Second Reunification War of Hoterallia
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| Second Reunification War of Hoterallia Hoterallian Civil War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of Era of Civil Wars | |||||||||
Magateza | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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Regional warlords (Government loyalists) Minor militias, volunteer auxiliaries and territorial forces |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 Governor Norihi(Former Emperor and Director-General of the Hoterallian Government) |
 Takeshi Itō †(Chairman of the Council of National Salvation and National Prosperity) | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
|
690,000 (regular) 810,000 (militia) (June 1941)[1][2] |
320,000 (regular) 650,000 (militia) (July 1941)[3] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
|
| ||||||||
| c. 550,000 total killed[4] | |||||||||
The Second Reunification War of Hoterallia was a civil war in Hoterallia fought from 1939 to 1943, officially between the Government, Imperial loyalists, and the disorganized, guerrillas' forces loyal to the proclaimed "Council of National Salvation and National Prosperity" (CNSNP).[5] The loyalists were led by Emperor Norihi (who later stepped down to act as the Director-General of the Hoterallian Government), with the aid of the Imperial Armed Forces and volunteered irregular military units.[5][6] While the guerrillas' forces, better known as the Revolutionaries, were led by Takeshi Itō, a journalist, labor leader, socialist, and political agitator.[5][7]
The war saw a major split in Hoterallian politics, nationalism, and statism, especially in terms of Hoterallian clans. Due to the international political climate at the time, the war had many facets and was variously viewed as a class struggle, a struggle between statism and anti-statism, between revolution and counterrevolution, and between nationalism and communism. The Loyalists won the war, which ended in mid 1943, and restored national order throughout the country.[8]
The civil war began after a series of revolts from the population known as the Kezio Riots. The riots were the result of poor management of the Ichirō Jishage administration, which led to inflation in the Hoterallian economy and economic hardship for Hoterallian farmers and Hoterallian living in rural and underdeveloped areas, and a massive increase in the price of rice, consumer goods, and rents.[9]
It started with peaceful petitioning but quickly escalated to riots, strikes, looting, incendiary bombings of police stations and government offices, and armed clashes. By 1938, there were 321 separate disputes involving more than 59,000 workers. Some 19,000 people were arrested, of whom 9,200 were convicted of various crimes, with punishments ranging from minor fines to the death penalty.[9][10]
The flash-point came on July 21, 1939, with the Magateza Uprising, an armed rebellion among members of the Central Army. Similar revolts broke out spontaneously around the country, and revolutionaries in all prefectures renounced the Imperial government. On August 1, 1939, the clan-appointed Takeshi Itō as Chairman of the Council of National Salvation and National Prosperity, and he began negotiations with the revolutionaries.
By 1941, Hoterallia was divided into warlords' states, with clans controlling their separate armies, several of the warlords' states either aligned with the government or the revolutionaries. This era of the war was characterized by constant civil war between different factions and warlords. The era of warlords would end by the start of 1942 as the loyalists rallied back multiple clans-controlled warlords' states and slowly unified the country through both negotiations and force.
By mid-1942, even though several of the warlords continued to maintain their influence but many had joined the government coalition. The civil war entered its final stages as the revolutionaries were swept out of major city areas and the surviving revolutionaries resorted to insurgencies in rural areas to fight back the loyalists, with the support of the already-weakened warlords.
At the start of 1943, major internal issues were sparked in the revolutionaries' clique as the socialists clashed with the anarchists. During the chaos, Takeshi Itō was assassinated and the Council of National Salvation and National Prosperity collapsed. The summer of 1943 marked a series of counterinsurgencies against the revolutionaries, which resulted in the stronghold in Central Hoterallia fully collapsing to the Hoterallian government. By August 1943, Hoterallia was fully unified and the ones who associated with the losing revolutionaries were put up on trials. On September 2, 1943, Governor Norihi reassumed his role of Emperor of Hoterallia and proclaimed the Second Empire of Hoterallia. A new constitution and the 1945 National Act soon followed that re-stabilized and re-structured the Hoterallian government and economy.
This period of civil war has various names throughout the years, with the "Second Reunification War of Hoterallia", "Hoterallian Second Reunification War" and "Hoterallian Civil War" being the most commonly used names in Common.[11] In Hoterallian, the period is generally known as "軍閥時代" (Gunbatsu Jidai, Warlords Era). It has also been called "国家統一戦争" (Kokka Tōitsu Sensō, War For National Reunification).[12]
Background
The primary military organizations involved in the war were the Imperial Hoterallian Armed Forces, several minor militias, volunteer auxiliaries and territorial forces and regional clan-controlled warlords who were loyal to the government, pitted against the Army For National Salvation (AFNS) (commonly called the Revolutionaries' Army), independent military forces (commonly called the Revolutionaries' Independents Army, or RIA), and regional warlords who were against the government.[13]
Hoterallia was an economic power by the late 1800s, with domestic investment in industry and infrastructure being the driving force behind growth in Hoterallian output. It boosted the Hoterallian economic influences in the Southern Hemisphere, especially in places across Olivacia. [14]
As the Great War broke out in the Eastern Hemisphere, Hoterallia imposed a neutral stance on the war but an invasion by the Riamese into Hoterallian-controlled Unhak Islands Chain forced Hoterallia to become a co-belligerent with The Alliance.[15]
Initially winning the war, what remained of the Hoterallian Empire was wracked by shortages, inflation, and currency devaluation. Since Riamo was Hoterallian's biggest ally in terms of economics, the Empire suffered a heavy setback during and after the war. Inflation was rampant; the Hoterallian heavy industry was unable to meet the commercial requirements of Hoterallia (which had previously relied on trade with other countries for their manufactured goods).[16] Local industries were unable to produce at high enough levels to avoid severe shortfalls. Furthermore, maritime trade, upon which the Empire depended greatly, was sharply curtailed by damage to the Hoterallia merchant fleet by the Riamese throughout the war.[16]
The economic downfall resulted in food shortages as the government bought up existing food stocks to support the troops overseas, which drove food prices in Hoterallia to skyrocket. The government intervention in economic affairs (low regulated rice prices) caused small rural protests to spread to towns and cities. As more and more poorly made economic decisions were made by the Ichirō Jishage administration, more protests spread throughout the Empire, eventually starting the Kezio Riots.[17]
Kezio Riots
The Kezio Riots (径ぞ暴動, Kezio Sōdō) were a series of popular disturbances that erupted throughout Hoterallia from July 1935 to September 1940. The rice riots were unparalleled in modern Hoterallia history in terms of scope, size, and violence. The initial protest occurred in the small town of Uozu, Kaiguno Prefecture, on July 23, 1935.[18] With more than a dozen housewives and others who lived in Uozu town gathered in front of a warehouse of Juni Bank where the wealthy families had been loaded, and they pleaded to cancel the loading of rice and sell it to people. When the plead went unanswered, the protestors stormed the bank and stole the rice before distributing it among themselves.[18][19]
While in some places, protestors would stage peaceful petitioning, others would take on more violent approaches, especially in underdeveloped rural areas. In Okahiyomi, the Shinpo Cooperation and the Okahiyomi Shinbun company headquarters were set ablaze. In many other areas, many rice storage were raided and looted, some areas were so chaotic that the Imperial Hoterallian Army had to be stationed to quell out the disturbances.[18][20]
The disturbances reached their climax on January 19, 1939, when more than 4,300 protestors gathered in Hojo Park, near the Orajioe Palace. When the protestors marched from the Park to the Palace, the Imperial Guards opened fire upon the protestors, killing 51 and wounding 301.[21]
The shooting caused outrage throughout the Empire and many revolutionaries used it as propaganda to fight against the government. Many revolutionary groups in Hoterallia, such as the radical nationalist secret society Zenkokukyōkai (National Reconstruction Society),[22] the newly formed Hoterallian Communist Party,[23] and the left-leaning trade union Hoterallia Labour Union League, under Isao Yoshida.[24] None of the groups were properly organized so their influences were weak.
Takeshi Itō and the Labour Conference
Takeshi Itō was a rising star in Hoterallian left-leaning politics, being one of the main founders of the Hoterallia Labour-Farmer Party, an observer of the Hoterallian Communist Party, and a member of the Liberated Society of Hoterallia (ほてらじあ解放社会, Hoterajia Kaihō Shakai), as part of his efforts to link urban labor movements with rural peasant's movements.[25]
As a member of the Diet representing the Hoterallia Labour-Farmer Party, he later formed the Labour Conference (労働会議, Rōdō Kaigi), a non-governmental organization and lobby in an attempt to rally left-leaning groups, unions, and parties to work as a single entity and cause a major and much needed political shift in Hoterallia.[25][26]
Takeshi was already a charismatic figure on the Hoterallian Left. With the creation of the Labour Conference, almost all of the left-leaning movements were under the leadership of the conference. He and his conference posed a dangerous threat in Hoterallian politics.[27]
Clan conflicts, factionalism and warlordism
In Hoterallia, clans are deeply valued in society, reinforced by ties to an ancestral area, common property, and often a commonly spoken Hoterallian dialect and accent unintelligible to people outside the area. The clans would call these areas under their heavy influence "Kishi" (旗幟). Starting from the mid-1800s, many Kishi would start gaining influence over villages, then districts and wards, these rises in power worried the government but their rise in power would only grow.[28]
Due to the intense competition dating back from the days of honsōu, clans usually have conflicts with each other.[29] Conflicts were usually harmless between small clans but as Kishi was created, conflicts became a major problem. Conflicts sparked from the competitions include theft, disturbance of public order... Several conflicts even ended in swordfights and occasional gun battles, killing several and injuring many.[30]
While society was fracturing, political factionalism started to appear in Hoterallian politics and military factionalism also made an appearance in the Imperial Hoterallian Armed Forces.[31]
In politics, with the creation of the Rōdō Kaigi, factions in Hoterallia became common as many parties started to disband or merge with larger ones to form a strong faction or coalition in the National Diet and Machiko.[32][33] These factions built the foundations for future politics in Hoterallia as their structures were similar to what political factions in modern Hoterallia use.[32]
In the military, military officers usually received a meager salary compared to other countries' counterparts.[34] Even though the cost of living in Hoterallia was cheaper, these military officers felt discontented with their wages, some would defect the army and navy in search of better jobs.[35] Meanwhile, conscripts were forced to undergo harsh training and received lesser salaries than officers.[34][35][36]
—Hoterallian proverb
Discontented by unfair competition from the Kishi and mistreatment in the military, many feel distrust of the government and were faithful to their clans, which gave rise to the warlords.[30] Strong bonding, family ties, and respectful treatment of troops were already emphasized in many Kishi. The officers were never rotated, and the soldiers were handpicked by their commanders, and commanders by their generals, so personal bonds of loyalty formed between local officers and the troops, unlike in the Imperial Hoterallian Armed Forces.[30][37]
With many backgrounds in military, economics, and politics, many Kishi became warlords.[38] With financial backing, they were able to afford materials to craft their equipment.[39] Outside of hiring defected military personnel, bandits, village conscripts, and sometimes prisoners were incorporated into their armies.[39] With several political backgrounds, many of the warlords were able to run for governors and operate their territories with little to no government restrictions.[40]
Magateza Uprising, CNSNP and The Red Revolution
Magateza Uprising
Before the Civil War, the Central Army of the IHA was considered one of the most unstable divisions of the military. Many factors contributed to this -not unfounded- reputation including most of the Central Army consisting of lower-class Hoterallians, inadequate and often non-existent wages, and the harsh, much-derided training expected from the conscripted men. A large proportion of personnel, particularly from the enlisted and junior officer ranks, began to discuss, and eventually, begin to plan a mutiny against their higher-ranking superiors in the Central Army's High Command. [41]
The uprising was planned in a series of meetings held between 15 and 19 July by several discontented officers including a later warlord, Daisuke Ono. The officers and soldiers would overthrow the Central Army Command, plotting to assassinate the high-ranking officers, secure control of the administrative center of Magateza, and establish their governance over the areas surrounding Magateza. Many junior officers, university educated and motivated by the revolutionary student politics of the time, prepared an explanation of their intentions and grievances in a document entitled "Manifesto of the Uprising" (蹶起趣意書, Kekki Shuisho), which they sent to the Rōdō Kaigi's Chairperson, Yasuhiro Suenaga, hours before the uprising.[42][43]
For the uprising, the cabal requested help from the Ono Kishi, which Daisuke Ono agreed to help. Furthermore, the plotters were able to convince eighteen other ranking officers; it is to be noted that these additions were caroled with varying degrees of enthusiasm. Subalterns and junior officers were informed on the night of 20 July, hours before the attacks started. Although the officers insisted that all senior enlisted men participated voluntarily and any orders given were mere pro forma, many of the NCOs argued later that they had been in no position to refuse to participate. The soldiers themselves were not told anything before the coup began, though many were (according to the officers) enthusiastic once the uprising began.[43]
5 hours before the uprising started, the mutineers counted no fewer than 2,100 men. The leading officers adopted the name moniker "Thunder Army" (雷軍, kaminarigun) for the uprising forces, "Fight The Government" (政府との戦い, Seifu to Tatakau). was the mutineer's watchword [42]
The rebellious officers, divided into six companies, assembled their troops and left their barracks between 03:30 and 04:00. The attacks on high-ranking officers and attempts of overthrowing the Central Army Command occurred simultaneously at 05:00.[42]
The attack on the high-ranking officers and divisional officials consisted of around 950 men, led by a junior major and lynchpin of the original plot, Yōichi Takahashi. The troops surrounded the Central Army's Headquarters and forced its guards to open the gates. Upon entering the compound, they were met with fire from loyal troops. All of the loyalist troops were killed after wounding twenty-one of the rebel soldiers, but the gunfire succeeded in warning other officers of the danger.[43] The officers were led to a rear exit but several of the mutinous troops found out, upon which, they opened fire. The attack was considered a success as more than 8 high-ranking officers were killed. During this period, several officers and soldiers sympathetic to the rebels were folded into the ranks of the Uprising, three ranking officers were conditionally recruited -under duress- as well as several enlisted and conscripted platoons.[43][44]
Another attack was launched against the Magateza Police Headquarters to secure its communication equipment and prevent the dispatch of nearby provinces' reinforcement. They met no resistance and soon secured the building, possibly due to the fact the news of the Central Army's Headquarters already collapsed had spread.[42]
While ousting the military officers, the Ono Kishi forced the governors of Magateza to step down and be replaced by a temporary military government. In fear of being killed, many governors step down, including the Mayor of the city. By the early noon of the 21st, the whole city of Magateza was under the control of the so-called Thunder Army and the Ono Kishi. Communication between Magateza with other nearby areas was cut to not attract outside forces.[44]
Participants of the Keizo Riots also started to flee to Magateza, as the Rōdō Kaigi sent their political advisors to the city, with the approval of the Ono Kishi. The advisors include Yasuhiro Suenaga, Takeshi Itō, and many more prominent left-leaning political advisors. The city and surrounding areas became the base of opposition against the government.[44]
Rebels outside the Central Army's Headquarters during the uprising.
Rebel troops guarding the outskirt of Magateza
A rebel troop standing outside the gates of the Sannon Bank
Rebels surrounding the Magateza Police Headquarters
References
- ↑ Military History Institute of Hoterallia 2002
- ↑ Hoko, James C. (June 1, 2007). "A History of the Modern Hoterallian Army". Guri: University of Guri Press.
- ↑ Makato, Kobayashi (1994). "The Rise and Fall of Communism in Hoterallia". Sunadic Publishers & Dist.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Lynch, Michael; Nao; Yamamoto (2010). "The Hoterallian Civil War 1939–43". Fuuka Publishing.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Friedman, Herbert. ""The (Messy) War in Hoterallia"". Retrieved May 1, 2019.
- ↑ Kōichirō, Ogawa; Lind, Michael (2008) "The War That Changed The Hoterallian Perception of War and Military". Guri: University of Guri Press.
- ↑ Doyle, Harry; Lipsman, Samuel; (1986). The Hoterallian Civil War Experience: Inside The Deadly Front. Study in Hoterallia.
- ↑ Ryōichi, Fujimoto (1999) 『ほてらじあの世紀。 政治と社会』{Hoterajia no Seiki. Seiji to Shakai} (In Hoterallian). Minami no Taiyō.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 MacPherson, WJ (1995). The Economic Development of Hoterallia 1868–1939. Victoria University.
- ↑ Tōru, Yamada (1998). Hoterallian Pre-civil War Growth (Hoterallian Economic History 1600–1960). Orajioe University Press.
- ↑ Meaker, Scott S.F. "The Hoterallian Second Reunification War or Hoterallian Civil War?". Queen Diana University Press.
- ↑ "Olivacia-Nation: History, Demographics, & Issues: The Hoterallian Civil War". Retrieved August 18, 2008.
The Hoterallian Civil War is also called 'The Warlords Era' and 'The War For National Reunification' by the Hoterallian
- ↑ Tucker, Spencer C; Makoto, Okazaki (2011). The Encyclopedia of the Hoterallian Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History.
- ↑ A History of Hoterallia: From Stone Age to Great Power. John Mcmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-36918-4.
- ↑ Arima, Yuichi (December 2003). "The Way to Unhak Night Raids: Riamo vs Hoterallia"
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Ayuso‐Díaz, Alejandro; Hiroyuki, Tashiro; (2020). "Trade in the shadow of power: Hoterallian economy in the interwar years" (PDF). The Economic History Review.
- ↑ Keisuke, Kashiwagi; Kōhei, Ōhashi; Dower, John. "The Modern Hoterallia in Archive."
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2014). Wars For Rice in Hoterallia: The Kezio Sōdō and the Split of The Empire.
- ↑ Reid, Anthony; Yasuhiro, Tani. "Rewriting Rebellion and Mapping Memory in Hoterallia: The (Re)presentation of the Kezio Sōdō" Urban Studies.
- ↑ Huff, Gregg (2018). "Causes and consequences of the Keizo Riots, 1935–40". The Economic History Review.
- ↑ Tsuzuki, Chushichi (1970). "Anarchism in Hoterallia". Government and Opposition.
- ↑ Mao, Takahashi (May 17, 2014). "Okanebatsu, Zenkokukyōkai & Hidden Paths of Power". New Dawn.
- ↑ Crooke, Matthew (2018). Betraying Revolution: The Foundations of the Hoterallian Communist Party (master's thesis). Queen Diana University.
- ↑ Beckmann, George M.; Genji, Okubo. The Hoterallian Communist Movement, 1920–1966. Guri: University of Guri Press.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 "How the Hoterallian Communist Party and Its Successor, Mazuki Developed its Theory of Scientific Socialism and National Cooperation". Akai Kami. Retrieved June 12, 2019.
- ↑ Tawara, Yoshifumi. "What was the Aim of Rōdō Kaigi, the Proto-Mazuki Organization that Supports A Communist Hoterallia?"; Hoterallia Focus.
- ↑ Hastings, Sally Ann (2018). Hoterallia at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise before The War. University of Gekoree Press
- ↑ Watson, James L. (December 1982). "Hoterallian Kinship Reconsidered: Anthropological Perspectives on Historical Research". Hoterallia Quarterly.
- ↑ Nester, William R. (2016). The Foundation of Hoterallian Power: Continuities, Changes, Challenges: Continuities, Changes, Challenges. Guri: University of Guri Press,
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Makato, Kobayashi (1994). "Hoterallian Kishi and Warlordism – Bibliography". history.hrank.org. Retrieved May 7, 2016.
- ↑ Pérez, L.; Hiroki, K. George (2013). Hoterallia: How the Empire Fell. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Gran Rugido.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Hoterallia and Its Political Factions: A Story From Disunited To Harmonization". Tama Adune oe Faio.
- ↑ Fukui, Haruhiro. Political Parties of Olivacia and the Sunadic.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Vultesian Army Field Manual 30-480: Handbook on Hoterallian Military Forces.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 "A Question for the Imperial Hoterallian Army". HistoryNet.com. January 4, 2012. Retrieved December 16, 2020.
- ↑ Gilmore, Allison B. (1998). You Can't Train Men with Threats: Psychological Warfare of the Hoterallian Army in the Sunadic. Gavrilopolis: University of Gavrilopolis.
- ↑ Naoki Maeda (2006). 『天皇に仕える：大ほてらじあ帝国陸軍に関する研究。』 {Serving the Emperor: A study of the Imperial Hoterallian Army.} (in Hoterallian). Orajioe University.
- ↑ Tamar, Enokal E. (1993). The Power of the Gun, Money, and Power: The Emergence of Modern Hoterallian Warlordism. Freice City: National University of Freice.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 Lary, Diana (1985). Warlord Soldiers: Hoterallian Common Soldiers 1939-1943. Guri: University of Guri Press.
- ↑ Hiroshi, Nakayama (1988). Bandits, Bribes, and Monsters in Imperial Hoterallia. Freice City: National University of Freice.
- ↑ Masahiro, Hasegawa (1998). Modern Hoterallia: An Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Nationalism. Taylor & Francis publishing.
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 Akihiko, Yamazaki (1960). The Real History of Magateza Uprising. Saipoi: Saipoi Bookstore Publishing House.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Yūsuke, Okamura (1949). The First Book of the Magateza Uprising. Orajioe: Intellectual Property Publishing House.
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Inose, Naoki. The last uprising of the Hoterallian Empire. Saint George's College Press
