Manjugurun

Republic of Manchuria Манҗу Гуңхего ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ 满洲共和国 Маньчжурская Республика 만주 공화국 満州共和国 Манжуурын Бүгд Найрамдах Улс
Flag Emblem
Anthem:  Манжу Гурун-и Учун Manju Gurun-i Ucun National anthem of Manchuria File:Mongolian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.ogg
location of Manchuria in green
Capital	Changchun
Largest city	Mukden
Official languages	Manchu (official and national), Mandarin, Russian, Korean, Japanese, Mongolian
Official scripts	Manchu Cyrillic Manchu script
Ethnic groups (2010)	41% Manchus 46% Chinese 6% Koreans 2% Mongols 1.7% Japanese 1% Russians 1.3% others
Demonym(s)	Manchu Manchurian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
• President	Samuel Wanggiya
• Prime Minister	Sumuru Angguri
Legislature	National Assembly
Formation
• Jurchen Empire	formed 1115
• Qing Empire	formed 1636
• Manchukuo	1932
• Manchurian People's Republic established	February 1, 1946
• Sorghum Revolution	October 3, 1990
• Current Constitution	February 1, 1991
Area
• Total	1,260,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi) (18th)
• Water (%)	5.4
Population
• 2016 estimate	3,081,677 (134th)
• Density	1.97/km2 (5.1/sq mi) (238th)
GDP (PPP)	2015 estimate
• Total	$36.6 billion
• Per capita	$11,024
GDP (nominal)	2015 estimate
• Total	$12.5 billion
• Per capita	$4,353
Gini (2011)	36.5 medium
HDI (2014)	0.727 high (90th)
Currency	Yuwan (MNY)
Time zone	UTC+9
Date format	yyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+976
ISO 3166 code	MN
Internet TLD	.mj, .ман
^ Also spelled "Cangcon".

Manchuria /mæŋˈtʃuːriə/ (listen) (Manju Gurun in Manchu; Манҗу Гуңхего in Manchu Cyrillic) is a sovereign state in East Asia. It borders Russia to the north, Mongolia to the west, China to the southwest, and Korea in the southeast. Its capital is Changchun, and its former capital Mukden is the largest city. Its population of 121,204,300 is one of the largest on earth.

While Manchuria was dominated by Korean and Chinese dynasties, they were mostly dominated by Tungusic peoples such as the Jurchens. The region was the center of the Jin Dynasty from 1125 to 1234, when it was conquered by the Mongol Empire and its Yuan Dynasty. Southern Manchuria fell under Ming rule, but the northern parts remained outside Chinese control. The Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci later took over the Jurchen tribes in the 1600s, culminating in the Qing Dynasty founded by Hong Taiji in 1636, and later conquering China by 1644. Intrigues by Russia led to the loss of Outer Manchuria by 1860, with Manchuria coming under Russian influence by the late 19th century. The southern part was also later influenced by Japan by the early 1900s. By 1911, the Qing Dynasty fell and Manchuria went to a sway of Chinese warlords such as Zhang Xueliang. Japan's influence increased by 1932, later establishing Manchukuo as a satellite state, with the last emperor of Qing and China, Pu Yi being installed as a puppet leader. Popular resistance against Japanese rule intensified, and by the end of World War II, a pro-Communist parallel government took over most parts of Manchuria, co-operating with coup-plotters in Xinjing and the Soviet and Mongolian invaders. A plebiscite held in October 1945 confirmed the independence of the new People's Republic of Manchuria.

An intensive Desinicization program was enacted, imposing the Manchu language on the majority Chinese population with limited success, and the country provided support during the Korean War through the joint Chinese-Manchurian People's Volunteer Army. During the 1960s, disagreements with Mao Zedong and Zhao Shangzhi over the latter's refusal to join the People's Republic were cited as a reason for the Sino-Soviet Split. In response for Chinese nuclear tests, Manchuria developed its own nuclear weapons, which it maintains to this day. After the fall of communism in 1991, Manchuria reformed its economy from a socialist economy to a mixed-market economy.

Although having the 15th largest economy in the world, Manchuria suffers from economic problems and income inequality, as well as widespread corruption in the government. The government is only successful in privatizing smaller businesses, with the larger businesses remaining state-owned or owned by former government officials. It maintains amicable relations with most of its neighboring countries, and is a member of the United Nations, the G-25, the World Trade Organization, the Shanghai Co-Operation Organization, the World Bank, the Asian International Investment Bank, and the Asian Development Bank.

History

Main article: History of Manchuria

Early History

Ancient Manchuria had been home for several ethnic groups such as the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens. During various points in Manchu history, several Chinese dynasties controlled portions of Manchuria, usually in the coasts, and the Chinese also set up tributary relations with the tribes. The Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo also controlled parts of Manchuria. Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen also claimed that the Korean kingdoms might have substantial Tungusic-speaking minorities and even have an Tungusic elite.

Within the 10th to 11th century, the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria forged a state called the Liao, controlling Northern China and Manchuria, forcing the ancestors of the Jurchens into tributary status. The Liao were the first state to control the entire modern region of Manchuria.

Medieval History

By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, one of the tributary peoples of the Khitans rebelled against Liao rule and replaced them with the Jin Dynasty. Numerous campaigns against the Song Chinese enabled the Jurchen to capture territory in northern China. The Jurchens were then conquered in turn by the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty.

Fengtian Era

After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, Zhang Zuolin took over the administration of the Manchurian lands. In 1920, he then set reforms that enabled Manchuria, then known as the Three Eastern Provinces, to be relatively unscathed by the chaos of the warlord era in China. Although Manchuria remained officially a part of China, it was effectively isolated from China and protected by Zhang's Fengtian Army, and its naval and air forces are considered advanced compared to the other Chinese states. He tolerated the Japanese presence in Manchuria but is said to be losing patience at their control of Kwantung and the South Manchurian railroad.

Zhang Zuolin was later killed in the Huanggutun Incident on 2 June 1928, allegedly on the orders of the Kwantung Army due to the latter perceiving him as a traitor. Zhang Xueliang took his place, then allied himself with the advancing Kuomintang to prevent conquest.

A month after the reunification with the KMT, Zhang attempted to establish control over the Chinese Eastern Railway causing a armed skirmish with the Soviet Union. Zhang was now the de facto dictator of Manchuria, although he remained officially loyal to the Kuomintang supporting the nationalist government in the Central Plains War. However Chinese-Japanese relations were quickly deteriorating with Japan trying to exert more influence in Manchuria.

Manchukuo

In 1931, the Japanese forces in Manchuria seized the country from the Chinese, creating a puppet state called Manchukuo a year later. The Japanese installed Pu Yi as a puppet leader while real power is in the hands of the Japanese advisers. Manchuria was used as a buffer state between Japan and the Soviet Union as both countries clashed twice in 1938 and 1939.

Several anti-Japanse Manchu leaders like Zhao Shangzhi, Chen Hanzhang, and Yang Jingyu fled to the Soviet Union and Mongolia and established a government in exile. A rift between Zhao Shangzhi and the Yanan leadership was only temporarily healed and Zhao decided to separate and rename his Northeast Anti-Japanese Army into the Manchurian People's Army and finally advocate a separate Manchurian communist state to "defend itself from Kuomintang" machination. A large number of former Northeast Anti-Japanese Army soldiers are of ethnic Manchu descent and Zhao who was mixed Chinese and Manchu wanted an "ethnic revival" of the Manchus and thus ordered Manchu-language education.

A coup by secretly communist Manchukuo officers during the Soviet-Japanese War in August 1, 1945 had taxed the already stretched Kwantung Army declared the establishment of the Manchu Republic, led by Zhang Xueming, Zhang Xueliang's brother, who secretly fled from Mainland China, and used the flag of the Fengtian Clique. However, in September 1, 1945, he had to cede power to Zhao Shangzhi, who secretly promised that Manchuria would never be sold out to either Chiang or Mao, in exchange of Xueming returning to China.

Manchu People's Republic

During the final days of World War II, the Soviet Army in the Far East attacked Manchuria and together with the Mongolian People's Army and the Manchurian People's Army, and occupied the former state of Manchukuo. It was said that the Chinese refusal to hand over Inner Mongolia to the Mongolian People's Republic spurred the Mongolian dictator Choibalsan to declare that the former Manchukuo should be handed over to Zhao's government in exile. Chiang Kai-shek replied that both Mongolia and Manchuria should remain under Chinese control, which angered Zhao. Tensions flared, the Nationalist and Communist Chinese were prohibited by the MPA and Mongolian forces from occupying the former Manchukuo. With the former Manchukuo Army soldiers being integrated to the Manchurian People's Army, Manchuria declared independence in February 1, 1946.

In exchange of recognizing independence, the main Chinese Communist Party forced Manchuria to accept Guan Xiangying, an ethnic Manchurian, as President, as well as Gao Gang as Chinese ambassador, in exchange of independence. However, Guan died in 1947 though remaining loyal to both the CCP and his native homeland, and Gao Gang had at point had eased himself with the main Manchu leadership headed by Zhao Shangzhi and Zhou Baozhong as figurehead President.

Government and Politics

Manchuria is officially a unitary semi-presidential state with a unicameral legislature. However, it can be said that Manchuria is technically both a republic and a monarchy; the constitution officially recognizes the chief of the Aisin Gioro family "as part of Manchuria's intangible heritage and a symbol of the state and the unity of the people." While he is commonly called Emperor, and is enthroned as such, his official title is Toose de Jafambi (Regent) by the government. Even then, he is still referred to as the Emperor, and has similar role as his Japanese counterpart.

The President (Beliihitiyande) is the head of state of the country; he is elected by the populace for a five-year term renewable only once in a re-election. He appoints the Prime Minister (Dorgi Yamun I Da) who heads the cabinet and the Legislative Assembly; he must be the leader of the party that receives the most votes in the house.

The Constitution of Manchuria serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which established clear separation of powers. However, for the most part of its history Manchuria was under autocratic rule. From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a Communist single-party state that ended in 1990 following the Sorghum Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a liberal democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria are still prominent and active in politics.

Foreign Relations

Manchuria's foreign affairs is conducted by its Foreign Ministry. Its key foreign policy is to retain its relative military power among other Asian nations, especially that along with China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, possess nuclear weapons in the Eastern Asia region. It pursues an independent foreign policy but has been notably close to Russia since 1945. However, Manchuria also pursued warmer relations with Western countries particularly the United States.

Manchuria is a member of several organisations such as the United Nations, G-20, WTO, APEC, IMF, WBG, ADB, East Asia Summit, ACD, PEMSEA, Non-Aligned Movement, Group of 15, and the Group of 24.

Military

The Manchurian Armed Forces are one of the largest in East Asia barring China and Korea.

Geography

Main article: Manchuria § Geography_and_climate

The territory within Manchuria lies within the northern part of the North China craton, which is an area of Precambrian rocks over 100 million hectares. Manchuria is traditionally divided into three geographic regions: the Hingan mountains, the Manchurian plain, and the Golmin Shanggiyan Mountain region.

In the middle between the Hinggan Range and the Golmin Sanggiyan Mountains is the Manchurian plain, also known as the Dongbei plain in Chinese or the Sungari-Liyoo Plain, with the Sungari, Non, and Liyoo Rivers running through the plain. Here is the area where widespread cultivation takes place. Majority of the soybean, millet, wheat, and rice are being planted in this region. The area is connected to the North China plain to the south-west.

Hailang River near Hailin City in Heilongjiang

Climate

Manchuria's climate provided contrasts, with very Arctic-like winters and hot, tropical summers. The position of Manchuria between the Eurasian landmass and the Pacific Ocean contribute to this climactic situation. Due to being in the border region of Eurasia and the Pacific, the climate triggers monsoonal wind reversal.

The dominant climate type according the Koppen scheme is the hot-summer dry continental, especially in the plain. In the far north, dry-winter subarctic climate prevails, and in the west, pockets of cold semiarid climate persist.

Temperatures during the winter are usually cold due to the Siberian High, ranging from -5 °C (23°F) to -30°C (-22°F), depending on latitude, which is considered colder when further north. The Siberian winds are relatively dry, however, and the snow is rarely heavy. Thus Manchuria, despite being colder than North America, never glaciated due to the strong westerly winds from western Eurasia.

In contrast, during summer, moist, southwestern winds bring thunderstorms, usually bringing 400 to 1150 mm of rain depending on the area; the area around the east receives more rain.

Administative Divisions

Manchuria is organized into provinces (golo, голо), subdivided into leagues (culgan, чулган), banners (guusa, гөса) and towns (sumu, суму), with certain cities such as the capital Cangcon, Halbin, Mukden, and Tiyeliyan having provincial status.

Administrative divisions of Manchuria

#	Name	Administrative Seat	Manchu	Population	Area (km2)
1	Huleigiolo	Hailar	Hулеигиоло ᡭᡠᠯᡝᡳᡤᡳᠣᠯᠣ	3,126,463	9,890.62
2	Sahaliyan Ula	Aigun	Сахалиян Ула ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ	2,623,541	10,414.94
3	Liyoo Ning	Išangga Gašan	Лиёо Нин ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᠨ᠋ᡳᠩ	3,044,641	19,698.00
4	Halhuun Ula	Erdemu de Aliha	Халхун Ула ᡭᠠᠯᡥᡡᠨ ᡡᠯᠠ	1,819,339	10,354.99
5	Girin	Girin Ula	Гирин ᡤᡳᡵᡳᠨ	8,106,171	12,860.00
6	Hinggan	Jerim	Хинган ᡥᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ	1,858,768	4,743.24
7	Yeonbyeon	Yongil	Янбиян ᠶᠠᠨᠪᡳᠠᠨ	2,271,600	43,509
8	Tiyeliyan	Tiyeliyan	Тиелиян ᡨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ	1,392,493	6,690,432
9	Niyengniyeltu	Cangcon	Ниыенгниыелту ᠨᡳᠶᡝᠩᠨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡨᡠ	6,690,432	12,573.85
10	Nemeri Ula	Cicigar	Немери Ула ᠨᡝᠮᡝᡵᡳ ᡠᠯᠠ	2,444,697	67,034
11	Acan Ula	Giyamusi	Ачан Ула ᠴᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ	1,709,538	8,420.00
12	Mukden	Mukden	Мукден ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ	2,138,090	11,272.00
13	Liyoo Dergi	Hetu Ala	Лиёо Дерги ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᡩᡝᡵᡤᡳ	2,717,732	12,979.69
14	Halbin	Halbin	Халбин ᡥᠠᠯᠪᡳᠨ	3,386,325	14,382.34

Economy

Manchuria has a economy that is measured to be the 15th largest in the world by 2018, at US$989 billion. Manchuria has been one of the strongest in the Asia-Pacific region despite not reaching the levels of the Asian Tigers. The service industry is smaller compared to the other East Asian countries.

During the Qing period, Manchuria was one of the most industrialized parts of the Chinese Empire, and its coal deposits made it a highly-urbanized country. Indeed, China refers to Manchuria as the "Eldest Son" of industrialized communist countries in Asia. After the fall of communism, Manchu struggled to keep its industry as it stagnated, prompting the government to diversify its economic structure.

Agriculture

%% Agriculture still plays a vital role in the Manchurian economy. In the northern cold regions soybeans, maize, wheat and potatoes are grown alongside beet, flax and sunflowers. Further east rice is cultivated especially in the Yanbian region, whereas down south maize, sorghum, soybeans and cotton are produced. The southern regions are also where most Manchu fruit is grown- apples and gold peaches from Dalian and Yingkou, pears from Jinzhou, white pears from Huludao and Suizhong, and apricots and plums from Dandong. Herding is also important being mainly focussed around cattle and horse, with Manchuria having a high amount of milk producing cows. Dairy products remain a large industry within Manchuria. Around Baicheng sheep farming is common.

Manchuria's agriculture has undergone a shift after 1990. Prior to 1990, all farming are done within collective farms confiscated from the Manchukuo puppet government and Japanese companies, with 50 families inhabiting a farm called The collective farms have moderate to high production rates but needed subsidies for technology. In 1990 collective farms remain but as their subsidies were cut off, many failed and shuttered. Technical support from Israel which converted many of the former collective farms into cooperative farms similar to that country's kibbutz and moshav system alleviated the agricultural situation. Private plots, de-facto recognized by 1971, were legalized by 1990.

Currency

The currency is known as the Ikengge, divided into 100 Menggun.

Demographics

Languages

The official languages are Manchu, Mandarin Chinese, Mongolian, Russian, Korean, and Japanese.

Society and Culture

Education

Manchuria inherited from Manchukuo and Communist times an efficient educational system. Manchuria's government had established numerous universities and schools. City universities tend to be of better quality than provincial schools, a problem acknowledged by the government.

Manchuria's education system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Facilities are either maintained by both private and public schools under the Ministry of Education. The ministry also sets a National Curriculum that provides guidelines for teachers; it is always regularly updated.

thumb|A Manchurian summer class