The Qurbanid Dynasty

Qurbanid Empire بۇيىك قۇربان دۆلىتى 大瑪
1303–1729
the Ma Dynasty on the eve of the death Sultan-Emperor Abduraşid (excluding vassals)
Capital	Nanjing (1446-1508; 1570-1705)
Common languages	Turki (Dynastic, Official, Literary, Administration, Court) Perisan (Official, Literary, Administration, Court) Mandarin Chinese (Administration, Literary, Lingua Franca) Arabic (Literary, Religious) Local Chinese Languages Various East and South-East Asian Languages
Religion	Sunni Islam (Hanafi)
Government	Absolute Monarchy
Sutan-Emperor
• 1399-1429	Ürkeş Sa'id
• 1508-1522	Kutalmiş
• 1552-1609	Malik-Şah
• 1621-1640	Abduraşid
• 1725-1729	Mahmud Qadr
Chancellor
• 1399-1436	Alp-Tigin
• 1728-1729	Wei Liao
Legislature	State Diet
Historical era	Early Modern
• Dynasty Founded	1303
• Tarim Basin Conquered	1328
• Crossing of Gansu Corridor	1401
• Siege of Xi'an	1408
• Siege of Nanjing	1446
• Reign of Sultan-Emperor Malik-Şah	1552
• Death of Sultan-Emperor Abduraşid	1640
• First Manchu-Qurbanid War	1660
• Siege of Guangzhou	1729
Area
1600	160,000,000 km2 (62,000,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1500	125,000,000
Currency	Paper Currency, Copper Cashes, Dinars

The Qurbanid Dynasty; the Ma Dynasty (Chinese: 瑪朝; pinyin: Mǎ Cháo); the Great Qurbanid State or Great Ma (Uyghur: ئۇلۇغ قۇربان دۆلەت; Chinese: 大瑪), was a Turco-Persianate and Sunni Muslim Chinese Imperial dynasty of primarily Karluk origin. Named after the founder of the dynasty Sultan Kurban Khan in 1303, the empire, as established by his grandson Ürkeş after the consolidation of the former lands of the Chagatai Khanate in 1328, would come to rule the entirety of modern day China by 1565, which would last until 1724 after the the Qing Conquest.

The dynasty was founded by Kurban who originally a lower Turkic beg serving under the ailing Chagatai Khanate who seized power in the religious and succession crisis that engulfed the Khanate, emerging as the premier ruler of the Tarim Basin and given the title Sultan. In subsequent years, the tenure of the reportedly eccentric Kurban saw revival of old silk road routes and the rationalisation of state administration in the Qurbanid sultanate. After his death, his successor, Sultan Satuq began preparations for an expansion to fulfil his own grand visions of conquest. Unlike many Turco-Persian rulers who aimed to push west, Satuq, due reportedly to a vision, was compelled to advance east and conquer China, where the incumbent Yuan dynasty was facing the Red Turban rebellions, sensing weakness. Satuq himself would never invade China, dying in 1399 after years of preparation to illness. Succeeded by his son Ürkeş Sa'id, a capable commander and organiser, the first Qurbanid invasion of Northern China would begin in 1401, culminating in a number of campaigns which saw successive parts of China fall to the Kurbanids, such as the fall of Xi'an, Beijing, and Nanjing in 1408, 1420, and 1446 respectively. The final Qurbanid conquests would end in 1565 when the province of Yunnan was finally conquered. Upon the establishing of a strong posistion in China after 1402 the Kurbanids declared their own dynasty and claimed overlordship of all of China, adopting the name Ma or 瑪.

Though the Kurbanids initially were considered both by themselves and the native Chinese as foreign rulers, the Kurbanids would come to sustain a religiously and ethnically diverse and relatively peaceful empire that simultaneously maintained its Islamic and Turco-Persianate nature to the point that historian Ana Markova would describe the Kurbanids as "... the least assimilated non-ethnic Han dynasty in Chinese history - indeed its most foreign." While the ruling caste retained their Turco-Persianate culture, traditions, and language, with various outbursts of cultural and religious imposition such as in the assertion of Sunni Orthodoxy and the promotion of Turco-Persianate culture amongst Chinese elites by Sultan Kutalmiş (1508-1522), the Kurbanids would, both through happenstance and concerted efforts, manage to incorporate the local Chinese and non-Muslim population into its imperial structure. It did this through a combination of strategic toleration and military force. The cultures and peoples the Kurbanid Empire ruled were not actively suppressed and granted degrees of autonomy in exchange for recognition of or service to the Kurbanids, as well as the incorporation of local elites and officials into the state bureaucracy, which would also come to take on more Chinese characteristics - all of which was backed by the ever present threat of military reprisal.

In such a diverse environment, cross-cultural exchange was prevalent and Kurbanid rule is generally regarded as a high point for cultural production owing to the unique cultural synthesis and strong patronage networks under Kurbanid and Chinese elites, which saw many great works of art, literature, poetry, and fashion being created during Kurbanid rule. The early decades of Kurbanid rule saw stricter ethnic and confessional hierarchies and division being set, with Turks and Persians erecting social and legal boundaries and excluding or even oppressing the local Chinese population. However, but later periods would see a relaxing of ethnic and religious boundaries, though Muslims maintained elevated positions in Kurbanid society. As these boundaries relaxed, more direct cross-cultural exchanged would simultaneously take place, with Chinese cultural influences making stronger penetrations into the ruling Turco-Persian class than it previously had, even before the Kurbanid invasion. Chinese cultural trends in fashion, art, music, and poetry would become popular and synthesise with existing Turco-Persian and Islamic trends, with the reverse case itself being a major phenomenon as well.

Kurbanid rule in China also saw vigourous engagement in trade and cultural ties with essentially all its neighbours, with a marked increase of contact between the the Islamic world and the Sinosphere, not to be outdone by the Empire's efforts at contact with Asia-Pacific states. The state pursued a relatively free and open trade policy that saw ports and trade routes open to merchants from all over the world free to do business with few restrictions, leading to the nickname of the vast networks of Chinese mercantile trade: 'the Thousand Lilies'. The Kurbanids additionally sought to make extensive contacts and trade with the rulers and notables of other states from as far as the Swahili coast to Japan. A number of expeditions and travels compendiums have been preserved from the era, making note of the sights and wonders of the world.

History

Foundation of the Qurbanid Dynasty

The Qurbanid dynasty was founded by Qurban, a minor Muslim Turkic beg under the suzerainty of the Chagatai Khanate. Little is known or recorded of Qurban's origins and of his earlier life, although his later activities including his rise to prominence in the Chagatai Khanate and the subsequent supplanting of the Chagatai Khanate by the Qurbanid dynasty is well attested. It is noted in one chronicle that Qurban gained the trust of the Duwa Khan and was granted a high-ranking military post, in which he would serve the various Khans up until the terminal political and religious crisis of the Chagatai Khanate. At the start of the 1300s, the Chagatai Khanate had been ruled by the Muslim Duwa Khan since 1282, whose predecessors had also been Muslim. However, many elites of the Khanate were followers of the traditional Turco-Mongolic Tengri religion who held a general unease with the perceived dominance of the new foreign faith. At this same time, a number of begs, both major and minor, sought to increase their power and influence at the expense of the Khan and the Khanate at large. However, the rule of Duwa Khan brought fragile and tense stability to a Khanate where political factionalism and opportunism bubbled under the surface, tensions that were interwoven with general religious tensions with both Muslims and Tengrists. In the realm of religious tensions, a steadily growing undercurrent of Christianity in the Khanate contributed to the overall religious tensions due to the missionary work of the Franciscans in Almalik, with a small number of begs and their tribesmen converting to Christianity.

<Summary for later writing> Deaths of Duwa, his son Könchek dies (1308) quite early on too. Taliqu, not a son of Duwa, takes control which causes a stir, but whats more is Taliqu is very heavy handed and tries to impose Islam upon the population and begs as well as enforce Jizya, which causes wider tensions and eventually revolt (1309) in which Qurban helped win a couple of battles, but soon other begs (more opportunistic ones) including the christians rise up, which render those victories null. They now have a lot of enemies. Qurban is sent to suppress the Christian rebellion and defeats them but recruits them to his side, and soon he defeats a number of other begs and incorporates them into his cause, making himself a powerbroker in the turmoil of the Chagatai Khanate. Chronicles disagree here, some say Taliqu then attacks Qurban, others claim Qurban attacked first. Either way, Qurban turns against Taliqu Khan and defeats him. (1318) Mopping up other resistance, he takes effective control of essentially all of the former Chagatai Khanate. Qurban had to balance between the Tengri and Christian elements in his new Sultanate, as well as the more opportunistic people, and there's politicking, assasination, patronages, he consolidates his rule by 1328. Qurban had to balance between the Tengri and Christian elements in his new Sultanate, as well as the more opportunistic begs, and there's politicking, assasination, patronages, alliances he consolidates his rule by 1328. Relatively diverse and not super centralised polity, but it ensured his rule. Overtime, Qurbanid power would become more centralised especially under the reign of Sultan Satuq.

Administration and Governance

write on exact mechanisms of tolerance, functions and limits, including struggles with incorporating non-Turco-Persian and non-Muslims into the elite, struggles with tolerating or utilising particular groups. Issues with enforcing and toelrating Sunni orthodoxy, could include some small Shia opposistion, but mainly heretical Chinese-Muslim religious syncreticism. Issues with sufi orders, more tolerant in partcular periods?

Kutalmis important in importing Hanafi jurists (perhaps in this there is dispute among historians on the exact extent non-muslims wer ekept out of government, perhaps non-muslims were still being hired to high posistions) from the Islamic world to serve as state bureaucrats, but bureaucrats generally would be drawn from a variety of sources.

Overall, empire was highly bureaucratised, especially after taking on Chinese imperial systems, such as reinstating imperial exams that also tested for Islamic material.

Administration: Most local affairs handled by non-muslim Chinese, something analogous to the millet system. Islamic law applied for most other kinds of law. Pact of Umar.

Language:

Most local decrees done solely in Chinese, more official, high level decrees issues mostly in both Persian and Turki, as well as Mandarin CHinese where necessary. No real custom to which languages are used, though Turki had precedence over Persian. Later periods had either Persian or Turki accompanied by Mandarin Chinese

Religion

Sunni elite, eventually more sunni bureaucrats meant state's islamic character more emphasised.

Many chinese converted to Islam, but majority maintained traditional chinese religions. The veracity of conversions can't be totally verified, and syncreticism was rampant, leading to periods of suppression and attempts at asserting orthodox. Presence of Sufi orders, how would they be treated? Would they be instrumentalised? Could they run up against the state's ideals?

Religious life for most chinese, no public practicing of non-muslim religious rituals or festivals, must be kept private (perhaps this would cause a stir and exceptions would be made)

Maybe proto-Taiping rebellion or just big movement where someone claims to be the Mahdi? lean towards just big religious movement that gets people riled up with outbursts of violence but no big organised revolt like that. perhaps a shabbatai tzvi kinda thing

Interactions with Ottoman Caliphate

Interactions with Dalai Lama (perhaps vassalisation of Tibet comes in the form of supporting a claimant? idk if that works tho)

Interactions with a number of Sufi orders, Ni'matullahi is one i can imagine going to China. "Naqshbandiyya Sufis, split between the 'New Teaching' Afaqiyya and 'Old Teaching' Ishaqiyya branches"

Interactions with Heterodox Muslims: Folk Islam among the local population that heavily syncreticises with Chinese folk religions, buddhism, Taoism, and the such. Perhaps some syncretism with Islam and Confucian thought and morality that basically renders some forms of folk islam more humanistic. Big important one that contributes to the end of the empire is the one that has someone claim to be the mahdi but with the mahdi as a kind of Guan Yu character (perhaps, idk need to do more research). Maybe they can be weird shias too. Buddhist syncretism too

With europeans came the first real dealings with christians, both foreign and converted locals.

by end of dynasty, 21% of Chinese would be muslims, and turkic and to a lesser extent persian peoples would have a larger presence in China.

Societal Organisation and Economics

taxation, periods of Cosmopolitainism and religious/cultural strictness. Will there be jizya?

Cultural Interactions within China

This section would deal with the cultural interactions between elites and between the lower classes, between Turks and Chinese of all strata. Communal relations and cultural synthesis and that kinda thing.

invasions accompanied by nomadic migrations, so modern-day China has a rather significant Turkic population in China. Most settled in the north China plain, but some made their way down south as well as along the coasts as sea-faring merchants. Due to this, there is a significant Turkic minority who have maintained their cultural and linguistic heritage despite extensive intermixing in Guangdong, Fujian, and Hunan.

introduction of Turkic and Persian and Arabic cultural artifacts, iranian waterworks and gardening, persian and central asian cuisine mixing with local chinese cuisines (we have real world examples of this) mixing of Chinese and muslim artstyles. Mandarin persian/turkic/arabic loan words, chinese loan words in local chagatai language, etc.

Non-Chinese language makes a big enterance into CHinese society, particuarly Turki

Art, Music, Literature, Architecture, Philosophy

art patronage, trends in art and literatures, architecture,

philosophers and philosophies, particular pieces of art and literature.

Foreign Relations

lots of trade and communication with europeans.

Military

<notes on further history>

can write on specific chinese influences on administration and attempts to reconcile Islam with Chinese myths of state legitimation and folk beliefs.

Specific cross-cultural influences on both cultures and peoples.