full-grade suffix vowel.  The resulting syllable was subsequently opened and became -ō in the n-stems (''fnumō'' < *pnew-men-h₂) and -ā̊ for es-stems (''neβā̊'' < *nebʰ-es-h₂).  In the i- and u-stems, the ending caused the zero-grade stem vowel to lengthen, resulting in endings -ī and -ū.  After another laryngeal, the ending disappeared without a trace, e.g. ''oštō'' < *h₁osth₁-h₁.
 
{{smallcaps|'''acc pl nntr'''}} This ending was derived from *-m̥s following consonants or *-ms following vowels.  In the case of semivowel stems, which occur in the weak grade in this form: for *-i-ms, the resulting ending was just -ī, except uniquely in the word for "three", where it remains as -īš (not *-īs!); for *-u-ms, the outcome was regularly -ū.  That the pre-form contained *-ms rather than *-ns is argued to indicate Northian was more archaic than most other daughter languages, which mostly show the reflex of *-ms > *-ns; in Northian, *-ms is diagnosed because at least *-ums seems to have a different reflex than *-uns, which occurs regularly in the wn-stems of nouns and becomes -ənh.


For consonant stems, the vocalization of *-n̥s (not distinguishable in this context from *-m̥s) is regular under Cloverdale's Law, where a syllabic resonant's surface quantity depends on the preceding syllable's (underlying) weight.  Thus, where it was underlyingly heavy, the form *-ah > *-ā is created, and where it was light, *-āh > -ā̊ is used instead.  Yet due to analogical replacement of the stem, the syllable on which the ending is based is not always present, and so the ending is not synchronically predictable; since the weak stem tends to replace the strong in this position, the combination of a heavy ending with a heavy stem is common.  Additionally, a vocalized resonant that is superficially long under Cloverdale's Law still counts as a short vowel for the purposes of other instances of Cloverdale's Law.
For consonant stems, the vocalization of *-n̥s (not distinguishable in this context from *-m̥s) is regular under Cloverdale's Law, where a syllabic resonant's surface quantity depends on the preceding syllable's (underlying) weight.  Thus, where it was underlyingly heavy, the form *-ah > *-ā is created, and where it was light, *-āh > -ā̊ is used instead.  Yet due to analogical replacement of the stem, the syllable on which the ending is based is not always present, and so the ending is not synchronically predictable; since the weak stem tends to replace the strong in this position, the combination of a heavy ending with a heavy stem is common.  Additionally, a vocalized resonant that is superficially long under Cloverdale's Law still counts as a short vowel for the purposes of other instances of Cloverdale's Law.
'''Ending in nasal-stems.''' Since the ending -ms began with a nasal, it is susceptible to assimilation and then deletion in nasal-stems. Thus the {{smallcaps|acc pl}} ending of n-stems was -əŋh < *-ens rather than *-enn̥s, while that of the m-stems was (at least originally) -ōi < *-ems rather than *-emm̥s, but the two were interchangeable since early times.


The form of the {{smallcaps|acc pl}} was evidently a driving factor in the replacement of the simple {{smallcaps|nom pl}} ending, which had also become *-ah under the colouring influence of *-h, and it became reduplicated as *-ahah in most contexts, leaving *-ah as an irregular alternative.  The form -ō is used in the laryngeal stems, though it is disputed whether this is merely an orthographical alteration to avoid contraction of like vowels or a genuine sound change.
The form of the {{smallcaps|acc pl}} was evidently a driving factor in the replacement of the simple {{smallcaps|nom pl}} ending, which had also become *-ah under the colouring influence of *-h, and it became reduplicated as *-ahah in most contexts, leaving *-ah as an irregular alternative.  The form -ō is used in the laryngeal stems, though it is disputed whether this is merely an orthographical alteration to avoid contraction of like vowels or a genuine sound change.


{{smallcaps|'''gen pl'''}} The ending was consistently -õm, or -ą̄m after vowel stems.
{{smallcaps|'''gen pl'''}} The ending was consistently -õm.


{{smallcaps|'''abl-dat pl'''}} The ending was -muš.
{{smallcaps|'''abl-dat pl'''}} The ending was -muš.


{{smallcaps|'''ins pl'''}} The ending evidently consisted of the element *-bʰi̯- in the proto-language.  It was usually added to *-os > -βiiōḫ, with Sievers's alteration to disyllabic -βiyōḫ following heavy syllables (long vowel or short and two consonants).  The disyllabic form was noticeably more common.  In demonstratives the equivalent sequence was -βīš or -βiš; it is not completely clear if this was simply an ablaut variant or reflects a different combination of morphemes.
{{smallcaps|'''ins pl'''}} The ending evidently consisted of the element *-bʰi̯- in the proto-language.  It was usually added to *-os > -βiiō, with Sievers's alteration to disyllabic -βiyō following heavy syllables (long vowel or short and two consonants).  The disyllabic form was noticeably more common.  In demonstratives the equivalent sequence was -βīš or -βiš; it is not completely clear if this was simply an ablaut variant or reflects a different combination of morphemes.


====Thematic====
====Thematic====
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|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="2"| -ā ||rowspan="3"| -aī ||rowspan="2"  | -aᵑhā̊
| rowspan="2"| -ā ||rowspan="3"| -aHī ||rowspan="2"  | -aHā <br>{{smallcaps|'''e'''}} -ā
|style="width: 5em"| -ōʰ ||rowspan="3" style="width: 2em"| {{font color|gray|-õm}} ||rowspan="3" style="width: 5em"| -ō ||rowspan="3" style="width: 2em"| {{font color|gray|-oī}} ||rowspan="2" style="width: 5em"| -ā̊, -ā̊ᵑhāʰ ||rowspan="3" style="width: 2em"| {{font color|gray|-ā}}
|style="width: 5em"| -ō ||rowspan="3" style="width: 2em"| {{font color|gray|-õm}} ||rowspan="3" style="width: 5em"| -ō ||rowspan="3" style="width: 2em"| {{font color|gray|-oHī}} ||rowspan="2" style="width: 5em"| -ā̊, -aŋhā ||rowspan="3" style="width: 2em"| {{font color|gray|-ā}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}   
! {{smallcaps|voc}}   
|colspan="2"| -i
|colspan="2"| -e
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}   
! {{smallcaps|acc}}   
| rowspan="2"| -ā̊ || -ā̊s
| rowspan="2"| -ā̊<br>{{smallcaps|'''e'''}} -ō || -ā̊<br>{{smallcaps|'''e'''}} -ō
|colspan="2"| -õm || -ā̊s
|colspan="2"| -õm || -ō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}   
! {{smallcaps|gen}}   
| -auš || -aõm
| -āHuš, -aHuš || -aHõm
|colspan="2"| -ōiia ||colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -ōʷ ||colspan="2"| -aõm
|colspan="2"| -ōyō ||colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -ō ||colspan="2"| -õm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}   
! {{smallcaps|loc}}   
| rowspan="2"| -aē  || -aū || -āhū
| rowspan="2"| -aē  || -āHū, -aHū || -āhū
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -ōy ||colspan="2"| -ohū
|colspan="2" rowspan="2"| -ōi ||colspan="2"| -ohū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}   
! {{smallcaps|dat}}   
|rowspan="3"| -āmiyā ||rowspan="2"| -āmβiyō
|rowspan="3"| -āmiyā ||rowspan="2"| -āmβiyō
| rowspan="3" colspan="2"| -omyā  ||rowspan="2" colspan="2"| -omβyō
| rowspan="3" colspan="2"| -omyā  ||rowspan="2" colspan="2"| -oβyō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}   
! {{smallcaps|abl}}   
Line 324: Line 161:
! {{smallcaps|ins}}   
! {{smallcaps|ins}}   
| -ā  || -āyš
| -ā  || -āyš
|colspan="2" colspan="2"| -ō  ||colspan="2"| -oyš, -ōyš
|colspan="2" colspan="2"| -ō  ||colspan="2"| -oiš
|}
|}


Line 344: Line 181:


===Noun stems===
===Noun stems===
{| class="wikitable"
!  !! -C !! -t !! -m !! -n !! -r !! -s !! -i !! -u !! -ī !! -ū !! -H !! -r/n !! -nt 
|-
!OX-B
|{{maybe|About 80 root nouns and suffixed nouns in -k, -l, -ns, -d, etc., ''fos'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "foot", ''xō'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "heart"}}|| {{maybe|A few in -ōs, ''nepōs'' "child"; -it ''melit'' "honey"; -ut ''xaput'' "head"}} || {{maybe|About 20 feminine, in -ō or -am, ''xay-ō'' "winter"}} || {{maybe|Many, in -ō and -ə̄, often binds m-, s-, t-, i-, u-, H-, ''θxām-ō'' "human"}} || {{maybe|''haz-r'' "arm" and personal, feminizing suffix -ez-r}} || {{maybe|A handful in -ā̊, ''awšt-ā̊'' "dawn"; the perf. act. ptcpl. ''wayδuš'' "knowing"}} || {{maybe|Some in -ō and -iš, ''hak-ō'' "friend, ally", ''ow-iš'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "ewe"; neuter var. in -ai, ''oxϑ-ay'' "finger"}} || {{maybe|A few dozen in -ōš or -uš, ''han-uš'' "jaw"}} || {{maybe|Some in -ī, ''wrk-ī'' "wolfess"}} || {{maybe|A handful in -ū, ''ϑen-ū'' "body"}} || {{maybe|''fənδōy'', "path"}} || {{maybe|Derived coll. of heteroclitics, in -r ~ n-, ō-grade in nom. > -ā̊}}  || {{maybe|A few in -āṯ, ''dāṯ'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "tooth"}}  
|-
!OX-A
| {{no}} || {{yes|Productive suffix -tāt-, ''āβr-tās'' "immortality" and -tūt-, ''wəš-tūs'' "moistness"}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Productive, in -ṓ and -ā̊}} || {{yes|Productive through agentive -ter, ''duhiϑ-ṓ'' "daughter"}} || {{yes|Productive, comparatives in -yā̊- ''maz-yā̊'' "bigger", perf. act. ptcpl. in -wā̊-, ''βeβiž-wā̊'' "trusting"}} || {{yes|Verbal nouns, middle, in -doi, ''št-oi'' "an eating"}} || {{yes|Certain denominal nouns, in -ṓ, ''piϑr-ṓ'' "uncle"}} || {{yes|Non-ablauting feminine derivatives in -ī́}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Certain nouns in -dōy, ''žβāž-dōy'' "libation-giver"}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Productive pres. aor. act. ptcpl. of thematic verbs, in -ās ''hadáʸy-ās'' "sitting"}}
|-
!PX
|{{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Productive, neuter var. of OX n-stems, exhibiting same bound suffixes}} || {{maybe|yāϑr, "husband's sister"}} || {{yes|Productive, neuter var. of OX s-stems, in -ō; ''neβ-ō'' "cloud", ''xrat-ō'' "power"}} || {{yes|Productive, animate in -iš, action nouns -tiš, ''zāt-iš'' "a step"; neuter in -i, ''mər-i'' "sea"}} || {{yes|Productive, animate in -uš, ''wiš-t-úš'' "witness"; neuter in -ū, ''oii-ū'' "life"}}  || {{yes|Proliferate suffix deriving feminines in -ī; ''geniϑr-ī'' "genitrix"}} || {{maybe|Same as -ī but more common in adjectives, in -ū; ''hozr-ū'' "mother-in-law"}} || {{maybe|''bā̊'' "wife"}} || {{maybe|Neuter, in -r ~ n- suffix, ''yaˀ-r'' "year"; more in -tr, -mr, -zr}}|| {{no}} 
|-
!PP
|{{maybe|About 30 root and suffixed nouns in obstruent stems}} || {{maybe|''nox-ṯ'' "night", ''haš-ṯ'' "bed", ''xom-d'' "hand"}} || {{maybe|''tā̊'' "house"}} || {{maybe|Extended with -n-s, ''māʔō'' "moon"}} || {{maybe|''māϑ-r'' "mother", ''βrāϑ-r'' "brother"}} || {{maybe|''zraw-š'' "gore"}} || {{maybe|''aŋhi'' "serpent"}} || {{maybe|Neuter nouns in -ū, ''gon-ū'' "knee", ''wəšt-ū'' "settlement"}} || {{maybe|Feminine pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, ''déδāṯīš'' "of the giving one"}} || {{no}} || {{maybe|A few, particularly neuter in -i, ''ošti'' "bone"}}|| {{maybe|A few, in -r ~ n-, ''f-ō'' "shrine"}} || {{maybe|A few nouns; pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, ''déδāṯ'' "giving"}}
|}
As appears from this schematic, most suffixes are associated with more than one accentual pattern.  But even in Galic, the majority of suffixes have only one productive accentual pattern or separate productive patterns associated with masculine-feminine gender and neuter gender (the case of the n-stems and s-stems).  Additionally, some suffixes are only productive through petrified compounds, which tended to be hysterokinetic and have invariant stems, such as the comparative in -yā̊- and perfect active participle in -wā̊-; otherwise, the s-stems in amphikinetic is non-productive.
Where there are multiple productive accentuation patterns, neuter nouns are almost always identified with the proterokinetic pattern, and masculine-feminine with the hysterokinetic or amphikinetic.  The exception is for i-stems and u-stems, wherein proterokinetic accentuation is standard, and particularly productive through the compound with -t.
As is generally observed across all the Erani-Eracuran daughter languages, the suffixes ending in resonants and semivowels, i.e. n-, i-, and u-stems, tend to be productive over the suffixes in stops.  There is some speculation why this is the case, one theory being the resonants were able to be vocalized as syllables and thus did not produce illegal clusters of consonants, given the tendency to delete vowels in unaccent positions.  It is argued that the compound suffixes, which often mix one stop and one resonant are the results of transferrals from suffixes in stops to those in resonants; if so, these transferrals must have occurred quite early, as their older siblings in stops generally do not leave visible remnants in attested languages.
Unlike verbal formations, where suffixes often have specific meanings and exist as part of the standard morphology of verbs, the meanings of noun suffixes are barely if at all recoverable.  Synchronically, there is no obvious meaning to most of the suffixes present in Galic, even the productive ones, above a rudimentary association with certain parts of speech from which a noun is derived.  For example, the -tiš nouns most often are ''nomina actionis'' derived from verbs, -tuš having a similar function, -tāt and -tūt deriving states of being, but there is no comparable explanation for their common constituent -t-, which appears as an independent suffix in nouns like ''haš-t'' and ''nep-ot''.


===Adjective stems===
===Adjective stems===
Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms.  Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.
Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms.  Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.
{| class="wikitable"
!  !! -k !! -n !! -s !! -i !! -u !! -h₂ !! -r/n  !! -t !! -nt !! -ā !! -o
|-
! OX
|{{maybe|''mera-xš'' "soft"}} || {{yes|Masculine forms of adjectives with heteroclitic neuters, in -ṓ, ''fīuuō'' "fat, fertile"}} || {{yes|Productive adjective in -ā̊, ''humen-ā̊'' "well-intended", neut. -ā ''humen-ā''; productive comparative in -iiā̊ -ištṓ, ''θáñ-iiā̊'' "thinner"; productive perf. act. ptcpl. in -uuā̊ -uštṓ, ''tita-uuā̊'' "having made", fem. -uśiiā, neut. -uš}}  || {{maybe|A handful, in -iš, ''θraišt-iš''}} || {{maybe|A handful, in -uš -uuṓ, ''meδ-uš'' "sweet"}} || {{maybe|''máh-iš'' "big"}} || {{maybe|Adjective forms of neut. heteroclitics, masc. form in -ō and fem. in invariant -r-ī, ''faōuu-ərə'' "fat, fertile"}} || {{maybe|''duš-ṯ'' "bad"}} || {{yes|Productive derivative meaning "rich in, bearing of" in -uuā̊, ''β-uuā̊'' "rich in power", from p- "power"; productive pres. act. ptcpl. of athematic verbs with mobile accent in -ṓs -ā̆tṓ, and of thematic verbs, in -ṓs -óṇδō}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"| Masculine and feminine in -ō, some obligatory feminine in -ā, neuter in -õm
|-
! PX
|{{no}} || {{no}}  || {{no}} || {{yes|Productive, adjectives in -uš, feminine in -ū or -uuī, neuter -ū, ''fərət-uš fərət-ūvī fərət-ū'' "flat"}} || {{yes|Productive, adjectives in -iš, feminine in -yī, neuter -i, ''hámil-iš hámil-ayī hámil-i'' "similar"}} || {{yes|Productive, feminine derivative of u-stem and i-stem adjectives, in -ī -iiā̊}}  || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} 
|-
! PP
|{{no}} || {{no}}  || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} ||{{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{maybe|Present active participles of athematic verbs with root accent, in -ā̆t, -ā̆s}} 
|}
Adjectives need to agree with the nouns they modify not only in number and case but also in gender, but forms for each gender may not necessarily be distinct from each other.  Synchronically, many adjectives have a single form for animate (both masculine and feminine) referents, and a handful have the same forms for all three grammatical genders.  Whether an adjective has distinct forms for each gender is lexical, and there is no obvious semantic difference which appears to condition their presence or absence.  The usual historical explanation is that the feminine gender was a late grammatical development and did not always correspond to semantics of biological gender, though the mechanisms of the grammaticalization of the feminine gender is uncertain.
For o-stem adjectives with a masculine nom. sing. terminating in -ōḫ, there is always a separate neuter form ending in -õ.  Those which have a distinct, obligatory feminine form will have one ending in -ā.  Thus these adjectives are called "three-ending" o-stem adjectives.  Those without a distinct, obligatory feminine ending terminate in -ōḫ for both masculine and feminine referents.  These are "two-ending" o-stem adjectives.  It should be noted that feminine forms of o-stems add the -ā directly to the stem, not after the -o theme vowel; this is in contrast to the *-h₂ stems (see below) which is usually added following an existing suffix.
Adjectives terminating in -k, -n, -s, and -t generally do not have distinct forms for masculine and feminine referents, but a handful will have a -ī suffix following the existing suffix to create a distinct feminine form.  The netuer form is distinguished from the animate form in one of two manners.  It may be by ablaut, taking a short vowel grade when the animate has long grade or a zero grade when the animate has short.  Or it may be by the absence of final -s in the nominative, where the animate nom. has -s.
Adjectives in -i and -u often have distinct feminine forms ending in -ī, but there are also adjectives which have just one form for animate refernets or even one form for referents of all genders.  Furthermore, there are feminine forms which have a long vowel where the masculine has a short vowel, e.g. fem. nom. sing. -ī and -ū, contra masc. nom. sing. -iš and -uš.  The long vowel is conditioned by final *-h₂, which is the same as in *-ih₂ > the usual feminizing suffix -ī.
Adjectives in -nt and -wos, mostly participles, create their feminine forms by adding -ī.
There is also a class of heteroclitic adjectives based on heteroclitic nouns, which are all neuter except ''hāuuərə'' "Sun", a feminine term.  Those heteroclitic items which have PP inflection take the PX inflection for their primary adjectival forms, which are also neuter and have zero grade in the suffix.  The masculine form is produced by adding OX n-stem endings, and the feminine by the -ī suffix to the neuter form.  In the feminine, the heteroclitic suffix has full grade and the suffix zero grade in the strong cases, and ''vice versa'' in the oblique cases.
It has been noted that adjectives often show a different ablaut pattern compared to nouns derived from the same stems.  That is to say, a noun with proparoxytone or paroxytone accent can often respectively form an adjective of similar meaning with a paroxytone or oxytone accent or oxytone accent.  The source of this derivation is academically debated but remained visible and productive in Northian.
All Nordic languages have an extant distinction or some vestige of it between strong and weak declensions for the same adjective, where the "strong" represents the adjective's inherited declension and the "weak" its declension as an n-stem.  This is not true of Northian, which lacks a weak declension.  This would suggest in historical terms that the weak declension developed after the Nordic-Northian split in the Middle Bronze Age, and all the Northian adjectives are thus "strong" in Nordic terms.


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
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|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| hā̊ ||rowspan="3"| hõ ||rowspan="2"| hámīˀ ||rowspan="3"| twōˀ || rowspan="3" colspan="2"| tuˀīˀ ||rowspan="2"| ϑráʸyāʰ ||rowspan="3"| ϑrī́ˀ ||rowspan="2"| ϑrižrāʰ ||rowspan="2"| koswórāʰ<br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} koswóraŋhāʰ}} ||rowspan="3"| kótur ||rowspan="2"| kóswr̥zrāʰ
| hā̊ ||rowspan="3"| hõ ||rowspan="3"| hámī ||rowspan="3"| swō || rowspan="3" colspan="2"| duHā, tuHī ||rowspan="2"| ϑráiiā ||rowspan="3"| ϑrī́ ||rowspan="2"| ϑrižrā ||rowspan="2"| koswárā<br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} koswóraŋhā}} ||rowspan="3"| kótur ||rowspan="2"| kóswr̥žrā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
Line 416: Line 200:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| hā̊ || hámī || ϑrī́s || ϑrižrā̊  || koswórā̊ || kóswr̥zrā̊
| hā̊ || ϑrī́s || ϑrižrā̊  || koswárā̊ || kóswr̥žrā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| colspan="2"| hám ||rowspan="2"| hāyaˀay ||colspan="2"| duoi || duvaō ||colspan="2"| ϑrištū || ϑrižr̥štū ||colspan="2"| kóswr̥štū || kóswr̥zr̥štū
| colspan="2"| hám ||rowspan="2"| hāyaHā<br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} hāyaHē}} ||colspan="2"| duHā || duHō ||colspan="2"| ϑrištū || ϑrižr̥štū ||colspan="2"| kóswr̥štū || kóswr̥žr̥štū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
|colspan="2"| hmay || colspan="2" rowspan="2"|dumá ||rowspan="2"| duvāma || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| ϑrimuš ||rowspan="2"| ϑrižr̥muš ||colspan="2" rowspan="2"| kóswr̥muš ||rowspan="2"| kóswr̥zr̥muš
|colspan="2"| zmā<br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} mē}} || colspan="2" rowspan="2"|dumō ||rowspan="2"| duHāmō || colspan="2" rowspan="2"| ϑrimuš ||rowspan="2"| ϑrižr̥muš ||colspan="2" rowspan="2"| kóswr̥muš ||rowspan="2"| kóswr̥žr̥muš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}
! {{smallcaps|abl}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="2"| hmōḫ || rowspan="2"| hāyā̊  
| colspan="2" rowspan="2"| zmō<br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} mō}} || rowspan="2"| hāyā̊ <br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} hāyaHē}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
|colspan="2"| duōš || duvāvuš ||colspan="2"| ϑriyõ || ϑrižrõ ||colspan="2"| kóturõ || kóswr̥žrõ
|colspan="2"| duHō || duHaHuš ||colspan="2"| ϑriyõ || ϑrižrõ ||colspan="2"| kóturõ || kóswr̥žrõ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| colspan="2"| hmōy || hmiˀā ||colspan="2"| dumβīˀ || duvāma ||colspan="2"| ϑriβyōʰ || ϑrižr̥βyōʰ ||colspan="2"| kóswr̥βyōʰ || kóswr̥zr̥βyōʰ
| colspan="2"| zmōi<br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} mōi}} || hmiHā ||colspan="2"| dumī || duHā ||colspan="2"| ϑrimβiiō || ϑrižr̥βiiō ||colspan="2"| kóswr̥βiiō || kóswr̥žr̥βiiō
|}
|}


{{smallcaps|'''1'''}} is a root noun with a stem ending in -m.  As with other stems ending in -m, the accusative preform *sem-m̥ would by regular phonetic change become *sēm, i.e. the same as nominative *sēm, because the PEE ending *-m̥ regularly absorbs the previous resonant, hence also nom. ''syō'' but acc. ''syā̊''; in the number, -am is often but not always restored.  In the oblique cases, the stem is in zero grade and appears as hm- < *sm-.  If the position requires the /m/ to be vocalized, the result is the hā-, such as seen in feminine forms with accent over the suffix; these are a perfect match with Syaran μιᾶς = ''hāyā̊ '', etc.
{{smallcaps|'''1'''}} is a root noun with a stem ending in -m.  As with other stems ending in -m, the accusative preform *sem-m̥ would by regular phonetic change become *sēm, i.e. the same as nominative *sēm, because the PEE ending *-m̥ regularly absorbs the previous resonant, hence also nom. ''syō'' but acc. ''syā̊''; in the number, -am is often but not always restored.  In the oblique cases, the stem is in zero grade and appears as hm- < *sm-.  If the position requires the /m/ to be vocalized, the result is the hā-, such as seen in feminine forms with accent over the suffix; these are a perfect match with Syaran μιᾶς = ''hāyā̊ '', etc.


{{smallcaps|'''2'''}} is only declined in the dual number.  There are two stems in use: the monosyllabic žuuo- and dysyllabic duo-.  It is not certain why the stem scans as two syllables in the neuter forms.  Stringer says that the monosyllabic form reflects full-grade *dwoH-, and the dysyllabic has the stem in zero-grade *dwH-.  But this theory does not explain the short /u/ found in dat. ''duma'' or the zero grade ending in place of an expected an full grade. Additionally, the initial consonant exceptionally does not become a fricative.  It has been argued by others that the declension of "two" reflects an early attempt to introduce ablaut to a stem that had no original ablaut, upon the influence of other numbers 1, 3, and 4, which all had ablaut.
{{smallcaps|'''2'''}} is only declined in the dual number.  There are two stems in use: the full-grade zwo- and zero-grade tuH-.  The feminine form {{smallcaps|nom}} ''tuHā'' only appears sporadically..


{{smallcaps|'''3'''}} is a regular PX i-stem noun and is only declined in the plural.  Nom. ''ϑráiiāḫ'' shows regular development of *e > a bordering {{wp|Yod (sound)|yod}}. As with other animate PX nouns, the accusative plural has a zero-grade suffix followed by a zero-grade ending: *tri-ns > ''ϑrī́s''.  The sequence *-ins developed irregularly, usually appearing as -ī in Northian; it is also a notorious {{wp|false friend}} to Nordic ''þrīz'', which was not the accusative but the nominative = Northian ''ϑráiiāḫ''.  The feminine forms employ the feminizing infix -sr-, which is always found in the zero grade, and take regular athematic endings.  There is also a particular form for three women or goddesses, as in ''δaēuuiyāḫ ϑraḗšrāḫ'' "three goddesses".
{{smallcaps|'''3'''}} is a regular i-stem and is only declined in the plural.  Nom. ''ϑráiiā'' shows regular development of *e > a bordering {{wp|Yod (sound)|yod}}. As with others, the accusative plural has a zero-grade suffix followed by a zero-grade ending: *tri-ns > ''ϑrī́s''.  The sequence *-ins developed irregularly, usually appearing as -ī in Northian; alternatively it may reflect a more archaic *tri-m-s, without assimilation in the ending. It is a notorious {{wp|false friend}} to Nordic ''þrīz'', which was not the accusative but the nominative = Northian ''ϑráiiā''.  The feminine forms employ the feminizing infix -sr-, which is always found in the zero grade, and take regular athematic endings.  There is also a particular form for three women or goddesses, as in ''ϑaewiyā ϑraežrā'' "three goddesses".


{{smallcaps|'''4'''}} behaves like most athematic nouns and also employs the feminizing infix -sr- for its feminine forms.  Note however that the ablauting element was the second syllable of the stem -tuuor-, which in zero grade appears would be -tuur-.  Which of the two resonants vocalize depends on the phonetic environment.  Where the suffix stands alone the *-w- is vocalized, as in neuter nominative ''kotur'' < *kʷetw̥r, but where an obstruent follows the suffix it is the *-r- that becomes syllabic, as in ''kóśwṛmuš'' < *kʷetwr̥mus.  There was also a singular form ''košuuō'' < *kʷetwōr = Venetian ''quattuor''.
{{smallcaps|'''4'''}} behaves like most athematic nouns and also employs the feminizing infix -sr- for its feminine forms.  Note however that the ablauting element was the second syllable of the stem -tuuor-, which in zero grade appears would be -tuur-.  Which of the two resonants vocalize depends on the phonetic environment.  Where the suffix stands alone the *-w- is vocalized, as in neuter nominative ''kotur'' < *kʷetw̥r, but where an obstruent follows the suffix it is the *-r- that becomes syllabic, as in ''kóśwr̥muš'' < *kʷetwr̥mus.  There was also a singular form ''košuuō'' < *kʷetwōr = Venetian ''quattuor''.


The feminine forms for "four" have the particularly long stem of hošwṛzṛ-, which is for *kʷétwr̥-sr̥- where the ending begins with a consonant.  The masculine stem for "four" frequently supplants the feminine owing to the sheer length of the etymological stem, which is metrically unusable.  Note that the accent is on the suffix syllable in the strong forms owing to the effects of the eponymous {{wp|kʷetwóres rule}}, which shifts the accent from a preceding *e to the following *o if followed by only one other syllable.
The feminine forms for "four" have the particularly long stem of koswr̥-žr̥-, which is for *kʷétwr̥-sr̥- where the ending begins with a consonant.  The masculine stem for "four" frequently supplants the feminine owing to the sheer length of the etymological stem, which is metrically unusable.  Note that the accent is on the suffix syllable in the strong forms owing to the effects of the eponymous {{wp|kʷetwóres rule}}, which shifts the accent from a preceding *e to the following *o if followed by only one other syllable.


====5 and higher====
====5 and higher====
{{smallcaps|'''5'''}} ''fəṇka'' is from *pénkʷe.
{{smallcaps|'''5'''}} ''pəṇto'' is from *pénkʷe.


{{smallcaps|'''6'''}} ''xšuuāxš'' from *kswéks, a match with Xevdenite ''xšuuah''.
{{smallcaps|'''6'''}} ''xšwaxš'' from *kswéks, a match with Xevdenite ''xšuuah''.


{{smallcaps|'''7'''}} ''haftam'' from *septm̥.
{{smallcaps|'''7'''}} ''hafθa'' from *septm̥.


{{smallcaps|'''8'''}} ''oxθō'', the proto-form of this word is disputed.  Northian ''oxθō'' can be traced back to both *(H)oktow and *(H)oktoH, with or without an initial laryngeal.  Morphologically, it is the dual of ''óxθō'' "fingers", in ei-stem.
{{smallcaps|'''8'''}} ''oxθō'', the proto-form of this word is disputed.  Northian ''oxθō'' can be traced back to both *(H)oktow and *(H)oktoH, with or without an initial laryngeal; the form with initial laryngeal is preferred on root phonotactic grounds, since most vowel-initial words can be shown to have had an initial laryngeal.  Morphologically, it is the dual of ''óxθō'' "fingers", in ei-stem.


{{smallcaps|'''9'''}} ''nauuam''
{{smallcaps|'''9'''}} ''nauuā''


{{smallcaps|'''10'''}} ''dekam''
{{smallcaps|'''10'''}} ''tegā''


===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
Line 462: Line 246:
!rowspan="2"|  !! style="width:10em" colspan="2"|{{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:10em" colspan="2"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:10em" colspan="2"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!rowspan="2"|  !! style="width:10em" colspan="2"|{{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:10em" colspan="2"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:10em" colspan="2"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|stressed}} !! {{smallcaps|enclitic}} !! {{smallcaps|stressed}} !! {{smallcaps|enclitic}}!! {{smallcaps|stressed}} !! {{smallcaps|enclitic}}
! {{smallcaps|tonic}} !! {{smallcaps|enclitic}} !! {{smallcaps|tonic}} !! {{smallcaps|enclitic}}!! {{smallcaps|tonic}} !! {{smallcaps|enclitic}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| colspan="2"|áxa, áɣā̊ ||colspan="2"| wōḥ ||colspan="2"| wāi
| colspan="2"|áxa, áɣā̊, ázəm ||colspan="2"| wō ||colspan="2"| wāy
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| mḗ || mi || āŋhō ||rowspan="3"| nō  || ənśmé ||rowspan="3"| nāḫ
| mḗ || mi || āŋhō ||rowspan="3"| nō  || ə̄mmé ||rowspan="3"| nā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| méni ||rowspan="2"| mai || nō || ənśr-(I/II)
| méni ||rowspan="2"| mai || nō || áŋrō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| méjiia || nanā́ || ā̊(s)
| mézya || nanā́ || ā̊(s)
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 487: Line 271:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| colspan="2"| tū́ || colspan="2"|yṓḥ   || colspan="2"| yā̊́ḫ
| colspan="2"| tū́ || colspan="2"|yṓ  || colspan="2"| yā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| suuó || ti || ūmé  ||rowspan="3"| wō  || ušmé ||rowspan="3"| wā̊
| swe || ti || ūmé  ||rowspan="3"| wō  || ušpé ||rowspan="3"| wā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| ϑáiia ||rowspan="2"| toi ||  yuϑr-(I/II) ||  yušr-(I/II)
| ϑáya ||rowspan="2"| toi ||  yuϑr- ||  yušr-
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| ϑə̄mβiiō || wanā́ ||  ušmái(iai)
| ϑə̄mβyō || wanā́ ||  ušmái
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 554: Line 338:


====Indefinite article====
====Indefinite article====
The Northian indefinite article, which introduces an indefininte {{wp|noun phrase}}, is derived from the PEE root *oiwos, meaning "one".  Note that the endings are those of demonstratives.
The Northian indefinite article, which introduces an indefininte {{wp|noun phrase}}, is derived from the PEE root *oywos, meaning "one".  Note that the endings are those of demonstratives.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2"|  !!  colspan="3"| aēuuōḫ, "a, an"
!rowspan="2"|  !!  colspan="3"| aiwō, "a, an"
|-
|-
! style="width: 5em"| {{smallcaps|'''M & F'''}}  !!style="width: 5em"| {{smallcaps|'''N'''}}  
! style="width: 5em"| {{smallcaps|'''M & F'''}}  !!style="width: 5em"| {{smallcaps|'''N'''}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''nom'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''nom'''}}
|rowspan="2"| aēuuōḫ ||rowspan="3"| aēuuó  
|rowspan="2"| aiwō ||rowspan="3"| aiwó  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''voc'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''voc'''}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''acc'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''acc'''}}
| aēuuõm  
| aiwõm  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''loc'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''loc'''}}
| colspan="2" rowspan="2"| aēuuōi  
| colspan="2" rowspan="2"| aiwōi  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''dat'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''dat'''}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''abl'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''abl'''}}
| colspan="2"| aēuuōṯ
| colspan="2"| aiwōṯ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''gen'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''gen'''}}
| colspan="2"| aēuuōiš
| colspan="2"| aiwōiš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|'''ins'''}}
! {{smallcaps|'''ins'''}}
| colspan="2"| aēuuō
| colspan="2"| aiwō
|}
|}


Line 646: Line 430:


===Endings===
===Endings===
====Athematic I and II====
====Athematic I & II====
The athematic verb endings, like their noun counterparts, are directly attached to the verbal stem without an intervening theme vowel.  The primary endings are used for the present indicative and all subjunctives, and the secondary endings for the aorist indicative and all injunctives, imperfects, and (with the suffix) the optative.  As is clear, outside of the present indicative, the present and aorist stems take the same set of endings, and their distinction consequently lies in the stem itself.
The athematic verb endings, like their noun counterparts, are directly attached to the verbal stem without an intervening theme vowel.  The primary endings are used for the present indicative and all subjunctives, and the secondary endings for the aorist indicative and all injunctives, imperfects, and (with the suffix) the optative.  As is clear, outside of the present indicative, the present and aorist stems take the same set of endings, and their distinction consequently lies in the stem itself.
In the two following charts, this convention is observed: where variant endings are conditioned by surrounding phonetic environment, they are separated by the {{wp|tilde}}, and where they are instead conditioned by ablaut or another unanalyzable process, by the comma instead.  We may reason that environmental variations were more transparent to ancient Northians, as these mostly represent post-Erani-Eracuran phonetic divergences, while ablaut variations had become more opaque as its conditioning factor had become non-operational by the last phase of the proto-language. Thus, phonetic variations have tended to resist levelling for longer, while ablaut variations tended to disappear over time. 
The most important ablaut variation in endings comes in the {{smallcaps|mid 2 & 3du}} and {{smallcaps|act 3pl}}; of these, the more frequently used {{smallcaps|3pl}} survived longer.  At least in the {{smallcaps|3pl}} ablaut variation was more conservatively observed, since in the extension of the *-(e)nt marker of the active to the middle, the zero-grade morph *-n̥t is always selected in the Gales acknowledging and in front of the accented ending -o.  The dual variations are only imperfectly observed in the Gales, while two morphs of the {{smallcaps|act 1pl}} are only marginally associated with ablaut patterns.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="4"| Primary active, mobile !!colspan="7"| Primary middle endings, mobile
!colspan="4"| Primary active !!colspan="7"| Primary middle
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"|  !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|sing}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
!rowspan="2"|  !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|sing}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
Line 657: Line 445:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
| -mi || -(u)wéni || -məŋhi, -maʸhi
| -mi || -wəni ~ uwəni<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -ūni || -máŋhi, -maʸhi
! {{smallcaps|1p}}  
! {{smallcaps|1p}}  
|colspan="2"| -ay ||colspan="2"| -(u)wōδi ||colspan="2"| -mōyδi
|colspan="2"| -ā ||colspan="2"| -wōδi ~ uwōδi ||colspan="2"| -mōihi <br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -māhi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -si, -hi, -šti ||rowspan="2"| -tāʰ || -te, -se
| -si ~ hi ~ ši || -tā || -te, -e
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
|colspan="2"| -tay ||colspan="2"| -ātiϑi, -tiϑi ||colspan="2"| -ϑūwó, -ϑuwó, -huwó
|colspan="2"| -tā ||colspan="2"| -ātiϑi, -(i)tiϑi ||colspan="2"| -ϑūwə ~ ϑuwə ~ huwə<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -ϑū ~ hū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -ti, -si || -'''ə'''ṇti, -ā̆ti
| -ti ~ si || -tā, -zā || -'''ə'''ṇti, -ā̆si<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -'''ə'''nti, -ā̆si
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -tóy || -ó || -āϑā || -ā, -ˀ || -ā̆troy || -roy
| -tō || -ó || -(i)ϑā || -ā || -ā̆zrō <br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -ārē || -ro, -rō
|}
|}


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="4"| Secondary active endings, mobile !!colspan="7"| Secondary middle endings, mobile
!colspan="4"| Secondary active !!colspan="7"| Secondary middle
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"|  !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|{{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|sing}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
!rowspan="2"|  !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|{{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 9em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|sing}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
Line 680: Line 468:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
| -ā̆, -m || -(u)wó || -mó
| -ā̆ ~ m || -wə ~ uwə<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -ū || -me
! {{smallcaps|1p}}  
! {{smallcaps|1p}}  
|colspan="2"| -a ||colspan="2"| -(u)woha ||colspan="2"| -máha
|colspan="2"| -a ||colspan="2"| -wohi ~ uwohi ||colspan="2"| -maʸhi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -h, -s || -tõm || -te, -se
| -h ~ š || -tõm || -te, -'''e'''
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
|colspan="2"| -ta ||colspan="2"| -ātiϑi, -ˀtiϑi ||colspan="2"| -ϑuwó, -huwó
|colspan="2"| -ta ||colspan="2"| -ātiϑi, -(i)tiϑi ||colspan="2"| -ϑuwə ~ huwə<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -ϑū ~ hū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -t || -tā̊ || -'''ə'''nṯ, -ā̆ṯ, -r
| -t ~ s || -tā̊ || -'''ə'''n, -ā̆ṯ, -r <br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -'''ə'''n, -as
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -to || -o || -āϑā, -ˀϑā || -ā, -āϑā || -ā̆tro || -ro
| -to || -o || -āϑā, -(i)ϑā || -ā, -i || -ā̆zro<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} -ā̆zro || -ro
|}
|}


Line 731: Line 519:
In the secondary, the ending was -máha is used.
In the secondary, the ending was -máha is used.


{{smallcaps|'''2 pl'''}} The allomorphs are -te or -se after vowels.  About half of the time the primary ending shows -te even after vowels, which has been interpreted as a sign that the primary ending shared the same of *-tHe as in Kankrit, but as it only occurs as an alternative, the Northian readings permits but does not require it as the ending proper to the primary.
{{smallcaps|'''2 pl'''}} The allomorphs are -te or -se after vowels.  About half of the time the primary ending shows -te even after vowels, which has been interpreted as a sign that the primary ending shared the same of *-tHe as in Kankrit, but as it only occurs as an alternative, the Northian readings permits but does not require it as the ending proper to the primary.  The secondary endings are identical except for the ''xaŋzat''-aorists, where it is merely -e and subjec to laryngeal and semivowel colouring.


The middle endings primary -dūvó and secondary -duvó has caused some controversy amongst academics as its provenance is open to many interpretations. No other Erani-Eracuran language attests a difference between primary and secondary endings in this position, and much Galic material also does not distinguish between them.  But in the Early Galic, -dūvó is clearly preferred as the primary ending, being attested ten times over the two times of -duvó.  In secondary sequence, -dūvó never appears at all.  Some prefer to see the length difference as militated by that found in the {{smallcaps|1 pl}}, where the elision of *-z created a long vowel in the primary but not the secondary.  But the quantitative difference did not disappear in that form, while the putatively connected contrast disappeared rapidly.
The middle endings primary -dūvó and secondary -duvó has caused some controversy amongst academics as its provenance is open to many interpretations. No other Erani-Eracuran language attests a difference between primary and secondary endings in this position, and much Galic material also does not distinguish between them.  But in the Early Galic, -dūvó is clearly preferred as the primary ending, being attested ten times over the two times of -duvó.  In secondary sequence, -dūvó never appears at all.  Some prefer to see the length difference as militated by that found in the {{smallcaps|1 pl}}, where the elision of *-z created a long vowel in the primary but not the secondary.  But the quantitative difference did not disappear in that form, while the putatively connected contrast disappeared rapidly.
Line 737: Line 525:
The general shape of these two endings also require some comment.  The u-vocalism itself could have two origins.  First, as in Kankrit, it could be attributed to a form of Sievers's law that created a syllabic *u before non-syllabic *w following a heavy syllable, but this variety of Sievers's law did not operate generally in Northian.  Second, the pre-form *-dʰh₂wé would regularly vocalize as *-δiwó > -δuwó, since /i/ before /u/ is always assimilated to it.  Because *w always follows two consonants and thus a heavy syllable, the Sievers's form *-dʰh₂uwé is generated, which has been argued as the source of primary -dūwó by way of metathesis to *-dʰuh₂wé, though this hypothesis creates the absence of the metathesis restricted to secondary -duwó.
The general shape of these two endings also require some comment.  The u-vocalism itself could have two origins.  First, as in Kankrit, it could be attributed to a form of Sievers's law that created a syllabic *u before non-syllabic *w following a heavy syllable, but this variety of Sievers's law did not operate generally in Northian.  Second, the pre-form *-dʰh₂wé would regularly vocalize as *-δiwó > -δuwó, since /i/ before /u/ is always assimilated to it.  Because *w always follows two consonants and thus a heavy syllable, the Sievers's form *-dʰh₂uwé is generated, which has been argued as the source of primary -dūwó by way of metathesis to *-dʰuh₂wé, though this hypothesis creates the absence of the metathesis restricted to secondary -duwó.


{{smallcaps|'''3 pl'''}} In the active, the ending -ən(ti) is used, which is -ant(i) if following h- or *h₂-.  Note that final -t seems to be regularly dropped after -ən.  In verbs with persistent accent, this ending takes the zero-grade form of *-n̥t > -ā̆t(i); some preceding vowels are altered by the vocalized nasal.  There is a specialized form -r that appears in the aorist optative of ''xaŋzat'' verbs, a special class of root aorist verbs that have full-grade root throughout, and the present indicative of most i- and u-stem verbs, i.e. {{smallcaps|3 pl}} -ir and -ur.  Where -r does not follow a semivowel, it is vocalic and written <arə> word-finally, i.e. <xáŋhiyarə> ''xáŋhiˀr̥'' (the optative suffix ended in a laryngeal, not -i).
{{smallcaps|'''3 pl'''}} In the active, the ending -ən(ti) is used, which is -ant(i) if following h- or *h₂-.  Note that final -t seems to be regularly dropped after -ən.  In verbs with persistent accent, this ending takes the zero-grade form of *-n̥t > -ā̆t(i); some preceding vowels are altered by the vocalized nasal.  There is a specialized form -r that appears in the aorist injunctive and optative of ''xaŋzat'' verbs, a special class of root aorist verbs that have full-grade root throughout, and the present indicative of most i- and u-stem verbs, i.e. {{smallcaps|3 pl}} -ir and -ur.  Where -r does not follow a semivowel, it is vocalic and written <arə> word-finally, i.e. <xáŋhiyarə> ''xáŋhiˀr̥'' (the optative suffix ended in a laryngeal, not -i).


For the middle voice, there are several endings that share (what is usually interpreted as) a morpheme *-r.  Most present, and all derivative, stems show -ntro, but a few merely -ro.  This -r in -ro is thought to be connected in some wise to the active ending -r mentioned above.  The ending is furthermore found in the same place in the perfect.  It is thus unclear in which direction the borrowing occurred.
For the middle voice, there are several endings that share (what is usually interpreted as) a morpheme *-r.  Most present, and all derivative, stems show -ntro, but a few merely -ro.  This -r in -ro is thought to be connected in some wise to the active ending -r mentioned above.  The ending is furthermore found in the same place in the perfect.  It is thus unclear in which direction the borrowing occurred.
Line 750: Line 538:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
| -ō || -owōʰ || -əmōhi
| -ō || -owō || -əmōhi
! {{smallcaps|1p}}  
! {{smallcaps|1p}}  
| -oˀay || -owōδi || -əmōyδi
| -oHā || -owōδi || -əmōihi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -aˀi ||rowspan="2"| -'''e'''sāʰ || -'''e'''se
| -ā ||rowspan="2"| -'''e'''tā || -'''e'''te
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -'''e'''tay || -'''e'''tõm || -'''e'''δuwo
| -'''e'''tā || -'''e'''tiϑi || -'''e'''δuwə
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -'''e'''si || -əṇti
| -'''e'''si || -əṇti
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -'''e'''toy || -'''e'''sā̊ || -əṇtō
| -'''e'''tō || -'''e'''tā || -əṇtō
|}
|}


{{smallcaps|'''1 sg'''}} The first singular active ending is -ō.  The middle ending is -oꜤay for *o-h₂e-y—the ending is always disyllabic in Galic.
{{smallcaps|'''1 sg'''}} The first singular active ending is -ō.  The middle ending is -oay for *o-h₂e-y—the ending is always disyllabic in Galic.


{{smallcaps|'''2 sg'''}} The ending for the second active singular is -aꜤi.  The middle ending is the same as the athematic one, with the theme vowel /e/ inserted.
{{smallcaps|'''2 sg'''}} The ending for the second active singular is -aꜤi.  The middle ending is the same as the athematic one, with the theme vowel /e/ inserted.
Line 783: Line 571:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="4"| Imperative active endings !!colspan="7"| Imperative middle endings  
!colspan="4"| Athematic imperative active endings !!colspan="7"| Athematic imperative middle endings  
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"|  !!style="width: 8em" rowspan="2"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="2"| {{smallcaps|sing}}!! colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
!rowspan="2"|  !!style="width: 8em" rowspan="2"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em" rowspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="2"| {{smallcaps|sing}}!! colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!colspan="2"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
Line 790: Line 578:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -δi / -ϑi / -zi / -Ø || -tāḫ || -te
| -δi ~ ϑi ~ zi, -Ø || -tā || -te, -se, -s
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
|colspan="2"| -zwo ||colspan="2"| -ātiθi ||colspan="2"| -duwo
|colspan="2"| -(s)wə ||colspan="2"| -ātiϑi ||colspan="2"| -duwə
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -tū || -tāmū || -'''ə'''ṇtū / -ā̆tū
| -tū || -tāmū, -(s)mū || -'''ə'''ṇtū, -ā̆tū
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -to || -o || -tā || -ātā || -'''ə'''ṇtrō || -ārə / -ir
| -te || -e || -tā || -ātā || -'''ə'''ṇtro || -ro
|}
|}


Line 804: Line 592:
{{smallcaps|'''2 du & pl'''}} endings mimic the indicative endings; suffixed verbs drop the suffix.
{{smallcaps|'''2 du & pl'''}} endings mimic the indicative endings; suffixed verbs drop the suffix.


{{smallcaps|'''3 sg & du'''}} appear to be the corresponding secondary ending plus the particle *-u, which is used in all {{smallcaps|3p}} forms.  
{{smallcaps|'''3 sg & du'''}} appear to be the corresponding secondary ending plus the particle *-u, which is used in all {{smallcaps|3p}} forms.  The {{smallcaps|act 3du}} in some verbs was recessively accented, and this formation -smū must reflect a zero-grade morph *-th₂m-u.


{{smallcaps|'''3 pl'''}} has the variable vowel quality as in the secondary ending, which is -antū if the stem ended in *-h₂, and the zero-grade form -ā̆tū if the accent was in the stem.  The long final vowel, which is peculiar to the imperative, is not yet satisfactorily explained, as all other languages reflect a short *-o here.
{{smallcaps|'''3 pl'''}} has the variable vowel quality as in the secondary ending, which is -antū if the stem ended in *-h₂, and the zero-grade form -ā̆tū if the accent was in the stem.   


The imperative forms for thematic verbs are as follows:
The imperative forms for thematic verbs are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="4"| Imperative active endings !!colspan="4"| Imperative middle endings  
!colspan="4"| Thematic imperative active endings !!colspan="4"| Thematic imperative middle endings  
|-
|-
!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}}!!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}}!!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -Ø || -etāḫ || -esi
| -Ø || -etā || -esi
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -ēwo || -ātiθi || -ezwo
| -ēwə || -ātiθi || -ezwə
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -etū || -etāmū || -əṇtū  
| -etū || -etāmū || -əṇtū  
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -eta || -ā̊tā || -əṇtrō
| -eta || -ā̊tā || -əṇtro
|}
|}
Only a few forms require comment due to the homogeneity to the athematic forms.
Only a few forms require comment due to the homogeneity to the athematic forms.
Line 830: Line 618:
{{smallcaps|'''3 pl'''}} does ''not'' have the variable vowel or ablaut as the ending reflects invariant *-onto, which is not susceptible to laryngeal influence.  Nevertheless, some thematic verbs do secondarily display -aṇtrō, particularly if they are thematizations of pre-existing athematic stems that have -aṇtrō in this position.
{{smallcaps|'''3 pl'''}} does ''not'' have the variable vowel or ablaut as the ending reflects invariant *-onto, which is not susceptible to laryngeal influence.  Nevertheless, some thematic verbs do secondarily display -aṇtrō, particularly if they are thematizations of pre-existing athematic stems that have -aṇtrō in this position.


====Perfect and perfect imperative====
====Perfect====
The perfect was an athematic formation, irrespective of the thematicity of the present or aorist stems.  For the relatively tame verbal system of Northian that tends to agree with the Tennite and Syaran evidence, the evolution of the Northian prefect has been the subject of most attention.   
The perfect was an athematic formation, irrespective of the thematicity of the present or aorist stems.  For the relatively tame verbal system of Northian that tends to agree with the Tennite and Syaran evidence, the evolution of the Northian prefect has been the subject of most attention.   


It has been noted that Early Galic yielded no subjunctive, optative, and injunctive forms of the perfect stem.  The defectiveness of the perfect was, evidently, in the process of being overcome within the historical period; from this, some have concluded that the aspectual system of the parent language was a bipartite one consisting of the present and aorist stems, rather than a tripartite one that further includes the perfect.  By the end of the Galic period, the perfect stem was a category at par with the present and aorist stems
The perfect system is structurally different to the present and aorist as far as the modal forms are concerned.  Whereas the present and aorist stems use the same set primary and secondary indicative endings to form its subjunctive and optative moods, the endings of the perfect indicative do ''not'' reprise in the perfect subjunctive and optative. Thus, the perfect subjunctive and perfect optative are regarded as analogous formations on the model of the present/aorist subjunctives and optatives.
 
The Early Galic perfect diverges from the Tennite and Syaran perfect tenses by what appears to be a unique ablaut pattern and unique endings: the entire {{smallcaps|sing}} plus the {{smallcaps|2 du & pl}} have the strong stem, and the rest have the weak.  Unfortunately, the paucity of {{smallcaps|2 & 3 du}} forms render the ablaut pattern less secure than scholars would prefer: the {{smallcaps|2 du}} is attested only twice, in ''memónō'' "you two remember" and ''woydō'' "you two know", and the {{smallcaps|3 du}} only once, written as <ə̄əriϑō>, from an unidentified root and glossed (not without doubt) as "enter".  The {{smallcaps|2 du}} forms were, until recently, thought to be irregular subjunctives until the argument was settled they were to be read with neighbouring participles declined in the dual. 
 
Very early, these two forms were replaced by conventional-looking endings -iϑõm and -iϑā̊, which appear to contain some sort of laryngeal element, possibly identified with the middle endings of the persistent accent stems, plus secondary endings of the present active; these two endings were accented.  That the secondary endings were selected to replace the older endings has been held to show the old endings were, amidst the mystery they pose, probably unrelated to present.  But that which most interests scholars is the selection of the middle forms that ablauted to match root accent, rather than the more common and productive form matching ending accent; most authorities agree that this selection means the strong stem with initial accent is original, and some go as far as to say the oldest form of the perfect had persistent, rather than mobile, accent, which are to be sourced from the present or aorist.
 
Additionally, there has been a prehistoric spread of a final laryngeal, possibly from the {{smallcaps|1 pl}} as indicated by Kankrit alternate ending -mā, to the {{smallcaps|2 pl}} and {{smallcaps|1 du}}.  That it does not appear in the {{smallcaps|2 & 3 du}} also corroborates these endings are likely very ancient and do not reflect a recent analogy.  Patter describes the Early Galic perfect as a "box of surprises", which suggests to her that the perfect could be viewed as a composite formation of multiple sources in the parent language.  She adduces {{smallcaps|3 pl}} ''monṓ'' as an unreduplicated perfect indicative (not to universal agreement), which, with its accent over the ending, she posits as the source of the mobile accent, plus proportional analogy to the present and aorist, that displaced the persistent accent in the perfect.  In her view, ''monṓ'' is too introduced from elsewhere and probably displaced an even older form that has been lost.
 
There are other peculiarities about the perfect that distances it further from the Tennite and Syaran perfects that are multilaterally co-ordinated with the present.  The {{smallcaps|2 sg}} imperative is, in the oldest texts, periphrastic, highlighting the strange situation where the perfect stem does not serve as the {{smallcaps|2 sg}} imperative when almost every verbal stem does.  This has been interpreted in the light of a non-verbal origin of the perfect.  The perfect stem appears to serve as the imperative, however, in the {{smallcaps|2 pl}}, though with the initial accent of the imperative, there could have been some sort of ending (again subject to a form of ablaut) that left no trace.  The {{smallcaps|3 pl}} forms of the perfect subjunctive and optative also stand out with endings -ṓ and -ī. As these departures from the general pattern often seem concentrated in the {{smallcaps|3 pl}}, it has been suggested that the Early Galic perfect could reflect something entirely different from the Syaran and Tennite perfects.
 
It has been argued that the Northian perfect tense may also yield some information about the ancient relationship between the perfect and the middle, which has been noticed early in the field's history but yet to be fully comprehended.  Some aspects of the perfect do appear to be related to the middle voice, such as the strong stems visible in the {{smallcaps|2 du & pl}} and {{smallcaps|3 pl}}: some middle verbs display a full-grade stem throughout the paradigm.  The forms that have the zero grade, that is the {{smallcaps|1 du & pl}} do appear to have the -w- and -m- elements that is shared with the present, which is generally characterized in active forms by the stronger ablaut grade in the singular and by the weaker elsewhere.  But this is not to say the weak forms were necessarily introduced from the active, since the -w- and -m- elements are also present in the middle and are not there associated with an ablaut difference between the singular and non-singular.  Indeed, no middle paradigm has differing ablaut grades.  There have been many theories regarding the interpretation of the oldest perfect forms, though none are regarded yet as conclusive.


Comments are often made about the accent of the perfect and its relationship to the perfect's ablaut formulae.  If it is agreed the perfect had persistent accent over the reduplication syllable (and leaving apart the formations that are unreduplicated, which cannot bear witness), then all three ablaut grades are attested in the following, originally-unaccented syllable.  The o-grade is found in the {{smallcaps|1 – 3 sing, 2 & 3 du & pl}} of the perfect-proper, the e-grade in the subjunctive throughout, and the zero-grade in the {{smallcaps|1 du & pl}} perfect, and the optative and imperative throughout. Thus the salient question is whether the o-grade or zero-grade is original to the unaccented root, as most unaccented morphemes in verbs receive the latter.  The o-grade has been compared to unaccented o-grade in amphikinetic nouns.  As yet no accepted answer, morphological or phonological, has been made to this problem first formulated in 1921.
Some scholars argue for the existence of two parallel conjugations in the perfect system, representing roots of present or aorist origins.  The two conjugations would be diagnosed by their ablaut patterns and their endings in the dual and plural, with the present-origin verbs having the o-grade stem in the singular and the zero-grade elsewhere, and the aorist-origin ones having the o-grade stem everywhere other than the {{smallcaps|3 pl}}.  Should it have been true at some point, such a situation is necessarily a Pre-Galic one, though it does explain the indeterminacy of the vocalism of the {{smallcaps|1 & 2 pl}} in early Galic with considerable success. But since this theory requires the perfect to be (at least in part) a derivative strategy, it is not accepted by those who maintain a tripartite aspectual system of the Erani-Eracuran verb.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="4"| Perfect active endings !!colspan="4"| Perfect middle endings  
!colspan="4"| Perfect endings
|-
|-
!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!  !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
| -a || -wōy || -mōy
| -a || -wōi || -mōi
! {{smallcaps|1p}}
!colspan="3" rowspan="3"| The perfect has no middle voice in Galic
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| -ta || -ō || -ōy
| -ta || -Hōt, -ātō || -ōi, -ā, -ō
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -'''e''' || -iϑō (?)|| -ṓ
| -'''e''' || -Htō, -ātō || -ṓ
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
|}
|}


{{smallcaps|'''3 sg'''}} the ending -i is the unaccented outcome of *-e, which is coloured by any preceding laryngeal and therefore may surface as -a if the stem ended in *-h₂ or *-h₃.
{{smallcaps|'''1 & 2 sg'''}} of the perfect are the same as secondary forms of the middle voice.
 
{{smallcaps|'''3 sg'''}} has *-e as opposed to middle *-o, which makes it very probable they are ablaut variants of each other.  This ending is susceptible to laryngeal and semivowel colouring.
 
{{smallcaps|'''1 du'''}} has -wōi in attested texts, but this cannot lead back to *-weH in the same way that {{smallcaps|1 pl}} -mōy leads to *-meH, because in this environment the *e always becomes *o and would give *-wō.  The ending also cannot reflect an unmotivated *-wōi, since this would also regularly become *-wō.  The final long vowel is best thought as contamination from the {{smallcaps|1 pl}}, and not a very early one.


{{smallcaps|'''2 du'''}} This form is at the centre of philological debate as it yields up so very little information at its surface. In contradiction to the usual distribution of ablaut grades in the perfect, in both its appearances in the Gales (both Early Galic) it does so with the strong stem rather than weak, i.e. ''momṓnō'' "you two recall" and ''woyδō'' "you two know".  A final -ō could represent so many pre-forms (e.g. -ow, -ōw, -ōy, -eh₃, -oH, -h₃eH, etc.) that it is totally uninformative, and given this form's rarity, it unfortunately lacks sandhi clues.  Sandy recommendeds that the particle *-h₃ is involved, shared with the pronouns, but not necessarily a borrowing from pronouns; his argument partly proceeds from the {{smallcaps|3 du}} ending -iϑō, which he reconstructs as *-h₃-teh₂, with the last particle identical to that from the present.
{{smallcaps|'''2 du'''}} has two forms, -ātō which is seen everywhere and -Hōt which is only seen in G1. The former is not sensitive to the weight of the previous syllable, which means the long vowel must contain -eh₂. The latter is archaic but unfortunately opaque; some have interpreted it as *-h₃eH-t, but in this position it cannot be confirmed.  There is also disagreement whether the two alloforms have any connection with each other, particularly around the element -t-.


On the other hand, Patrickson argues this aberrant ending must be a new creation, formed by removing the -w- of the {{smallcaps|1 du}} ending that was (via the present system) associated with the first person.  He observes the same pattern in the plural, where the {{smallcaps|2 pl}} ending lacks an identifying element that precedes the ending in the way the {{smallcaps|1 pl}} ending does. Regarding this line of thinking, Mortimer amongst others point to Kankrit endings {{smallcaps|1 pl}} -mā < *-meH and {{smallcaps|2 pl}} -a < *-e and concludes Northian has probably extended the prehistoric laryngeal in the {{smallcaps|1 pl}} to the {{smallcaps|2 pl}}.  Thus, the general direction of analogy at least does not oppose Patrickson's argument.
{{smallcaps|'''3 du'''}} also has two forms, -ātō and -Htō in the same distribution. While the former is superficially the same as with the corresponding {{smallcaps|2 du}} form, this need not be the underlying situation, in principle.


{{smallcaps|'''2 pl'''}} -e is the accented outcome of *-e, which is also liable to be coloured by laryngeals and may appear as -a or -o with stems ending in *-h₂ or *-h₃, respectively.
{{smallcaps|'''2 pl'''}} is usually reconstructed as *-e-H, the first segment apparently being the same as the {{smallcaps|3 sg}} ending.  The additional laryngeal is of uncertain origin and has spread to the {{smallcaps|1 pl}} and possibly {{smallcaps|1 du}}.  In this regard, Kankrit retains the original state of affairs, while Northian introduced alterations.  As it contains an exposed *e, this ending is also subject to laryngeal and semivowel colouring.


In addition, Early Galic also has specialized perfect imperative forms, all of which are poorly attested.
====Perfect and pluperfect imperative====
Uniquely, Northian has specialized perfect imperative forms, all of which are poorly attested.  The perfect stem is also used with conventional imperative endings, termed the ''pluperfect imperative'' because some of its forms resemble those of the pluperfect.  There appears to be little difference between the meaning of the two formations, and there is no obvious distinction between stems that take the perfect or pluperfect imperatives.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="4"| Perfect active imperative endings !!colspan="4"| Perfect middle imperative endings  
!colspan="4"| Perfect imperative endings  
|-
|-
!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}} !!  !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  !!style="width: 8em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width: 8em"|  {{smallcaps|pl}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
| periphrastic or -s || ? || -Ø, -s
| -ti || ? || -s
! {{smallcaps|2p}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
| -ϑū? || ? || -ō
| ? || ? || -ō
! {{smallcaps|3p}}
|}
|}


Very little has been firmly adduced from these forms, and they depart greatly from analogous forms in the present and aorist.  At the very least, it is clear that prehistoric Northian placed the perfect in its own category and not in parallel to the present and aorist; its re-characterization as a parallel category was an ongoing process completed by the Late Galic period, when perfect imperatives exhibited the regular endings found in the present and aorist.  The {{smallcaps|2 sg}} has been connected with the corresponding ''middle'' imperative ending -swó.  
Very little has been firmly adduced from these forms, and they depart greatly from analogous forms in the present and aorist.  At the very least, it is clear that prehistoric Northian placed the perfect in its own category and not in parallel to the present and aorist; its re-characterization as a parallel category was a process already complete by the Late Galic period, when perfect imperatives exhibited the regular endings found in the present and aorist, that is to say the pluperfect imperative has become dominant.   
 
The {{smallcaps|2 sg}} ending -ti could in principle represent *-ti just as the athematic present indicative, though there is no motivation for the ending here.  It could also represent *-tH, or more specifically *-th₂, as seen in the perfect ending *-th₂e.  The {{smallcaps|2 pl}} ending -s is connected to a variety of forms in the most archaic daughter languages and is sure to be a relic of great antiquity.  Unfortunately, much of the paradigm of the perfect imperative is missing.


There are a handful of instances of strangely-placed perfect participles that have been often interpreted as periphrastic forms of the imperative.  One such is ''ēwā̊'' < *h₁eh₁swōs.
There are a handful of instances of strangely-placed perfect participles that have been often interpreted as periphrastic forms of the imperative.  One such is ''ēwā̊'' < *h₁eh₁swōs.
Line 896: Line 675:
===Moods===
===Moods===
====Subjunctive====
====Subjunctive====
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! Mood !! %
|-
! Indicative
| 32
|-
! Injunctive
| 29
|-
! Imperative
| 20
|-
! Subjunctive
| 15
|-
! Optative
| 4
|}
The subjunctive mood had a variety of functions in Galic.  In direct discourse, the subjunctive most often expresses "neutral potentiality" without indicating the speaker's personal wish, standing in contrast to the optative that does so.  In subordinate clauses, the subjunctive often expresses futurity rather than mere potentiality.
The subjunctive mood had a variety of functions in Galic.  In direct discourse, the subjunctive most often expresses "neutral potentiality" without indicating the speaker's personal wish, standing in contrast to the optative that does so.  In subordinate clauses, the subjunctive often expresses futurity rather than mere potentiality.


Line 906: Line 705:
In the Tennite languages, primary and secondary endings are applied to the subjunctive stem without discrimination or an obvious difference in meaning, while the other daughters exclusively apply the primary endings.  This anomaly of the Tennite languages reminisces of the subjunctive endings used in Galic Northian, which are primary only by the addition of the ''hic et nunc'' particle *-i to the secondary thematic endings.  "Genuine" primary endings are associated with the athematic indicative, partiuclarly {{smallcaps|1 du}} ending -woiñi and {{smallcaps|1 pl}} -məŋhi, ''contra'' subjunctive -owōhi and -əmōhi.
In the Tennite languages, primary and secondary endings are applied to the subjunctive stem without discrimination or an obvious difference in meaning, while the other daughters exclusively apply the primary endings.  This anomaly of the Tennite languages reminisces of the subjunctive endings used in Galic Northian, which are primary only by the addition of the ''hic et nunc'' particle *-i to the secondary thematic endings.  "Genuine" primary endings are associated with the athematic indicative, partiuclarly {{smallcaps|1 du}} ending -woiñi and {{smallcaps|1 pl}} -məŋhi, ''contra'' subjunctive -owōhi and -əmōhi.


The subjunctive was a reasonably frequent formation in Galic text, particularly in Late Galic, where around 12% of all verbs are subjunctive, compared to around 2% or so that are optatives.  They are both dwarfed by the injunctive, which occupies 29% of all finite forms in Galic.  The mode receded in importance after the Galic period, seemingly together with the injunctive, being replaced by the optative in most contexts.
The subjunctive was a reasonably frequent formation in Galic text, particularly in Late Galic, where around 15% of all verbs are subjunctive, compared to around 4% or so that are optatives.  They are both dwarfed by the injunctive, which occupies 29% of all finite forms in Galic.  The mode receded in importance after the Galic period, seemingly together with the injunctive, being replaced by the optative in most contexts.


====Optative====
====Optative====
The optative is the other principal modality apart from the subjunctive.  In terms of functionality, it expresses the wish of the speaker: if in the first person, the speaker wishes themself do something, and in the third, the speaker wishes the named or implied person do so.  It is usually translated into Shalumite as "I wish..." or "would that...", e.g. ''iyā̊'' "I wish you would go".  
The optative is the other principal modality apart from the subjunctive.  In terms of functionality, it expresses the wish of the speaker: if in the first person, the speaker wishes themself do something, and in the third, the speaker wishes the named or implied person do so.  It is usually translated into Shalumite as "I wish..." or "would that...", e.g. ''iyā̊'' "I wish you would go".  


The optative is signified by the suffix -ī-, which ablauts to -yā- under the accent, and to which is added secondary endings.  The accent of the optative is as follows: if the root took mobile accent, the modal suffix takes the accent from the root in the singular active, while the ending takes it in all other forms; if it took persistent accent, the accent remains persistent.  The correspondence between the accent and the full grade form is totally predictable.  Thus, for verbs with persistent accent, the suffix is always -ī-.  While this morpheme looks somewhat like the feminizing suffix, they contain a different prehistoric laryngeal and are, as far as linguists are aware, not related.   
The optative is signified by the suffix -ī-, which ablauts to -yā- under the accent, and to which are added secondary endings.  The accent of the optative is as follows: if the root took mobile accent, the modal suffix takes the accent from the root in the singular active, while the ending takes it in all other forms; if it took persistent accent, the accent remains persistent.  The correspondence between the accent and the full grade form is totally predictable.  Thus, for verbs with persistent accent, the suffix is always -ī-.  While this morpheme looks somewhat like the feminizing suffix, they contain a different prehistoric laryngeal and are, as far as conventional linguistics is aware, not related.   


Within the present system, the optative has the same stem as the present indicative.  In the aorist system, it is formed from the root exclusively in Galic, though later texts may have the optative suffix added to the sigmatic stem.  The perfect optative, like other modal forms of the perfect, is rare in Early Galic but becomes reasonably common in Late Galic and continues to be productive into Epic times.  From whichever stem the optative is made, the secondary endings are always used, even in the perfect.
Within the present system, the optative has the same stem as the present indicative.  In the aorist system, it is formed from the root exclusively in Galic, though later texts may have the optative suffix added to the sigmatic stem.  The perfect optative, like other modal forms of the perfect, is rare in Early Galic but becomes reasonably common in Late Galic and continues to be productive into Epic times.  From whichever stem the optative is made, the secondary endings are always used, even in the perfect.
Line 918: Line 717:


====Imperative====
====Imperative====
The imperative mood encodes the speaker's demands.  The difference from the optative, which encompasses the speaker's mere wish (which the speaker may or may not intend to be fulfilled), is encapsulated in the following timeless quote by Himinastainas:{{quote|It is lawful to say ''xāiiā̊'' but not ''xāδí''.  
The imperative mood encodes the speaker's demands.  The difference from the optative, which encompasses the speaker's mere wish (which the speaker may or may not intend to be fulfilled), is encapsulated in the following timeless quote by Himinastainas:{{quote|mōt ''hāyō'' ak nē ''hāhí'' kweþaną.  


(It is lawful to say "I wish you would kill..." but not to say "kill!")}}
(It is permitted to say "I wish you would kill..." but not to say "kill!")}}


The Northian imperative is a fairly straightforward continuation of the parent language's largely-agreed imperative structure, where there are second and third person forms in the singular, dual, and plural numbers.  The first person imperative is defective, even though it seems at least putatively cogent to use an imperative for the dual and plural numbers, i.e. "let us..."; for this function, the subjunctive is generally used in the singular and the optative in the dual and plural.  The imperative is always positive in tone: a negative demand, i.e. "do not...", is expressed by the injunctive with the particle ''mōy'' "do not".
The Northian imperative is a fairly straightforward continuation of the parent language's largely-agreed imperative structure, where there are second and third person forms in the singular, dual, and plural numbers.  The first person imperative is defective, even though it seems at least putatively cogent to use an imperative for the dual and plural numbers, i.e. "let us..."; for this function, the subjunctive is generally used in the singular and the optative in the dual and plural.  The imperative is always positive in tone: a negative demand, i.e. "do not...", is expressed by the injunctive with the particle ''mōy'' "do not".


As the imperative is built to aspectual stems, it generally expresses aspectual meaning in consort with the co-ordinating indicative; the contrast between present and aorist imperatives is particularly salient when the action differs between a punctual or repetitive nature, such as between "plough" (push the plough once) and "plough" (continuously, as a profession, i.e. to farm).  The grammatical nuance of the perfect imperative depends on the particular verb and often expresses an intense meaning.  Contrast {{smallcaps|pf imp}} ''ānoxzi'' "arrive!" (i.e. "be having come!"), {{smallcaps|pres imp}} ''āzi'' "be coming!", and {{smallcaps|aor imp}} ''naxš'' "come!"  The {{smallcaps|pf imp}} is infrequent in any part of the Galic corpus but consistently formed, particularly for the verb ''woyd-'' "know" in {{smallcaps|3p}}.  The perfect imperative has alternating o- and zero grades of the stem as in the indicative, but the accent recedes onto the reduplicated syllable (if there is one) even in the singular; the {{smallcaps|3 pl}} ending is thus always the zero-grade form -ātū, e.g. ''xáʸžaˀātū'' "let ... exist" < *ǵeǵn̥h₁n̥tu.
As the imperative is built to aspectual stems, it generally expresses aspectual meaning in consort with the co-ordinating indicative; the contrast between present and aorist imperatives is particularly salient when the action differs between a punctual or repetitive nature, such as between "plough" (push the plough once) and "plough" (continuously, as a profession, i.e. to farm).  The grammatical nuance of the perfect imperative depends on the particular verb and often expresses an intense meaning.  Contrast {{smallcaps|pf imp}} ''ānoxzi'' "arrive!" (i.e. "be having come!"), {{smallcaps|pres imp}} ''āzi'' "be coming!", and {{smallcaps|aor imp}} ''naxš'' "come!"   
 
The perfect imperative is infrequent in any part of the Galic corpus but consistently formed, particularly for the verb ''woyd-'' "know" in {{smallcaps|3p}}.  It has two paradigms, one with {{smallcaps|2 sg}} -ti, {{smallcaps|2 pl}} -s, {{smallcaps|3 pl}} -ō, and another that is the same as the present and aorist imperatives.  The perfect imperative has o- and zero grades of the stem, but the accent recedes onto the reduplication syllable (if there is one) even in the singular.  The {{smallcaps|2 pl}} vacillates between the o- and zero grades, with earlier texts preferring the o-grade.  The {{smallcaps|3 pl}} ending is thus always the zero-grade form -ātū, e.g. ''xázaˀātū'' < *ǵéǵn̥h₁n̥tu "let ... exist".


There is a particle -tót that is appended to regular imperative forms to create the "future imperative".  This particle is consistently accented and apparently cancels the recessive accent that characterizes the imperative.
There is a particle -tót that is appended to regular imperative forms to create the "future imperative".  This particle is consistently accented and apparently cancels the recessive accent that characterizes the imperative.
Line 933: Line 734:
#'''Adpositive''': when an injunctive follows another finite verb or a conjunction that implies connection, it usually takes on the same tense and aspect as the finite verb it follows.
#'''Adpositive''': when an injunctive follows another finite verb or a conjunction that implies connection, it usually takes on the same tense and aspect as the finite verb it follows.
#'''Oppositive''': when used after a conjunction that implies contrast, the injunctive usually negates the tense and aspect that is separated by the conjunction.
#'''Oppositive''': when used after a conjunction that implies contrast, the injunctive usually negates the tense and aspect that is separated by the conjunction.
#'''Prohibitive''': following the particle ''mōy'' "do not", the injunctive has the meaning of the imperative; as the imperative is defective in the first person, this construction is also not used in the first person.
#'''Prohibitive''': following the particle ''mōy'' "do not", the injunctive has the meaning of the imperative.
#'''Jussive''': the first person imperative is expressed using the bare injunctive.
#'''Affirmative''': specifically used as a positive answer to a yes-no question.
#'''Gnomic''': when the injunctive does not follow any construction, it is agnostic as to the proper tense and aspect and usually states facts that are always, usually, assumed to be, or in the nature of something to be one way or another; the sense of its current reality is suppressed in comparison to the indicative.
#'''Gnomic''': when the injunctive does not follow any construction, it is agnostic as to the proper tense and aspect and usually states facts that are always, usually, assumed to be, or in the nature of something to be one way or another; the sense of its current reality is suppressed in comparison to the indicative.


One of the more notable instances of the injunctive is in G.Nr. 42: {{quote|''zyā ptər, panti zyā̊ təršt, āmōy βā dəˀəršti.''  
Understanding the various uses of the injunctive is of prime importance to Galic studies, as it is the second most common mood after the indicative, representing 29% of all finite verb forms (the indicative has 42%).  But outside of the Gales, it is actually quite rare and disappears by the middle of the Epic period.  There may be some connection to the genre of the Galic hymns that explains such a large share of injunctives.
 
One of the more notable instances of the injunctive is in G.Nr. 42: {{quote|''zyā ptər, panti zyā̊ təršt, āmōy βā dədəršti.''  


(Father Sky, Sky sees all things, and it sees me.)}}Here, the first "see" is injunctive, and the second "see" is indicative.  This passage is nearly always consulted in essays seeking to explain the usage of the injunctive.
(Father Sky, Sky sees all things, and it sees me.)}}Here, the first "see" is injunctive, and the second "see" is indicative.  This passage is nearly always consulted in essays seeking to explain the usage of the injunctive.
Line 942: Line 747:
While than the prohibitive and gnomic uses survive, the adpositive and oppositive injunctive uses generally disappeared before the Epics, and their functions are captured by the participles and infinitives agreeing with the subject of the finite verb.  The syntax of the injunctive, other than one introduced by "do not", is a murky area of historical Northian literature and, from medieval times, has generated much comment about what their instances in the Gales exactly mean.  Yet because much content of the Galic religion has been lost to history, this context upon which the injunctives are employed is also nearly completely lost, in turn hampering a more precise description of the uses of the injunctive, particularly against a co-ordinating indicative.
While than the prohibitive and gnomic uses survive, the adpositive and oppositive injunctive uses generally disappeared before the Epics, and their functions are captured by the participles and infinitives agreeing with the subject of the finite verb.  The syntax of the injunctive, other than one introduced by "do not", is a murky area of historical Northian literature and, from medieval times, has generated much comment about what their instances in the Gales exactly mean.  Yet because much content of the Galic religion has been lost to history, this context upon which the injunctives are employed is also nearly completely lost, in turn hampering a more precise description of the uses of the injunctive, particularly against a co-ordinating indicative.


Formally, the injunctive is like the modal forms in that it is obligatorily built from the root, except in the present where it optionally takes the present stem if it is reduplicated.  If the root is conjugated with lengthened vowel in the present, the injunctive formation loses the length.  For root present stems, therefore, the injunctive appears merely an unaugmented imperfect; for suffixed verbs, the injunctive loses the suffix.  To the injunctive stem the secondary endings are attached.  The injunctive sometimes irregularly shows full grade throughout the active and middle, where full and zero grades alterate in the indicative; in this shape it thus appears like a subjunctive with secondary, athematic endings.  It has been noted that a "motley of different formations" are classified as "injunctive", and more than a few scholars consider it imprudent to assign a modal label to forms that share nothing but "an absence of diverse characters". Yet as there is yet to be a root that indubitably attests multiple injunctive stems, most manuals describe them as injunctive and assign a standard injunctive form to roots.
Formally, the injunctive is like the modal forms in that it is obligatorily built from the root, except in the present where it optionally takes the present stem if it is reduplicated.  If the root is conjugated with lengthened vowel in the present, the injunctive formation loses the length.  For root present stems, therefore, the injunctive appears merely an unaugmented imperfect; for suffixed verbs, the injunctive loses the suffix.  To the injunctive stem the secondary endings are attached.  The injunctive sometimes irregularly shows full grade throughout the active and middle, where full and zero grades alterate in the indicative; in this shape it thus appears like a subjunctive with secondary, athematic endings.   
 
===Primary stems===
====Present stems====
The present stems, with imperfective or durative aspect, appears to have largely continued the system of reconstructed Proto-Erani-Eracuran.  With regard to the history of Northian, the imperfective stem was the most productive, buttressed by many derivational strategies that specified this aspect.  Each strategy designates either athematic or thematic endings be used, which are synchronically arbitrary. 
 
After the influential grammarian Praetorianius (fl. 1200s), the present stems in Northian are classified by the length of their endings, with unenlarged ones listed first (-mi, -ō) and most enlarged ones last (-nawmi); amongst the stems taking the plain ending, the most complex stems appear first (fully-reduplicated intensives), to the simplest stems (root stems).  For the convenience of perusal, a more etymological classification that fully distinguishes between suffix and ending is also presented.
 
At the heart of Praetorianius's understanding of the verbal system is his analysis of all finite verb into a combination of a ''xaput'' "head" (giving meaning) and a ''ϑénū'' "body" (giving function).  On the one hand, this gave him the insight that some roots, superficially different, are really varieties of each other, differing only by a vowel; this insight peers into the same phenomenon as that termed the ''guṇa'' and ''vṛddhi'' by Kankrit grammarians.  On the other hand, Praetorianius did not segment his "bodies" into suffixes and simpler personal endings, resulting in many co-equal sets of "bodies" that not only blended the suffix and ending but sometimes even part of the etymological root itself; that is, to Praetorianius, the {{smallcaps|1 sg}} endings -āmi and -mi were equivalents, as much as -mi and -ō were. 
 
Phonetic opaqueness and the loss of semantic difference in suffixes are responsible for his inability to analyze his "bodies" further.  As an example of this mis-segmentation, Praetorianius analyzed the word ''nawāsi'' "renews" as naw-āsi but also ''hānāsi'' "swims" as hān-āsi.  In the former case, the suffix (now known to be descended from the factitive suffix *-eh₂-) along with the ending is understood to constitute the "body"; yet in the latter case, the ā is actually part of the etymological root *sneh₂-, via its reduplicated stem *sesneh₂- > *haznā- > hānā-.  The pattern of singular -āsi and plural -ité is strengthened by other "bodies" that have similar shapes.  There is circumstantial evidence that Praetorianius may have been aware of the etymological issues with his analysis, but he may have been constrained by previous tradition in his description.
 
Many athematic stems display ablaut, and in Northian it is customary to give the first person singular active to show the form of the strong stem and the second person plural, the weak stem.  Where a stem does not display ablaut, only the first person singular active is given.  These forms, that is {{smallcaps|1 sg}} and {{smallcaps|2 pl}}, are chosen with the view they might exemplify the more frequent superficial forms in the received texts.  Aside from them, the {{smallcaps|3 pl}} is regularly irregular owing to the vowel-initial shape of the ending, and the {{smallcaps|1 du}} triggers some (at least) orthographic variations that are, for the most part, well-described by simple rules.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!style="width:2em"| # ||style="width:10em"| Class !!style="width:13em"| Pre-form !! Function !!style="width:15em"| Examples
|-
| I || Intensives || CoC-C<font color="red">é</font>C-mi || These denote repetitive actions.  Historically, these are certainly derived stems, but Praetorianius understood them as separate lexical items.  Interestingly, the early intensives were athematic and were thematized in the historical era.
|-
| II ||rowspan="2"| Reduplicated || Ci-C<font color="red">é</font>C-mi / Ci-C<font color="red">Ø</font>C-té <br> Cé-C<font color="red">e</font>C-mi / Cé-C<font color="red">Ø</font>C-te || Reduplication made present stems from aorist roots.  They always show root ablaut, varying between *e ~ Ø.  The accent is on the root if it is in full-grade, and on the ending if the root is in zero-grade. A sub-type of this class, not associated with root aorists and not separately classified by Praetorianus, had an accent that persisted on the reduplication vowel, which is /é/ rather than /i/. ||
|-
| III || Cí-CØC-ōḥ || Like the athematic verbs in class III, these are present stems formed from aorist roots, but with thematic endings.  The root syllable is in zero-grade.  The accent is consistently on the reduplication syllable. Some athematic verbs were transferred into this class during the historical period. || 
|-
| IV || Nasal infix || CR̥-n<font color="red">é</font>-C-mi / CR̥-n<font color="red">Ø</font>-C-té || Associated with root aorists, the infix *-né ~ n- is inserted between the vowel and final consonant of the root.  The root itself is always in the zero-grade, while the infix undergoes ablaut, which likewise has a full-grade vowel in the singular active and zero-grade elsewhere.  Roots which take this infix obligatorily have a resonant before the infix, and the resonant vocalizes but never the infix itself in zero grade.  Praetorianius classified roots ending in laryngeals with this formation with the -nā́mi class, as to him the long vowel generated was part of the ending and not the root.  ||
|-
| V || rowspan="4"| Root || C<font color="red">ḗ</font>C-mi / C<font color="red">é</font>C-te || These roots show a lengthened root vowel in the singular active and the full grade in all other forms.  The accent persists over the root syllable in all forms, at least in the indicative.  || ˀēs- "to sit, stay"
|-
| VI || C<font color="red">é</font>C-mi / C<font color="red">Ø</font>C-té || These roots, the commonest, show a full-grade vowel in the root in the singular active and a zero-grade root in the other forms; the accent is over the root where it is in full grade, and over the ending when the root is in zero grade.  || ˀes- "to be"
|-
|rowspan="2"| VII || CØC-ṓḥ || This marginally-attested class binds the thematic endings to the zero-grade root, which have aorist origin.  Praetorianius called them "like-subjunctives" after subjunctive forms of other verbs, which could also take the zero-grade root. ||
|-
| CéC-ōḥ || This even more marginally-attested class, of which only six members are known, has thematic endings to the full-grade root.  Its rarity stands in contrast with its frequency in other Erani-Eracuran languages, and none of the six members have clear cognates at the stem level in the language family.  ||
|-
|rowspan="3"| VIII || -imi / -umi || 1. C<font color="red">é</font>C-i-mi / C<font color="red">Ø</font>C-i-té <br>2. C<font color="red">é</font>C-u-mi / C<font color="red">Ø</font>C-u-té || A number of present stems have a non-ablauting -i- or -u- added between root and ending, of no discernable function.  In the {{smallcaps|3 pl act}} the endings are -ánti and -ónti respectively. All verbs of this class that have active forms have mobile accent, but some deponents in this class have persistent accent on the root instead.  Before endings that begin with vowels, the suffixes become consonants.  Moreover, for the formation of subjunctive, the suffixal -i and -u, as non-ablauting suffixes, do not drop in Galic, e.g. ''tāyate'' "you (pl.) may distribute".  || taˀ-i- "distribute" <br> štaˀ-u- "stand up"
|-
| rowspan="2"| -yō || CéC-y-ōḥ || It is uncertain why Praetorianius classified this thematic formation with the semivowel athematic ones; they are apparently quite different. This very prolific suffix creates present stems from aorist roots.  They characteristically had a full-grade and consistently-accented root.  Under {{wp|Sievers's law}}, this suffix has the allomorph -iy- after heavy syllables, that is to say those containing a long vowel or closed by two or more consonants.  || špah-y-a- "observe, spectate"
|-
| CØC-y-ṓḥ || Similar to the above, but this type had a zero-grade root and consistently accented endings.  Together with this fact is observed that the root aorists from which these stems derive most often lack an active voice, even though their meanings may be active; the zero-grade root characterizing root aorists middle voice is held to explain the presence of the zero-grade root in the derived present stem, even if it acquires an active voice there.  ||
|-
|rowspan="2"| IX ||rowspan="2"| -smi || CéC-s-ōḥ || This is a thematization of the class below. ||
|-
| C<font color="red">ḗ</font>C-s-mi / C<font color="red">é</font>C-s-te || Only a few examples are known from this class, with suffix -s- of unclear function.  The suffix accompanies the same long-short vowel ablaut contrast that is also known in the aorist. ||
|-
| X || -aʸmi || C<font color="red">é</font>CH-mi / C<font color="red">Ø</font>CH-té <br> Ce-C<font color="red">é</font>CH-mi / Ce-C<font color="red">Ø</font>CH-té || These verbs have a stem-final laryngeal following a consonant.  This laryngeal vocalizes regularly and is mutated by any following vowel /i/ separated by a resonant.  There are also reduplicated verbs behaving this way.  The special case is for reduplicated roots ending in laryngeal that take pesistent accent: as the root never takes the full grade, the zero-grade root behaves exactly like full-grade roots ending in a stop plus laryngeal.  They may also be regarded as a sub-type of the stems that have an ablauting vowel in front of the laryngeal—their zero-grade forms are identical. ||
|-
|rowspan="2"| XI ||rowspan="2"| -ā́mi || C<font color="red">é</font>H-mi / C<font color="red">Ø</font>H-té<br>CVC-<font color="red">é</font>H-mi / CVC-<font color="red">Ø</font>H-té || This class is a combination of multiple types of verbs that ended in an ablauting vowel and laryngeal.  They descend from suffixed factitives in *-h₂-, statives in *-eh₁-, and any non-suffixed roots that merely happened to end in the same sequence of sounds.  Praetorianius wistfully notes the same vowel of the singular active "haunts" the {{smallcaps|3 pl}} and subjunctive.  *-h₂- attached to e-, u-, and i-stems created stems in -ā́mi, -ūmi, and -īmi.  *-h₂- also caused a following -t to become aspirated (thus {{smallcaps|2 du act}} -āϑāḫ), but -h₁ did not.||
|-
| Ci-C<font color="red">é</font>H-mi / Ci-C<font color="red">Ø</font>H-té || The same, but with reduplication.  || dé-δōˀ- "give"
|-
| XII || -nā́mi || CØ-n<font color="red">é</font>H-mi / CØ-n<font color="red">Ø</font>H-té<br>CØC-n<font color="red">é</font>H-mi / CØC-n<font color="red">Ø</font>-té || These behave in exactly the same way as XI, except with an extra -n-. || xr̥β-nāˀ- "seize"
|-
| XIII || -(n)ammi || C<font color="red">é</font>w-mi / C<font color="red">Ø</font>w-té<br>CØC-n<font color="red">é</font>w-mi / CØC-n<font color="red">Ø</font>w-té || The suffixed items are underlyingly similar to the suffixed items in XI, but with an extant -w in place of a prehistoric laryngeal.  The suffix created present stems from roots of aorist origin.  XIII also contains roots that naturally end in -w, which are root stems but have similar endings to the ones with a suffix ending in -w.  It seems Praetorianius classified them separately owing to the phonetic aterations that -(n)aw ~ (n)w- undergoes before endings, which are quite drastic in some positions.  In weak forms, the suffix developed very different preconsonantal and prevocalic allophones.  The suffixed verbs drop the suffix to form the non-indicative voices.  || xraw- "hear" <br> xr̥-naw- "to make"
|}
 
====Aorist stems====
The aorist stems are a relic class in Epic Northian, and there they generally expressed a simple past tense; their modal forms were rarely used except as part of fixed constructions.  Aorists were more copious and flexible in the Galic language and commensurately showed more formations.  The present system opposes the singular active to the other persons and the middle, generally with e-grade in the former and zero in the latter.  Aorists showed a greater degree of productive variation in their ablaut dispositions, with 1) all full grade except the {{smallcaps|3 pl}}, 2) long grade in the singular active and short elsewhere, and 3) the same as the present.  While most indicative stems in the present also underlie the modal forms, this is unusual in the aorist, whose modal forms are more often than not made from the root, i.e. much as the present stems with ablauting suffixes.


{| class="wikitable"
It has been noted that a "motley of different formations" are classified as "injunctive", and more than a few scholars consider it imprudent to assign a modal label to forms that share nothing but "an absence of diverse characters". Yet as there is yet to be a root that indubitably attests multiple injunctive stems, most manuals describe them as injunctive and assign a standard injunctive form to roots.
|-
!style="width:2em"| # ||style="width:10em"| Class !!style="width:13em"| Pre-form !! Function !!style="width:15em"| Examples
|-
| 1a ||rowspan="4"| Root || C<font color="red">é</font>C-m̥ / C<font color="red">é</font>C-te || Contains native aorist roots.  Most aorists in the parent language appear to have been of this type, and the Gales also attest hundreds.  The root syllable regularly shows ablaut between *e ~ Ø, but with the {{smallcaps|3 pl}} being the sole member of the paradigm that showed the zero grade.  This type had strong correspondences with present stems with ablauting suffixes. ||
|-
| 1b || C<font color="red">ḗ</font>C-m̥ / C<font color="red">é</font>C-té || The same, but with ablaut variants in long and short grades.  This type was comparatively rare, about as rare as the long/short present stems to the normal type.  In Northian this type was often in free variation with the s-aorist, which only exists in the indicative, though a few appear exclusively in this class.||
|-
| 1c || C<font color="red">é</font>H-m̥ / C<font color="red">Ø</font>H-té<br>C<font color="red">é</font>CH-m̥ / C<font color="red">Ø</font>CH-té || This class is underlyingly the same, but with a root-final laryngeal.  There are two types, one with laryngeal following vowel, showing {{smallcaps|sing act}} endings -ā̊, -ā̊, -āt, and another with laryngeal following consonant, showing endings -am, -iš, -iṯ.  The surface endings for both types elsewhere were identical. ||
|-
| 1d || C<font color="red">é</font>C-m̥ / C<font color="red">é</font>C-te || A particular subtype of root aorists that otherwise are the same as the 1a type are the ''xəŋzāt''-verbs ("they hang [smth] up"), which take an anomalous e-grade in the root in the {{smallcaps|3 pl}}. For several reasons, these are considered an archaicism rather than an innovation: the root aorist ablaut was stable until the category disappeared, and they generally made perfect stems with present meaning, e.g. eponymous ''xázāzr̥'' < *kékn̥kr̥ "they are hanging". ||
|-
| 2 || Thematic || CØC-õm || This non-ablauting type took thematic secondary endings, combined with a zero-grade root. || lud- "listen"
|-
| 3 || Reduplicated || Cé-CØC-õm || This pattern is known from only one root, though it is widely-attested in other Erani-Eracuran languages. || və̄d- "say"
|-
| 4a ||rowspan="3"| s- || C<font color="red">ḗ</font>C-s-m̥ / C<font color="red">é</font>C-s-te || The s- suffix signifies aorist tense for roots of present origin. {{smallcaps|sing act}} endings -zam/-ham, -s, -št. ||
|-
| 4b || C<font color="red">ḗ</font>CH-s-m̥ / C<font color="red">é</font>CH-s-te || This has the same prehistoric structure as the above, but to laryngeal-final roots, {{smallcaps|sing act}} endings -ižam, -iš, -išt. || 
|-
| 4c || C<font color="red">ḗ</font>H-s-m̥ / C<font color="red">é</font>H-s-te || This type evolved from roots that ended in laryngeal following a vowel, which is always long: in the {{smallcaps|sing act}} the length is due to the ablaut of the sigmatic stem, and elsewhere to the laryngeal that follows. {{smallcaps|sing act}} endings -ēžam, -ēs, -ēšt.  Thus the sigmatic aorists built to -CH and -VH roots differ from the situation of root aorists of these two shapes.  Later in history, these two types have different evolutions.   ||
|}


====Perfect stems====
===Participles===
The features of the perfect stem in the parent language were reduplication and the o-vocalism in the perfect indicative.  This is generally true of Northian as well.  In general, the classes of perfect stems are not numbered, as there are few of them.
Each verbal stem is usually capable of forming a corresponding participle or verbal adjective.  


The most interesting feature of the Northian perfect, which otherwise is consonant with the one found in the other daughter languages, is that other than woyd- "know" there are ten other perfect stems that are not reduplicated.  All of these are of aorist origin (that is forming a root aorist) and seven are ''xaŋzat'' verbs, which have the morpheme -r in their {{smallcaps|3 pl}} subjunctive and optative forms that is shared with the perfect ending -ō < *-er-s.  This suggests that there could either be a special link between the ''xaŋzat'' aorists with the perfect or between the aorist system and the perfect that somehow obviates the need for reduplication, though the evidence is considered too thin for a firm conclusion.  It is cautioned that ''most'' aorist roots, when deriving a perfect, are reduplicated; as well, not all ''xaŋzat'' verbs are unreduplicated in the perfect.
For all present and aorist active stems, the participle utilized the affix -nt- and followed the accentual pattern of the verb. Athematic verbs with mobile accent had participles with mobile accent, with accent over the -nt- syllable in the strong cases and the ending in others.  Verbs with static accent and reduplicated verbs in the present or aorist had participles consistently accented on the root syllable.
*{{smallcaps|'''m'''}} ''həs, zatō''; {{smallcaps|'''f'''}} ''həntī, zasiiā̊''
*{{smallcaps|'''m'''}} ''xrbaHas, xrbaHatō''; {{smallcaps|'''f'''}} ''xrbaHantī, xrbaHāsiiā̊''
*{{smallcaps|'''m'''}} ''wēnas, wēnatō''; {{smallcaps|'''f'''}} ''wēnasī, wēnasī''
*{{smallcaps|'''m'''}} ''krnuuəs, krnuntō''; {{smallcaps|'''f'''}} ''krnuuəntī, krnunsiiā̊''


{| class="wikitable"
The perfect stem formed its own participle using the ablauting suffix -us-. Unlike the present/aorist active participle, the perfect participle had an amphikinetic pattern.
!style="width:13em"| Class !!style="width:13em"| Pre-form !! Function !!style="width:15em"| Examples
*{{smallcaps|'''m'''}} ''βeβoiduš, βeβidušō'' and {{smallcaps|'''nom pl'''}} ''βeβizuuoHā''
|-
| root || C<font color="red">ó</font>C-a / C<font color="red">Ø</font>C-é || This type is known from only eleven verbs, but amongst which the only to be traced back to the parent language with certainty is woyd- "know".  The ten other perfect stems that show no reduplication are ''all'' of aorist origin, and seven are ''xaŋzat''-aorists.  Accent is on the root syllable for strong forms, and endings for weak forms.  The participle of this formation is amphikinetic rather than the hysterokinetic formation that is common to all other perfect stems. ||style="width:15em"| woyd- "know" <br> mon- "remember"
|-
| reduplicated || Ce-C<font color="red">ó</font>C-a / Ce-C<font color="red">Ø</font>C-é ||  Creates stative stems from perfective and imperfective roots.  An extra syllable is prefixed, consisting of the consonant immediately preceding the next vowel and the vowel *e.  Due to phonetic change, this vowel can appear as ''o'' following a labialized consonant or become more obscure if a lost consonant such as a laryngeal is reduplicated, cf. ''aˀōha'' "am desiccated" < PEE *h₂e-h₂oh₂s-h₂e.  The strong forms have characteristic accented o-grade in the root syllable and zero-grade there in the weak forms with accented endings.  || ke-kor- "be working"<br> a-ōs- "be desiccated"
|-
| long-vowel || Ce-CṓC-a / Ce-CóC-i || This type may have developed in Northian on the pattern of the sigmatic aorist as it has no like cognates in other branches of the language.  It contrasts a long vowel in the strong forms and a short vowel in the weak, and the vowel is often, but not always, the ''o'' that is characteristic of the perfect. ||
|}
 
===Derivative stems===
The Northian verb knows many standard derivations, called "adjunct verbs" by Praetorianius.  Derivative stems could be divided into several groups: some are formed from the verbal root directly, others to already-derived stems (deverbal), and still others to nouns and adjectives (denominal).  Other than the future and inchoative, most of these derivatives had a -y- element in them.
 
While many of these derivatives did not exist or were very rare in Galic text, their number greatly increased after the Didaskalic period and come to flower in the Epics of the 7th through 4th centuries BCE.  After Epic times, derivative verbs completely ecclipsed and replaced athematic primary verbs.  Thus, while athematic verbs were some 70% of all verbs stems and 92% of verb instances in the Gales, in medieval literature only a few athematic remained in use, amongst which the verb ''ešti'' "is" has the lion's share.  In fact, the ''yod'' or -y- verbs are the dominant group in modern Northian, to be traced to secondary verbs in the parent language.
 
The present and aorist passive forms, which took middle endings, often back-formed a thematic active that replaced the original athematic active.  Doubtlessly such forms were invented in the wake of the flourishing of denominative and causative verbs based on a -y- element, formally similar to the passive, but which had active forms.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!style="width:2em"| # ||style="width:10em"| Class !!style="width:13em"| Pre-form !! Function !!style="width:15em"| Examples
|-
| 1 || -ištō future || CéC-h₁s-ō || Consists of the root in full grade and the suffix -s, to which is added thematic endings. ||
|-
| 2 || -ištō future perfect || Ce-CéC-h₁s-ō || This derivation is identical to the one above, but used on the perfect stem.  ||
|-
| 1 || -ištō reduplicated || Ci-CC-h₁s-ō || This future derivation was restricted to reduplicated verbs in the present, with a handful of exceptions. ||
|-
| 12 || -išyō desiderative || CóC-h₁sy-ōḥ || Stems of this class have root syllables in the o-grade.  ||
|-
| 12 || -hō inchoative || CóC-sk-ōḥ || This formed a secondary inchoative stem to verb stems.  ||
|-
| 12 || -áyō causative || CóC-ay-ōḥ || This derivative stem required the root syllable in o-grade.  ||
|-
| 2 || -yṓe passive I || -y-oh₂ey ||  The -y- element was used here to create a specialized passive voice that is apart from the middle.  The suffix embraces the present stem in whatever shape it may have, even if it has an existing primary or secondary suffix.  Thus, causatives, inchoatives, desideratives, and future stems could appear before this suffix derivation, all with a very standard passive meaning.  ||
|-
| 3 || -šyṓe passive II || -s-y-oh₂ey || This type had the same -y- element as above but appended to the sigmatic aorist stem, signifying the passive of the aorist. ||
|-
|   || -tāyṓe perfect passive || Ce-CéC-t-eh₁-y-oh₂ey || Except by the element -t-, this formation was synchronically identical to the -āyṓ denominatives; however, in the Epics, it was paired with an athematic participle in *-t-n̥t > -dāt.  Thus a denominal origin recommends itself, as the perfect formed a verbal adjective with passive meaning with the suffix -tō.
|-
| 15 || -yṓ denominative || -y-ṓ ||rowspan="3"| These three classes originate with a simple -y- suffix, added to athematic, o-stem, and ā-stem nouns respectively.  Their characteristic was an accented thematic vowel. ||
|-
| 15 || -ayṓ denominative || -ey-ṓ ||
|-
| 16 || -āyṓ denominative || -eh₂y-ṓ ||
|}


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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*[[Northian language]]
*[[Northian language]]
**[[Northian nominals]]
**[[Northian nominals]]
**[[Northian adjectives]]
**[[Northian verbs]]
**[[Northian verbs]]
**[[Epic Northian grammar]]


[[Category:DNS]]
[[Category:DNS]]

Latest revision as of 00:10, 27 July 2024

Northian grammar is highly synthetic and fusional. This page aims to cover some of the more technical and historical points regarding Northian garmmar, specifically that of its oldest form, Early Galic Northian. The coverage will take a systemic, bird's eye view for the most part, relegating specific conjugational and declensional paradigms on appendical pages Northian nominals and Northian verbs.

Northian grammar, particularly in nouns, has been important to the reconstruction of Proto-Erani-Eracuran owing to its conservativeness. Though the Galic corpus is hardly large, its 12,000 or so words have been endorsed by historical linguists as a trove of relics that are either unique or corroborating forms for unique items elsewhere. As C. Cloverdale said, "Northian Gales are valued in this science for their fidelity in transmission and consistency in grammar." However, the outward conservativeness of Northian is attributed to the early date of its compositions, where archaic formations are expected, and its exceptional position in the field owes mainly to the fidelity of the transmission that has prevented the loss of relics.

Historical development

Main article: History of Northian

Nominals

See also: Northian nominals

The category of nominals in Northian encompasses nouns, adjectives, pronouns, demonstratives, reflexives, and certain adverbs. They are considered to belong to this class as they undertook similar grammatical processes and showed the same set of endings.

Endings

Athematic

The following chart recapitulates the ordinary endings of athematic nouns in Galic Northian. Because the ablative is syncretized with the genitive in the singular, with the dative and instrumental in the dual, and with the dative in the plural, it is usually not listed separately in grammatical tables for athematic nouns.

Forms are often unpredictable and variable under the influence of ablaut, laryngeals reflexes, analogy, vowel contraction, and compensatory lengthening for illegal consonant clusters in coda position. All endings are subject to modification according to the suffix. OX stands for the oxytone group of patterns, and PX for the paroxytone group. Certain neuter nouns take a collective ending; these nouns are not formally predictable. Because neuter nouns always have the same nominative and accusative forms, only their nominative endings will be listed, and in grey. Other than root nouns, there are virtually no neuter nouns that take the OX pattern; as such, their endings are listed together with the PX stems.

The cells listed in gree are typically paired with the full-grade noun stem, and the orange ones only sometimes; these do not apply for nouns with invariant stems.

Athematic endings
Singular Dual Plural Collective
OX PX NTR OX PX NTR M/F NTR
Nominative -ō, -ā̊, -s -s, -š -Ø -ōi, -ā, -ō -i, -ī, -ū, -ōi -ī, -Ø, -ū -aH, -aHaH -a, -i, -ō -ō
Vocative -Ø
Accusative -m, -n, -ā̆, -ā̊, -ō, -ōi -ā̊, -ā, -ō, -ūš, -ī
Locative -Ø, -i -Hō -Hū -hū, -šū -Ø
Genitive -ō, -ā̊, -ā -š, -ō, -ŋh, -ā̊, -Ø -Huš, -Hū, -Hā, -Hō -Hõm
Ablative -mō -muš
Dative -ā -i
Instrumental -ōi -i, -Ø -(m)βyō, -(m)βiyō, -βiš, -βīš

nom sing nntr A general discussion of the athematic declension cannot omit the comment that, while many divergent forms are phonetically conditioned, there too are divergences resulting from divergent proto-forms. In no other place is this statement truer than in the nominative singular.

The marker of the nominative singular has been a tormented subject, in part also for the radical schism on the parent language's morphosyntactic alignment. By sole comparison, animate (= masculine and feminine) nouns may have been in the proto-language sigmatic, that is ending in *-s, or asigmatic, that is without final *-s and taking a long-grade suffix; as root nouns had no suffix, they were (at least thought to have been) obligatorily marked by *-s. Neuter nouns, in contrast, generally have the zero-grade of the suffix in the nominative and correspond well with the accent.

Because the long-grade and final -s are mostly in complimentary distribution, some authorities regard the long-grade as the legacy of compensatory lengthening having dropped final *-s after a resonant, but others hold there was no *-s originally and attribute the long vowel to ablaut variation sensitive to the case. On the other hand, there are also nouns that have an exceptional zero-grade suffix, e.g. hanuš "jaw" and notoriously ϑeɣā "earth", and some of these could not have had *-s. There are also forms that show simultaneous *-s and the long-grade ending, in some root nouns and the present/aorist active participle *-ōnt-s. Some such forms in root nouns appear to have been results of monosyllabic lengthening, though this process cannot explain the forms that are not monosyllabic.

In Northian, final *-s has been suffixed to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistory, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution; many words have alternative forms differing by -s. We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants.

  1. -s is always present and surfaces as -š after *i- and *u- in animate nouns, and its absence in these stems indicates neuter gender, both instance without regard to ablaut pattern.
  2. Final *-s was absent in resonant-stems (-m, -n, -r, -l), whose nom. sing. was often signified by lengthened o-grade in OX and PX (though a few nouns have zero-grade). The long final syllable ending in a resonant was then opened, giving rise to -ā̊ and -ō.
  3. After obstruents the distribution of *-s is not predictable: bā̊ "wife" and ϑənū "body" were asigmatic, but āβrtās "immortality" certainly had *-s.

In OX resonant stems, the lengthened o-grade is altered prehistorically by the opening of closed long syllables ending in a resonant.

voc sing The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases. Where the nom. had *-s it is dropped, and where it did not the voc. is the full- or short-vowel-grade.

acc sing nntr In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m and, as the morph contained no vowel, could theoretically not bear an original accent; this rule is violated by the semivowel (i-, u-) stems, where the vocalized vowel usually does bear accent.

Normal ending. In stems ending in non-resonants, the ending is vocalized as -m̥ > -ā̆, length varying according to Cloverdale's law.

Ending after semivowels. For the semivowel i- and u-stems, the accusative singular ended in -in and -um. Technically, these forms violate the normal vocalization pattern, which requires the first sonorant from the right in a sequence of multiple to vocalize when not bordering a true vowel; under this canon words like huiium are expected to be *huuiuuā̆, since both semivowels and nasals are sonorants. Semivowels are not preferred to nasals in vocalization in other places, viz. krauuati vs. karənute (reflex of *-nu- in the proto-language bolded). For this and other considerations, the semivowels are often deemed an anomalous class of athematic nouns, and indeed some view them as i-thematic and u-thematic, respectively, given the observed overriding tendency to preserve the semivowel as vowel at all other costs.

Ending after long vowels. If the stem contained a long vowel, such as effected by compensatory lengthening for the deletion of like consonants or Stang's law after *y, *w, and *m, the deletion of codas yielded -ā̊, -ō, or -ōi, e.g. ziiōi < *dyēm. This is particularly salient in the case of n-stems, where the accusative singular was in long vowel.

loc sing The locative generally took the accusative stem and either added final -i or was endingless. Thus, for PX nouns, the locative and dative were often syncretized. For the effects of -i on the preceding vowel, see dat. sing. entry.

gen sing In OX the gen. singular nearly always ends in -ō < *-os; its consistency led grammarians to consider it a feature of the OX declension. But there are a handful of instances where the genitive ending was -ā, which only occurs sporadically in the environment of *-h₂es > *-ah. Thus, both alloforms of the genitive singular in the parent language were inherited into Northian, but where *-es did not follow *h₂ it was replaced wholesale by *-os, so the original distribution of the two forms cannot be readily detected from Northian.

In PX, the ending *-s when attached to the stem generated a motley of forms, and this (compared to OX) irregularity in turn is deemed the feature of PX nouns. The Northian evidence is important to the phonetic process Szemerényi's law: by its regular operation, final *-s is dropped after resonants and lengthens the preceding vowel, but in Northian as in most languages, restorations are common. In n-stems, *-s was either not dropped or was early on restored and became something like a glottal stop, as in puwaŋh < *ph₂wén-s = fire's; yet in the in- and un-stems, *-s was not restored, resulting in gen. endings -ī and -ū, obtained by *-in-s and *-un-s.

In liquid stems, final *-s is usually retroflexed, as in māϑrš < PEE *meh₂tr̥s. If the stem contained a long vowel, usually indicating a laryngeal, the result is -ā̊ < *-ās, e.g. zñiϑriyā̊. In s-stems, the ending generally disappears, e.g. mā̊ < *mn̥s-s. In the semivowel stems (i- and u-) the ending *-s, obeying Szemerényi's law, disappeared and caused compensatory lengthening. But such long diphthongs in final position, as in other long syllables closed by resonants, lost the final glide, giving in the i-stems the ending *-ei̯-s > -ā and u-stems *-ou̯-s > -ō. For at least the u-stems, the intermediate form *-ōw must have obtained, since a following enclitic *-kʷe delabializes to -ke.

abl sing For all athematic nouns, the ablative singular was syncretized wtih the genitive singular.

dat sing In OX the dat. sigular ending was originally *-ei̯. This ending susceptible to colouring by a preceding *h₂- or *h₃-, as well as the influence of i̯- and *u̯-, to become -ai and -oi respectively.

In PX, the ending was regularly *-i. But this ending was replaced by the OX ending in the i-stems early. For all nasal and laryngeal stems, the ending -i caused a preceding /e/ or /a/ to mutate to /i/ and /ai/ (written <aē>). For stems ending in -n, the -n sandwiched between i became /ñ/. In nouns of the type taēuuī, the ending was full-grade even if the PX endings are otherwise employed, and there it appears after the suffix as -iiaē. In all cases the dat. singular ending following a vowel was a separate syllable. In u-stems, the ending is dropped just like final *-s of the genitive; the result is identical forms for the gen., dat., and loc. in the singular.

ins sing The OX ending -ōi for the ins. singular originated as *-eh₁ in the proto-language. This ending is rarely problematic by phonological processes, but it is liable to be replaced in some stems, e.g. endings -ī and -ū in the i- and u-stems respectively, from the PX declension. The PX ending evolved from *-h₁. This ending was preserved only after plosives as -a. Following resonants, the preceding vowel was lengthened and opened. Following laryngeals, it disappeared.

nom-voc-acc du For animate nouns in plosives and resonant stems, the du. ending for all direct cases in OX was generally -ōi < *-ē, which is coloured in the usual ways to -ā and -ō, which do not mutate. After stems ending in laryngeals, there are concomitant spelling changes. In semivowel stems and all PX stems, the ending -a is visible after only after plosives, as it had the proto-form of *-h₁. After i- and u-stems stems, the ending was dropped causing the preceding vowel to lengthen, e.g. dorū. After laryngeals, it disappeared.

nom-acc du ntr For all neuter nouns, other than the u-stems, the ending was -ī.

voc du nntr Northian has a unique vocative in the dual, which is -ū, appearing only sometimes. The ancestry of the form is debated, and recent conclusions hold that while superficially similar to loc du -ū, it is associated instead with recessive accent and is not length-variable, suggesting *-u-H, which could be an ablaut variant of something given the recessive accent.

loc du In OX the loc du ending was -ō < *-ou̯. In PX, the ending was -ū, which developed from original *-u lengthened in final position.

gen du The proto-form of the dual genitive is sometimes considered that of the locative with added *-s at the end, borrowed from the singular. Thus in OX the ending was usually -ō < *-ōw < *-ou̯-s, which was identical to the loc. form even in sandhi. But in some instances, the loc. form takes the strong grade stem, which provides a difference with the gen. In PX, the ending was -uš, which like the locative dissimilated to *-āḫ if there was a preceding u. In this case, the ending was -ō. For the feminine nouns ending in *-eh₂, which are athematic in origin, the ending was a special -ō < *-eu̯s; see below.

The gen. du., unlike any of the other oblique cases outside the locative, was sometimes a strong case taking the full grade of the suffix. It has been argued the weak stem was replaced to disambiguate this form from the gen. sing. and that the strong grade was taken over from the collective; if the latter be true, the practice would probably be ancient. But neither explanation has received general acclaim because very few items are attested uniquely in the strong stem.

abl-dat-ins du These three forms were syncretized in Northian as -mō.

nom-voc pl nntr There were two proto-forms here. The simplex ending in full grade was *-es, regularly > -aH. However, if it followed a stem ending in -w or (in some cases) -uH, w-colouring operates and generates -ō instead. A zero-grade version of this ending *-s is also found following -iH and (likely secondarily) -uH. In sandhi, the uncoloured ending can appear as -eš or -ē. The simplex ending -ā is attested only rarely, possibly because it was similar to the thematic nom pl ntr ending -ā.

Instead, the form -aHaH is seen, representing reduplicated < *-es-es.

nom-voc pl ntr The ending prehistorically was *-h₂. After -m, it became -ă, and after any other stop, -i. In the n- and s-stems, the laryngeal dropped and triggered compensatory lengthening of the full-grade suffix vowel. The resulting syllable was subsequently opened and became -ō in the n-stems (fnumō < *pnew-men-h₂) and -ā̊ for es-stems (neβā̊ < *nebʰ-es-h₂). In the i- and u-stems, the ending caused the zero-grade stem vowel to lengthen, resulting in endings -ī and -ū. After another laryngeal, the ending disappeared without a trace, e.g. oštō < *h₁osth₁-h₁.

acc pl nntr This ending was derived from *-m̥s following consonants or *-ms following vowels. In the case of semivowel stems, which occur in the weak grade in this form: for *-i-ms, the resulting ending was just -ī, except uniquely in the word for "three", where it remains as -īš (not *-īs!); for *-u-ms, the outcome was regularly -ū. That the pre-form contained *-ms rather than *-ns is argued to indicate Northian was more archaic than most other daughter languages, which mostly show the reflex of *-ms > *-ns; in Northian, *-ms is diagnosed because at least *-ums seems to have a different reflex than *-uns, which occurs regularly in the wn-stems of nouns and becomes -ənh.

For consonant stems, the vocalization of *-n̥s (not distinguishable in this context from *-m̥s) is regular under Cloverdale's Law, where a syllabic resonant's surface quantity depends on the preceding syllable's (underlying) weight. Thus, where it was underlyingly heavy, the form *-ah > *-ā is created, and where it was light, *-āh > -ā̊ is used instead. Yet due to analogical replacement of the stem, the syllable on which the ending is based is not always present, and so the ending is not synchronically predictable; since the weak stem tends to replace the strong in this position, the combination of a heavy ending with a heavy stem is common. Additionally, a vocalized resonant that is superficially long under Cloverdale's Law still counts as a short vowel for the purposes of other instances of Cloverdale's Law.

Ending in nasal-stems. Since the ending -ms began with a nasal, it is susceptible to assimilation and then deletion in nasal-stems. Thus the acc pl ending of n-stems was -əŋh < *-ens rather than *-enn̥s, while that of the m-stems was (at least originally) -ōi < *-ems rather than *-emm̥s, but the two were interchangeable since early times.

The form of the acc pl was evidently a driving factor in the replacement of the simple nom pl ending, which had also become *-ah under the colouring influence of *-h, and it became reduplicated as *-ahah in most contexts, leaving *-ah as an irregular alternative. The form -ō is used in the laryngeal stems, though it is disputed whether this is merely an orthographical alteration to avoid contraction of like vowels or a genuine sound change.

gen pl The ending was consistently -õm.

abl-dat pl The ending was -muš.

ins pl The ending evidently consisted of the element *-bʰi̯- in the proto-language. It was usually added to *-os > -βiiō, with Sievers's alteration to disyllabic -βiyō following heavy syllables (long vowel or short and two consonants). The disyllabic form was noticeably more common. In demonstratives the equivalent sequence was -βīš or -βiš; it is not completely clear if this was simply an ablaut variant or reflects a different combination of morphemes.

Thematic

Basic ā-stem endings Basic o-stem endings
sing du pl sing du pl
nom -ā -aHī -aHā
e -ā 		-ō -õm -ō -oHī -ā̊, -aŋhā -ā
voc -e
acc -ā̊
e -ō		 -ā̊
e -ō 		-õm -ō
gen -āHuš, -aHuš -aHõm -ōyō -ō -õm
loc -aē -āHū, -aHū -āhū -ōi -ohū
dat -āmiyā -āmβiyō -omyā -oβyō
abl -aoṯ -ōṯ
ins -ā -āyš -ō -oiš

nom sg The ā-stems showed the expected ending -ā. M. and f. o-stems have -ōḫ < *-os, which scans short at the end of sentences and other pauses. N. o-stems have -õm.

voc sg The ā-stems have the same form as the nom. M. and f. o-stems have -i < *-e, while n. o-stems have the same form as the nom. In both cases, the accent is always retracted to the first syllable of the word.

acc sg for ā-stems is affected by Stang's law, which appears as -ā̊. The ending for m. and f. o-stems is the same as the n., -õm.

loc sg ā-stems have dysyllabic -ayi; o-stems have monosyllabic -oy.

gen sg ā-stems show -ā̊ for *-eh₂-s; o-stems have the compound suffix -ōyo, for *-osyo.

abl sg in ā-stems is dysyllabic aā̊ṯ; the quantity owes to dissimilation.

dat sg ā-stems

ins sg ā-stems

Noun stems

Adjective stems

Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms. Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.

Numerals

1 – 4

Cardinal numbers one through four are declinable as athematic adjectives of various declensional patterns, agreeing with the nouns (explicit or implicit) they modify in gender, case, and number. Of course, "one" is only inflected in the singular, "two" in the dual, and "three" and "four" in the plural. Numbers five and above are indeclinable.

"one" "two" "three" "four"
m n f m n f m n f m n f
nom hā̊ hõ hámī swō duHā, tuHī ϑráiiā ϑrī́ ϑrižrā koswárā
lg koswóraŋhā		 kótur kóswr̥žrā
voc hõ
acc hā̊ ϑrī́s ϑrižrā̊ koswárā̊ kóswr̥žrā̊
loc hám hāyaHā
lg hāyaHē		 duHā duHō ϑrištū ϑrižr̥štū kóswr̥štū kóswr̥žr̥štū
dat zmā
lg mē		 dumō duHāmō ϑrimuš ϑrižr̥muš kóswr̥muš kóswr̥žr̥muš
abl zmō
lg mō		 hāyā̊
lg hāyaHē
gen duHō duHaHuš ϑriyõ ϑrižrõ kóturõ kóswr̥žrõ
ins zmōi
lg mōi		 hmiHā dumī duHā ϑrimβiiō ϑrižr̥βiiō kóswr̥βiiō kóswr̥žr̥βiiō

1 is a root noun with a stem ending in -m. As with other stems ending in -m, the accusative preform *sem-m̥ would by regular phonetic change become *sēm, i.e. the same as nominative *sēm, because the PEE ending *-m̥ regularly absorbs the previous resonant, hence also nom. syō but acc. syā̊; in the number, -am is often but not always restored. In the oblique cases, the stem is in zero grade and appears as hm- < *sm-. If the position requires the /m/ to be vocalized, the result is the hā-, such as seen in feminine forms with accent over the suffix; these are a perfect match with Syaran μιᾶς = hāyā̊ , etc.

2 is only declined in the dual number. There are two stems in use: the full-grade zwo- and zero-grade tuH-. The feminine form nom tuHā only appears sporadically..

3 is a regular i-stem and is only declined in the plural. Nom. ϑráiiā shows regular development of *e > a bordering yod. As with others, the accusative plural has a zero-grade suffix followed by a zero-grade ending: *tri-ns > ϑrī́s. The sequence *-ins developed irregularly, usually appearing as -ī in Northian; alternatively it may reflect a more archaic *tri-m-s, without assimilation in the ending. It is a notorious false friend to Nordic þrīz, which was not the accusative but the nominative = Northian ϑráiiā. The feminine forms employ the feminizing infix -sr-, which is always found in the zero grade, and take regular athematic endings. There is also a particular form for three women or goddesses, as in ϑaewiyā ϑraežrā "three goddesses".

4 behaves like most athematic nouns and also employs the feminizing infix -sr- for its feminine forms. Note however that the ablauting element was the second syllable of the stem -tuuor-, which in zero grade appears would be -tuur-. Which of the two resonants vocalize depends on the phonetic environment. Where the suffix stands alone the *-w- is vocalized, as in neuter nominative kotur < *kʷetw̥r, but where an obstruent follows the suffix it is the *-r- that becomes syllabic, as in kóśwr̥muš < *kʷetwr̥mus. There was also a singular form košuuō < *kʷetwōr = Venetian quattuor.

The feminine forms for "four" have the particularly long stem of koswr̥-žr̥-, which is for *kʷétwr̥-sr̥- where the ending begins with a consonant. The masculine stem for "four" frequently supplants the feminine owing to the sheer length of the etymological stem, which is metrically unusable. Note that the accent is on the suffix syllable in the strong forms owing to the effects of the eponymous kʷetwóres rule, which shifts the accent from a preceding *e to the following *o if followed by only one other syllable.

5 and higher

5 pəṇto is from *pénkʷe.

6 xšwaxš from *kswéks, a match with Xevdenite xšuuah.

7 hafθa from *septm̥.

8 oxθō, the proto-form of this word is disputed. Northian oxθō can be traced back to both *(H)oktow and *(H)oktoH, with or without an initial laryngeal; the form with initial laryngeal is preferred on root phonotactic grounds, since most vowel-initial words can be shown to have had an initial laryngeal. Morphologically, it is the dual of óxθō "fingers", in ei-stem.

9 nauuā

10 tegā

Pronouns

First person

sing du pl
tonic enclitic tonic enclitic tonic enclitic
nom áxa, áɣā̊, ázəm wō wāy
acc mḗ mi āŋhō nō ə̄mmé nā
gen méni mai nō áŋrō
dat mézya nanā́ ā̊(s)

nom sg The term for "I", usually áxa, comes from Erani-Eracuran *éǵ-h₂, with regular devoicing of a stop before *h₂. The long form áɣā̊ must have *éǵ-ōm, without laryngeal, but cognate extensions to the pronoun with this suffix all have the laryngeal. This would suggest that an unattested Northian form of *ák < *éǵ may have existed independently for the suffix to be added.

Second person

sing du pl
stressed enclitic stressed enclitic stressed enclitic
nom tū́ yṓ  yā̊
acc swe ti ūmé wō ušpé wā̊
gen ϑáya toi yuϑr- yušr-
dat ϑə̄mβyō wanā́ ušmái

Demonstrative

sing du pl
m n f m n f m n f
nom ha ϑaṯ hā ϑō ϑoyī ϑāyī ϑoi ϑa ϑai
acc ϑõm ϑā̊ ϑā̊ ϑáō
loc ϑoi ϑahiiai ϑṓhō ϑohū ϑāhū
gen ϑōiio ϑahiiā̊ ϑṓhōš ϑoiiõm ϑāõm
dat ϑōžmōi ϑahiiayi ϑṓzma ϑoiiomuš ϑāmuš
ins ϑō ϑahiiā ϑoiiomβīš ϑāβīš

Interrogative

sing du pl
m f n m f n m f n
nom kiš kiṯ kə̄ ϑoi ϑa
acc kim ϑā̊
loc kāsmi kiyō ϑohū
gen kāiio kiyōš ϑoiiõm
dat kāsmai kimō ϑoiiomuš
abl kāṯ ϑoiiõm
ins koi ϑoiiomβīš

Indefinite article

The Northian indefinite article, which introduces an indefininte noun phrase, is derived from the PEE root *oywos, meaning "one". Note that the endings are those of demonstratives.

aiwō, "a, an"
M & F N
nom aiwō aiwó
voc
acc aiwõm
loc aiwōi
dat
abl aiwōṯ
gen aiwōiš
ins aiwō

Verbs

See also: Northian verbs

Paradigm

Unlike nouns, multiple derivations of the same verb root may be considered the same lexical item, whereas nouns are restricted to one derivation, and a different derivation creates lexically distinct noun. It is thus necessary to describe the relationship between the various derivations as a complete system.

According to the canonical description of the Erani-Eracuran verb, each root may form one stem in each of the three grammatical aspects called primary derivations, while the root itself may stand as a stem within an "inherent" or "lexical" aspect assigned (largely arbitrarily) to it. Thus, for example, an aorist root like štaˀ- "stand" may form a stem with no further alteration that has aorist aspect, since it is the same as the lexical aspect of the root. To use this root in a different aspect, some sort of marker is necessary to denote those aspects, and in this behalf are attested the present stem štaˀ-u-, with suffix -u-, and perfect stem teštō̆ˀ-, with reduplication and o-grade root.

Apart from the stems that encode grammatical aspects, secondary derivations provide more specific meanings. The canonical difference with primary derivations is that secondary derivations 1) are all aspectually present and 2) cannot derive modal stems containing its derivational marker; thus, while they may have significant semantic departures from any of the primary formations, they are grammatically still dependent on the root's primary formations to express those meanings. This mandatory present aspect is only grammatical and rarely semantic, and in later stages of the language the restriction is altogether abandoned. In Early Galic, the secondary verbs did not form injunctives, subjunctives, and optatives but did form imperfects and imperatives, as well as participles and infinitives.

While this structure holds true in varying degrees for most Erani-Eracuran languages, the very most archaic forms of the daughters often show clues that the canonical structure may reflect a basic prohibition of multiple derivative markers upon a root, rather than a more elaborate system within the parent language. These clues are corroborated by the system's own idiosyncratic peculiarities. The particulars more fully appears elsewhere in this and related articles.

The various secondary derivations generally behaved as tenses in the Gales, but in the Epics they often became independent stems to which a variety of tenses were formed. That is, in abstract terms, the secondary derivations have been promoted to primary status by the Epic period and were thus permitted to form their own modal forms. After all, if a passive form existed and evolved to be completely parallel to the active and middle, then there appeared to be little reason why it should not form a corresponding imperfect, subjunctive, optative, etc. Looking backwards in time, some have commented that the non-root primary forms behave more like secondary forms in the Pre- and Early Galic periods, largely defective in modal formations. Thus, the evolution of the basic verbal grammar seems to be a gradual extension of cross-classification or permutations of various attributes, reaching the canonical Erani-Eracuran form in the Late Galic period and exceeding it in the Epic age.

Tenses attested in Early Galic are in bold; in Late Galic, in normal face; in the Epics, in italics.

Present stem Aorist stem Perfect stem Root
Present indicative
Present injunctive Aorist injunctive Perfect injunctive Prohibitive
Imperfect Aorist Pluperfect
Perfect
Present optative Aorist optative Perfect optative
Present subjunctive Aorist subjunctive Perfect subjunctive First subjunctive
Present imperative Aorist imperative Perfect imperative
Future imperative Aorist future imperative Perfect future imperative
Derivatives
Passive I (stem) Passive II (stem) Future perfect (stem)
Perfect passive (stem)		 Desiderative
Inchoative
Future
Causative
Denominative
Stative
Non-finite forms
Present active participle Aorist active participle
Perfect active participle
Present middle participle Aorist middle participle Perfect middle participle
Present active infinitive Aorist active infinitive
Perfect active infinitive
Present middle infinitive Aorist middle infinitive Perfect middle infinitive

Voice

There are two sets of endings that encode the grammatical "active" and "middle" voices, attached to stems, to form the finite verb. For the majority of verbs, the active voice placed the nominative subject of the sentence in the position of agent, which acted upon an accusative patient, while the middle voice of the same usually indicated the subject was somehow affected or benefited by its own action, i.e. has a position as patient as well. Such verbs, where the meaning of the middle is a modification of the active, are called active verbs. However, there is also a sizeable group of verbs that either did not have an active voice or had one that modified the meaning of the middle; such are called media tantum verbs. While linguists prefer to see a transitivity-based distinction between the active and middle verbs, many media tantum have transitive meanings and take accusative objects.

Clues found in old Northian deponents have been interpreted to suggest, at a very early stage of the parent language, stems once took either set of endings, but not both. Some old middle forms that complement active verbs demonstrate a surprising degree of "independence" from the form of the active; for example, G.Nr. 771 has tuzitay "it lactates", with zero-grade root, in present middle, while the active has tuzinawši "thou milkst" with the nu-suffix. tuzi- "milk" is a root of aorist origin, but its present active and middle forms have been created by separate primary derivational processes. Some words appear to be aorist middle forms with the hic et nunc particle -i added, where such a particle is proper only to present stems. Some hold this peculiarity to obtain that deponent verbs may not have had an original aspectual distinction between present and aorist.

Attinger argued there are at least three possible origins of middle forms, 1) formed directly from an active, 2) media tantum, and 3) derived separately from the active and subsequently paired with it. This classification was originally aimed at ablaut aberrancy of the middle compared to the active: according to him, only class 1 middle forms consistently took the weak grade of the active stem "because only they were formed on the basis of the active". But if lexically active and middle verbs were originally exclusive, and if actives secondarily acquired class 1 middle forms, it has been asked if middles also secondarily acquired active forms. That opposite process has however proven much more elusive. To date, there are few plausible examples of such a transition, though the absence of ablaut in a handful active stems could be attributed to the middle.

Endings

Athematic I & II

The athematic verb endings, like their noun counterparts, are directly attached to the verbal stem without an intervening theme vowel. The primary endings are used for the present indicative and all subjunctives, and the secondary endings for the aorist indicative and all injunctives, imperfects, and (with the suffix) the optative. As is clear, outside of the present indicative, the present and aorist stems take the same set of endings, and their distinction consequently lies in the stem itself.

In the two following charts, this convention is observed: where variant endings are conditioned by surrounding phonetic environment, they are separated by the tilde, and where they are instead conditioned by ablaut or another unanalyzable process, by the comma instead. We may reason that environmental variations were more transparent to ancient Northians, as these mostly represent post-Erani-Eracuran phonetic divergences, while ablaut variations had become more opaque as its conditioning factor had become non-operational by the last phase of the proto-language. Thus, phonetic variations have tended to resist levelling for longer, while ablaut variations tended to disappear over time.

The most important ablaut variation in endings comes in the mid 2 & 3du and act 3pl; of these, the more frequently used 3pl survived longer. At least in the 3pl ablaut variation was more conservatively observed, since in the extension of the *-(e)nt marker of the active to the middle, the zero-grade morph *-n̥t is always selected in the Gales acknowledging and in front of the accented ending -o. The dual variations are only imperfectly observed in the Gales, while two morphs of the act 1pl are only marginally associated with ablaut patterns.

Primary active Primary middle
sing du pl sing du pl
trans intrans trans intrans trans intrans
1p -mi -wəni ~ uwəni
lg -ūni		 -máŋhi, -maʸhi 1p -ā -wōδi ~ uwōδi -mōihi
lg -māhi
2p -si ~ hi ~ ši -tā -te, -e 2p -tā -ātiϑi, -(i)tiϑi -ϑūwə ~ ϑuwə ~ huwə
lg -ϑū ~ hū
3p -ti ~ si -tā, -zā -əṇti, -ā̆si
lg -ənti, -ā̆si 		3p -tō -ó -(i)ϑā -ā -ā̆zrō
lg -ārē		 -ro, -rō
Secondary active Secondary middle
sing du pl sing du pl
trans intrans trans intrans trans intrans
1p -ā̆ ~ m -wə ~ uwə
lg -ū		 -me 1p -a -wohi ~ uwohi -maʸhi
2p -h ~ š -tõm -te, -e 2p -ta -ātiϑi, -(i)tiϑi -ϑuwə ~ huwə
lg -ϑū ~ hū
3p -t ~ s -tā̊ -ən, -ā̆ṯ, -r
lg -ən, -as 		3p -to -o -āϑā, -(i)ϑā -ā, -i -ā̆zro
lg -ā̆zro		 -ro

1 sing The primary and secondary active endings differ with the hic et nunc particle *-i in the proro-language, for the singular active. The element m is accepted in mainstream reconstructions of Proto-Erani-Eracuran to signify the first person. As -m is a resonant, the ending -i in the primary conjugation can trigger mutation in the preceding syllable, particularly apparently in a syllable generated by an interconsonantal laryngeal. In the secondary conjugation, final -m can vocalize to -ā̆ if following a stop. But if the verb stem ended in a full- or long-grade vowel plus resonant, the final -m triggers Stang's law resulting in a lengthened vowel that subsequently loses the final -m. In late texts, this -m is usually restored following the long vowel.

In the middle voice, the ending evolves from *-h₂ey > -ay. This ending is agnostic as to any preceding laryngeal. The secondary middle ending loses the hic et nunc particle, as with the rest of the singular middle.

2 sing In the primary conjugation, the signifying element of the active second singular *s can become [h] or [š] depending on the phonetic context; if the latter, epenthetic [t] is introduced to separate it from the following -i. In secondary sequence it usually triggers compensatory lengthening in resonant stems. In the case of *-H or semivowel stems, it usually becomes identical to the 1 sg form, but in contrast thereto, final -s is never restored.

The middle ending here is *-th₂ey > -tai. If there is a preceding laryngeal, it appears as -itai.

3 sing This -ti ending is usually retained in the primary conjugation. If the stem ended in a dental, the ending was liable to mutate in several ways. In the secondary, -t can displace preceding stops or be dropped in some contexts.

The middle ending of the third singular depends on the meaning of the word and the stem used, which is peculiar. In root verbs and many stem-classes, a middle verb with intransitive menaing will take the ending -o, and those with transitive meaning, -toi. In other cases, such as the -naō ~ nu- stems, the ending -toi is always used, regardless of meaning. If a laryngeal preceded the ending, it appears as -itoi. Where the ending is not accented, it appears as trans. -itai or intrans. -a.

1 du The primary active ending is from *-wen-i and appears as accented -uuóni and unaccented -uuiñi. If a laryngean preceded the ending, it became *-u-weni, whereupon nasalization induced -u-mβóni.

In the middle, the form -wṓδa < *-wesdʰh₂ is found.

2 du Here the active ending -tāḫ is for *-th₂es. An epenthentic -s- is sometimes found if the stem ended in a dental to avoid a sequence of two dentals together, and the resulting combination is sometimes resolved to prehistoric *-ss-. But this was not a universal phenomenon, and sometimes the geminate dental either drops or evne surfaces. Such examples are often interpreted by analogical restoration. Secondary -tõm is found in the middle for *-tom.

The middle ending is -ātiϑayi, which is structurally complex and the subject of much debate. First, the final -i must have been added only after the final laryngeal vocalized; otherwise, the monosyllabic ending *-ϑi would be expected for *-dʰH-i; indeed, it is often omitted in Galic. The element -ϑa- is often considered identical to that found in the 1 pl mid ending -mōi-δa, with the initial dental devoiced following a laryngeal reflected as -i-. That this element should be deemed a particle is clarified by the development of 1 pl mid -mōi-δa < *-mes-dʰH, which is only regular word-finally, and also that it is shared with the 1 du mid ending. The distinct part of the ending is thus -āti-, which has the zero-grade variant -(i)ti that appears after roots with persistent accent. The element -ti- < *-tH- has been identified as a zero-grade variant of the Kankrit 2 pl act ending -tha < *-tHe.

Curiously, Northian presents both parallel and contradictory information to Kankrit comparanda, which has 2 du mid primary athematic -āthai̯ and thematic -a-i̯thai̯. Kankrit has distinct secondary -ātham, while Northian attests no distinct secondary form. If the particle -ϑa- were to be omitted in Northian, the resulting sequence *-ātiyi would be very similar in structure to the Kankrit, especially if a full-grade vowel can be posited in the second syllable and superficially deleted in unaccented position. Disputes cloud the identification of the first part of the ending, which behaves differently in both languages. In Kankrit, the variant appearing after the thematic vowel cannot be identified as a laryngeal, but that is nearly required in Northian.

3 du -tāʰ reflects *-tes. As with all endings which begin with /t/, it is liable to an epenthetic -s- following another dental. There is thus a superficial identity between the 2 du and 3 du primary endings; this identity was often extended to the secondary where it is not a regular outcome in later materials, usually at the expense of the 2 du ending, which was apparently less frequently used.

The secondary ending is -tā̊ < *tām < *teh₂m. The -m ending is confirmed by the co-ordinating imperative ending, which shows the particle -u attached, producing *-tā́mū.

In the middle, this personal form is also sensitive to the transitivity of the verb stem. Where the 3 sg & pl forms require transitive endings, this form will canonically take the ending -ātā, and the intransitive ending is -ā, with the particle -i added in the primary sequence. But in the received text, -ātā is often seen in place of expected -ā; considering they have a differing number of syllables, this could hardly be a metrical alteration.

1 pl In the primary active one finds -məŋhi < *-mensi. This is usually explained as a concactenation of the 1 pl. suffix *-men plus the (redundant) plural marker *-s, with the hic et nunc particle *-i. For verbs with recessive accent, a different form -maʸhi is used; this would be from *-mesi. The secondary form is always -mo.

The subjunctive does not take the normal primary ending of -máŋhi but rather the ending -omōhi, which is best explained as the thematic ending -omō plus the segment -hi extracted from the athematic.

In the primary middle, the ending -mōyδi is encountered, usually thought to be for *-mesdʰh₂. The expected phonetic outcome is *-mezδi > *-mēδi, but it seems the *z was elided in such a way that it caused the preceding vowel to lengthen, which then resolved as though it were at the end of a word *-ē > -ōy. Alternatively, the ending could have been -meh₁dʰh₂, which would produce the same result. In either event, it indicates the *-dʰh₂ could have been considered an independent particle, thus triggering the word-final phonetic change for the long vowel. While *-mes is preferred in the interest of comparison to archaic Syaran -μέσθα, *-meh₁ would compare very well with the 1 pl perf ending -mōy < *-meH.

In the secondary, the ending was -máha is used.

2 pl The allomorphs are -te or -se after vowels. About half of the time the primary ending shows -te even after vowels, which has been interpreted as a sign that the primary ending shared the same of *-tHe as in Kankrit, but as it only occurs as an alternative, the Northian readings permits but does not require it as the ending proper to the primary. The secondary endings are identical except for the xaŋzat-aorists, where it is merely -e and subjec to laryngeal and semivowel colouring.

The middle endings primary -dūvó and secondary -duvó has caused some controversy amongst academics as its provenance is open to many interpretations. No other Erani-Eracuran language attests a difference between primary and secondary endings in this position, and much Galic material also does not distinguish between them. But in the Early Galic, -dūvó is clearly preferred as the primary ending, being attested ten times over the two times of -duvó. In secondary sequence, -dūvó never appears at all. Some prefer to see the length difference as militated by that found in the 1 pl, where the elision of *-z created a long vowel in the primary but not the secondary. But the quantitative difference did not disappear in that form, while the putatively connected contrast disappeared rapidly.

The general shape of these two endings also require some comment. The u-vocalism itself could have two origins. First, as in Kankrit, it could be attributed to a form of Sievers's law that created a syllabic *u before non-syllabic *w following a heavy syllable, but this variety of Sievers's law did not operate generally in Northian. Second, the pre-form *-dʰh₂wé would regularly vocalize as *-δiwó > -δuwó, since /i/ before /u/ is always assimilated to it. Because *w always follows two consonants and thus a heavy syllable, the Sievers's form *-dʰh₂uwé is generated, which has been argued as the source of primary -dūwó by way of metathesis to *-dʰuh₂wé, though this hypothesis creates the absence of the metathesis restricted to secondary -duwó.

3 pl In the active, the ending -ən(ti) is used, which is -ant(i) if following h- or *h₂-. Note that final -t seems to be regularly dropped after -ən. In verbs with persistent accent, this ending takes the zero-grade form of *-n̥t > -ā̆t(i); some preceding vowels are altered by the vocalized nasal. There is a specialized form -r that appears in the aorist injunctive and optative of xaŋzat verbs, a special class of root aorist verbs that have full-grade root throughout, and the present indicative of most i- and u-stem verbs, i.e. 3 pl -ir and -ur. Where -r does not follow a semivowel, it is vocalic and written <arə> word-finally, i.e. <xáŋhiyarə> xáŋhiˀr̥ (the optative suffix ended in a laryngeal, not -i).

For the middle voice, there are several endings that share (what is usually interpreted as) a morpheme *-r. Most present, and all derivative, stems show -ntro, but a few merely -ro. This -r in -ro is thought to be connected in some wise to the active ending -r mentioned above. The ending is furthermore found in the same place in the perfect. It is thus unclear in which direction the borrowing occurred.

Thematic I and II

The primary and secondary thematic endings include a theme vowel between the stem and the ending-proper, varying between *e ~ o. The thematic endings formally differ in the 1 & 2 sing from the athematic ones but are transparently the same, with the addition of the theme vowel, in others. It is still a matter of active debate what the contrast between athematic and thematic endings was in the proto-language. The primary and secondary thematic endings are used in present and aorist stems in the same manner as the athematic ones, with the addition of the same thematic vowel.

Thematic active endings Thematic middle endings
sing du pl sing du pl
1p -ō -owō -əmōhi 1p -oHā -owōδi -əmōihi
2p -ā -etā -ete 2p -etā -etiϑi -eδuwə
3p -esi -əṇti 3p -etō -etā -əṇtō

1 sg The first singular active ending is -ō. The middle ending is -oay for *o-h₂e-y—the ending is always disyllabic in Galic.

2 sg The ending for the second active singular is -aꜤi. The middle ending is the same as the athematic one, with the theme vowel /e/ inserted.

3 sg In the third singular one finds the ending -eyi; note that this ending is disyllabic, unlike that of the second singular; ditto for the middle.

1 - 3 du and 1, 2 pl For all these items the thematic forms are the same as the athematic ones, with thematic /e ~ o/ added.

1 pl Ending -omōhi does not show -s, in contrast to the 1 du.

3 pl The endings here are active -o and middle -ō.

Thematic secondary endings, active or middle, are all the same as athematic ones, with thematic vowel inserted in like manner as the primary.

Imperative

The imperative in Northian does not have opposition between primary and secondary. It is observed that the imperative usually implies immediacy, while the stem has aspectual value regarding the action required. The first person imperative is always defective: a speaker expressing a requirement for oneself would use the future tense. For all dual forms, the imperative is the same as the indicative, there being no sign that these ever had distinct imperative endings in Northian.

Athematic imperative active endings Athematic imperative middle endings
sing du pl sing du pl
trans intrans trans intrans trans intrans
2p -δi ~ ϑi ~ zi, -Ø -tā -te, -se, -s 2p -(s)wə -ātiϑi -duwə
3p -tū -tāmū, -(s)mū -əṇtū, -ā̆tū 3p -te -e -tā -ātā -əṇtro -ro

2 sg either endingless or *-dʰí, which normally yielded -δí. A preceding laryngeal devoices the voiced stop and disappears, giving -ϑí. All nasal-suffix verbs (but not the nasal infix) have the endingless form.

2 du & pl endings mimic the indicative endings; suffixed verbs drop the suffix.

3 sg & du appear to be the corresponding secondary ending plus the particle *-u, which is used in all 3p forms. The act 3du in some verbs was recessively accented, and this formation -smū must reflect a zero-grade morph *-th₂m-u.

3 pl has the variable vowel quality as in the secondary ending, which is -antū if the stem ended in *-h₂, and the zero-grade form -ā̆tū if the accent was in the stem.

The imperative forms for thematic verbs are as follows:

Thematic imperative active endings Thematic imperative middle endings
sing du pl sing du pl
2p -Ø -etā -esi 2p -ēwə -ātiθi -ezwə
3p -etū -etāmū -əṇtū 3p -eta -ā̊tā -əṇtro

Only a few forms require comment due to the homogeneity to the athematic forms.

2 pl has the active ending -esi, which shows *t fricativized before *i.

3 pl does not have the variable vowel or ablaut as the ending reflects invariant *-onto, which is not susceptible to laryngeal influence. Nevertheless, some thematic verbs do secondarily display -aṇtrō, particularly if they are thematizations of pre-existing athematic stems that have -aṇtrō in this position.

Perfect

The perfect was an athematic formation, irrespective of the thematicity of the present or aorist stems. For the relatively tame verbal system of Northian that tends to agree with the Tennite and Syaran evidence, the evolution of the Northian prefect has been the subject of most attention.

The perfect system is structurally different to the present and aorist as far as the modal forms are concerned. Whereas the present and aorist stems use the same set primary and secondary indicative endings to form its subjunctive and optative moods, the endings of the perfect indicative do not reprise in the perfect subjunctive and optative. Thus, the perfect subjunctive and perfect optative are regarded as analogous formations on the model of the present/aorist subjunctives and optatives.

Some scholars argue for the existence of two parallel conjugations in the perfect system, representing roots of present or aorist origins. The two conjugations would be diagnosed by their ablaut patterns and their endings in the dual and plural, with the present-origin verbs having the o-grade stem in the singular and the zero-grade elsewhere, and the aorist-origin ones having the o-grade stem everywhere other than the 3 pl. Should it have been true at some point, such a situation is necessarily a Pre-Galic one, though it does explain the indeterminacy of the vocalism of the 1 & 2 pl in early Galic with considerable success. But since this theory requires the perfect to be (at least in part) a derivative strategy, it is not accepted by those who maintain a tripartite aspectual system of the Erani-Eracuran verb.

Perfect endings
sing du pl
1p -a -wōi -mōi
2p -ta -Hōt, -ātō -ōi, -ā, -ō
3p -e -Htō, -ātō -ṓ

1 & 2 sg of the perfect are the same as secondary forms of the middle voice.

3 sg has *-e as opposed to middle *-o, which makes it very probable they are ablaut variants of each other. This ending is susceptible to laryngeal and semivowel colouring.

1 du has -wōi in attested texts, but this cannot lead back to *-weH in the same way that 1 pl -mōy leads to *-meH, because in this environment the *e always becomes *o and would give *-wō. The ending also cannot reflect an unmotivated *-wōi, since this would also regularly become *-wō. The final long vowel is best thought as contamination from the 1 pl, and not a very early one.

2 du has two forms, -ātō which is seen everywhere and -Hōt which is only seen in G1. The former is not sensitive to the weight of the previous syllable, which means the long vowel must contain -eh₂. The latter is archaic but unfortunately opaque; some have interpreted it as *-h₃eH-t, but in this position it cannot be confirmed. There is also disagreement whether the two alloforms have any connection with each other, particularly around the element -t-.

3 du also has two forms, -ātō and -Htō in the same distribution. While the former is superficially the same as with the corresponding 2 du form, this need not be the underlying situation, in principle.

2 pl is usually reconstructed as *-e-H, the first segment apparently being the same as the 3 sg ending. The additional laryngeal is of uncertain origin and has spread to the 1 pl and possibly 1 du. In this regard, Kankrit retains the original state of affairs, while Northian introduced alterations. As it contains an exposed *e, this ending is also subject to laryngeal and semivowel colouring.

Perfect and pluperfect imperative

Uniquely, Northian has specialized perfect imperative forms, all of which are poorly attested. The perfect stem is also used with conventional imperative endings, termed the pluperfect imperative because some of its forms resemble those of the pluperfect. There appears to be little difference between the meaning of the two formations, and there is no obvious distinction between stems that take the perfect or pluperfect imperatives.

Perfect imperative endings
sing du pl
2p -ti ? -s
3p ? ? -ō

Very little has been firmly adduced from these forms, and they depart greatly from analogous forms in the present and aorist. At the very least, it is clear that prehistoric Northian placed the perfect in its own category and not in parallel to the present and aorist; its re-characterization as a parallel category was a process already complete by the Late Galic period, when perfect imperatives exhibited the regular endings found in the present and aorist, that is to say the pluperfect imperative has become dominant.

The 2 sg ending -ti could in principle represent *-ti just as the athematic present indicative, though there is no motivation for the ending here. It could also represent *-tH, or more specifically *-th₂, as seen in the perfect ending *-th₂e. The 2 pl ending -s is connected to a variety of forms in the most archaic daughter languages and is sure to be a relic of great antiquity. Unfortunately, much of the paradigm of the perfect imperative is missing.

There are a handful of instances of strangely-placed perfect participles that have been often interpreted as periphrastic forms of the imperative. One such is ēwā̊ < *h₁eh₁swōs.

Moods

Subjunctive

Mood %
Indicative 32
Injunctive 29
Imperative 20
Subjunctive 15
Optative 4

The subjunctive mood had a variety of functions in Galic. In direct discourse, the subjunctive most often expresses "neutral potentiality" without indicating the speaker's personal wish, standing in contrast to the optative that does so. In subordinate clauses, the subjunctive often expresses futurity rather than mere potentiality.

It is agreed the sine qua non of the subjunctive, across the Erani-Eracuran languages, is the thematic vowel, which in most daughter languages was added directly to the full-grade stem. In Early Galic, there is more diversity. In the past, it was often thought the modal stem was an innovation tending towards abbreviation from the indicative, but more recent scholarship has preferred to view the indicative stem as more innovative and the subjunctive stem, which is frequently the same as the injunctive, as more basal. Differences in modal stems were levelled out in the transition from the Galic language to the Epic language by 650 BCE, always in favour of the indicative, and so a distinct subjunctive stem is also called the "Galic subjunctive".

A curious phenomenon in Galic is that some aorist verbs have the accented o-grade of the root, followed by the thematic vowel and primary endings. This is called a type-III subjunctive. Most xaŋzat-aorists have this kind of subjunctive, which is understandable if it is understood the ancestral paradigm of this class had o-grade in all positions other than the 3 pl. But some root aorists of the m-type also unpredictably have this subjunctive. The perfect subjunctive, where it appears, never has the o-grade of the root, even though the o-grade is compulsorily present in the perfect indicative. Thus, the quality of the strong grade of the root vowel cannot be firmly associated with that of the subjunctive.

A type-IV subjunctive also existed, binding the thematic endings to the zero-grade of the root. The origin of this class is unresolved, as nowhere in the family is anything comparable; some take it as a formation based on the optative, though motivation thither is unclear.

In the Tennite languages, primary and secondary endings are applied to the subjunctive stem without discrimination or an obvious difference in meaning, while the other daughters exclusively apply the primary endings. This anomaly of the Tennite languages reminisces of the subjunctive endings used in Galic Northian, which are primary only by the addition of the hic et nunc particle *-i to the secondary thematic endings. "Genuine" primary endings are associated with the athematic indicative, partiuclarly 1 du ending -woiñi and 1 pl -məŋhi, contra subjunctive -owōhi and -əmōhi.

The subjunctive was a reasonably frequent formation in Galic text, particularly in Late Galic, where around 15% of all verbs are subjunctive, compared to around 4% or so that are optatives. They are both dwarfed by the injunctive, which occupies 29% of all finite forms in Galic. The mode receded in importance after the Galic period, seemingly together with the injunctive, being replaced by the optative in most contexts.

Optative

The optative is the other principal modality apart from the subjunctive. In terms of functionality, it expresses the wish of the speaker: if in the first person, the speaker wishes themself do something, and in the third, the speaker wishes the named or implied person do so. It is usually translated into Shalumite as "I wish..." or "would that...", e.g. iyā̊ "I wish you would go".

The optative is signified by the suffix -ī-, which ablauts to -yā- under the accent, and to which are added secondary endings. The accent of the optative is as follows: if the root took mobile accent, the modal suffix takes the accent from the root in the singular active, while the ending takes it in all other forms; if it took persistent accent, the accent remains persistent. The correspondence between the accent and the full grade form is totally predictable. Thus, for verbs with persistent accent, the suffix is always -ī-. While this morpheme looks somewhat like the feminizing suffix, they contain a different prehistoric laryngeal and are, as far as conventional linguistics is aware, not related.

Within the present system, the optative has the same stem as the present indicative. In the aorist system, it is formed from the root exclusively in Galic, though later texts may have the optative suffix added to the sigmatic stem. The perfect optative, like other modal forms of the perfect, is rare in Early Galic but becomes reasonably common in Late Galic and continues to be productive into Epic times. From whichever stem the optative is made, the secondary endings are always used, even in the perfect.

The behaviour of the optative in the present system thus differs from that of the subjunctive but is like it in the aorist. The significance of this divergence is still debated by researchers. At any rate, derivative verbs (that is, the desiderative, future, passive, future perfect, perfect passive, and causative) did not form corresponding optatives until the very end of the Epic period.

Imperative

The imperative mood encodes the speaker's demands. The difference from the optative, which encompasses the speaker's mere wish (which the speaker may or may not intend to be fulfilled), is encapsulated in the following timeless quote by Himinastainas:

mōt hāyō ak nē hāhí kweþaną.

(It is permitted to say "I wish you would kill..." but not to say "kill!")

The Northian imperative is a fairly straightforward continuation of the parent language's largely-agreed imperative structure, where there are second and third person forms in the singular, dual, and plural numbers. The first person imperative is defective, even though it seems at least putatively cogent to use an imperative for the dual and plural numbers, i.e. "let us..."; for this function, the subjunctive is generally used in the singular and the optative in the dual and plural. The imperative is always positive in tone: a negative demand, i.e. "do not...", is expressed by the injunctive with the particle mōy "do not".

As the imperative is built to aspectual stems, it generally expresses aspectual meaning in consort with the co-ordinating indicative; the contrast between present and aorist imperatives is particularly salient when the action differs between a punctual or repetitive nature, such as between "plough" (push the plough once) and "plough" (continuously, as a profession, i.e. to farm). The grammatical nuance of the perfect imperative depends on the particular verb and often expresses an intense meaning. Contrast pf imp ānoxzi "arrive!" (i.e. "be having come!"), pres imp āzi "be coming!", and aor imp naxš "come!"

The perfect imperative is infrequent in any part of the Galic corpus but consistently formed, particularly for the verb woyd- "know" in 3p. It has two paradigms, one with 2 sg -ti, 2 pl -s, 3 pl -ō, and another that is the same as the present and aorist imperatives. The perfect imperative has o- and zero grades of the stem, but the accent recedes onto the reduplication syllable (if there is one) even in the singular. The 2 pl vacillates between the o- and zero grades, with earlier texts preferring the o-grade. The 3 pl ending is thus always the zero-grade form -ātū, e.g. xázaˀātū < *ǵéǵn̥h₁n̥tu "let ... exist".

There is a particle -tót that is appended to regular imperative forms to create the "future imperative". This particle is consistently accented and apparently cancels the recessive accent that characterizes the imperative.

Injunctive

The injunctive covers a number of different functions that appear not to have much connection amongst them, and so their exact meanings must often be gleamed from context. There are the following cases that medieval grammarians have named:

  1. Resultative: in a conditional construction, the injunctive may alternately appear as the protasis or apodosis, occupying the place of the subjunctive in later texts.
  2. Adpositive: when an injunctive follows another finite verb or a conjunction that implies connection, it usually takes on the same tense and aspect as the finite verb it follows.
  3. Oppositive: when used after a conjunction that implies contrast, the injunctive usually negates the tense and aspect that is separated by the conjunction.
  4. Prohibitive: following the particle mōy "do not", the injunctive has the meaning of the imperative.
  5. Jussive: the first person imperative is expressed using the bare injunctive.
  6. Affirmative: specifically used as a positive answer to a yes-no question.
  7. Gnomic: when the injunctive does not follow any construction, it is agnostic as to the proper tense and aspect and usually states facts that are always, usually, assumed to be, or in the nature of something to be one way or another; the sense of its current reality is suppressed in comparison to the indicative.

Understanding the various uses of the injunctive is of prime importance to Galic studies, as it is the second most common mood after the indicative, representing 29% of all finite verb forms (the indicative has 42%). But outside of the Gales, it is actually quite rare and disappears by the middle of the Epic period. There may be some connection to the genre of the Galic hymns that explains such a large share of injunctives.

One of the more notable instances of the injunctive is in G.Nr. 42:

zyā ptər, panti zyā̊ təršt, āmōy βā dədəršti.

(Father Sky, Sky sees all things, and it sees me.)

Here, the first "see" is injunctive, and the second "see" is indicative. This passage is nearly always consulted in essays seeking to explain the usage of the injunctive.

While than the prohibitive and gnomic uses survive, the adpositive and oppositive injunctive uses generally disappeared before the Epics, and their functions are captured by the participles and infinitives agreeing with the subject of the finite verb. The syntax of the injunctive, other than one introduced by "do not", is a murky area of historical Northian literature and, from medieval times, has generated much comment about what their instances in the Gales exactly mean. Yet because much content of the Galic religion has been lost to history, this context upon which the injunctives are employed is also nearly completely lost, in turn hampering a more precise description of the uses of the injunctive, particularly against a co-ordinating indicative.

Formally, the injunctive is like the modal forms in that it is obligatorily built from the root, except in the present where it optionally takes the present stem if it is reduplicated. If the root is conjugated with lengthened vowel in the present, the injunctive formation loses the length. For root present stems, therefore, the injunctive appears merely an unaugmented imperfect; for suffixed verbs, the injunctive loses the suffix. To the injunctive stem the secondary endings are attached. The injunctive sometimes irregularly shows full grade throughout the active and middle, where full and zero grades alterate in the indicative; in this shape it thus appears like a subjunctive with secondary, athematic endings.

It has been noted that a "motley of different formations" are classified as "injunctive", and more than a few scholars consider it imprudent to assign a modal label to forms that share nothing but "an absence of diverse characters". Yet as there is yet to be a root that indubitably attests multiple injunctive stems, most manuals describe them as injunctive and assign a standard injunctive form to roots.

Participles

Each verbal stem is usually capable of forming a corresponding participle or verbal adjective.

For all present and aorist active stems, the participle utilized the affix -nt- and followed the accentual pattern of the verb. Athematic verbs with mobile accent had participles with mobile accent, with accent over the -nt- syllable in the strong cases and the ending in others. Verbs with static accent and reduplicated verbs in the present or aorist had participles consistently accented on the root syllable.

  • m həs, zatō; f həntī, zasiiā̊
  • m xrbaHas, xrbaHatō; f xrbaHantī, xrbaHāsiiā̊
  • m wēnas, wēnatō; f wēnasī, wēnasī
  • m krnuuəs, krnuntō; f krnuuəntī, krnunsiiā̊

The perfect stem formed its own participle using the ablauting suffix -us-. Unlike the present/aorist active participle, the perfect participle had an amphikinetic pattern.

  • m βeβoiduš, βeβidušō and nom pl βeβizuuoHā

Syntax

Copula

In Early Galic, nominal sentences were the normal construction to express the sense of equivalence or identity as found in the word "is", e.g. GNr 112 maxrō tu-at "but thou art tall". The finite verb ešti is only rarely used for this function. When it does appear, it often connotes contrast with a previous statement.

Notes


See also

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