Manjugurun: Difference between revisions

Republic of Manchuria
Манҗу Гуңхего
ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ
满洲共和国
Маньчжурская Республика
만주 공화국
満州共和国
Манжуурын Бүгд Найрамдах Улс
Republic of Manchuria Манҗу Гуңхего; ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ; 满洲共和国; Маньчжурская Республика; 만주 공화국; 満州共和国; Манжуурын Бүгд Найрамдах Улс
	Flag Emblem
	Anthem: Манжу Гурун-и Учун; Manju Gurun-i Ucun; National anthem of Manchuria; ; File:Mongolian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.ogg
	location of Manchuria in green
Capital	Changchun; Lua error in Module:Coordinates at line 492: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).
Largest city	Mukden
Official languages	Manchu (official and national), Mandarin, Russian, Korean, Japanese, Mongolian
Official scripts	Manchu Cyrillic; Manchu script
Ethnic groups (2010)	41% Manchus; 46% Chinese; 6% Koreans; 2% Mongols; 1.7% Japanese; 1% Russians; 1.3% others;
Demonym(s)	Manchu; Manchurian;
Government	Unitary parliamentary state
• President	Bai Chunli
• Founder	Aisin Gioro Yujang
• Prime Minister	Citela Sucun
Legislature	Legislative Assembly
Formation
• Jurchen Empire	formed 1115
• Qing Empire	formed 1636
• Manchukuo	1932
• Manchurian People's Republic was established	February 1, 1946
• Sorghum Revolution	October 3, 1990
• Current Constitution	February 1, 1991
Area
• Total	1,260,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi) (18th)
• Water (%)	5.4
Population
• 2016 estimate	3,081,677 (134th)
• Density	1.97/km2 (5.1/sq mi) (238th)
GDP (PPP)	2015 estimate
• Total	$36.6 billion
• Per capita	$11,024
GDP (nominal)	2015 estimate
• Total	$12.5 billion
• Per capita	$4,353
Gini (2011)	36.5; medium
HDI (2014)	0.727; high (90th)
Currency	Jiha (MNJ)
Time zone	UTC+9
Date format	yyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+976
ISO 3166 code	MN
Internet TLD	.mj, .ман
	^ Also spelled "Cangcon" and called "Ice Hoton".;

Revision as of 15:26, 15 March 2020

Manchuria /mæŋˈtʃuːriə/ (listen) (Manju Gurun in Manchu; Манҗу Гурун in Manchu Cyrillic) is a sovereign state in East Asia. It borders Russia to the north, Mongolia to the west, China to the southwest, and Korea in the southeast. Its capital is Changchun, and its former capital Mukden is the largest city. Its population of 121,204,300 is one of the largest on earth.Template:UN Population

While Manchuria was dominated by Korean and Chinese dynasties, they were mostly dominated by Tungusic peoples such as the Jurchens. The region was the center of the Jin Dynasty from 1125 to 1234, when it was conquered by the Mongol Empire and its Yuan Dynasty. Southern Manchuria fell under Ming rule, but the northern parts remained outside Chinese control. The Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain Nurhaci later took over the Jurchen tribes in the 1600s, culminating in the Qing Dynasty founded by Hong Taiji in 1636, and later conquering China by 1644. Intrigues by Russia led to the loss of Outer Manchuria by 1860, with Manchuria coming under Russian influence by the late 19th century. The southern part was also later influenced by Japan by the early 1900s. By 1911, the Qing Dynasty fell and Manchuria went to a sway of Chinese warlords such as Zhang Xueliang. ^[1] and is considered the homeland of several groups besides the Manchus, including the Koreans and Chinese. ^[2]^[3]^[4]Japan's influence increased by 1932, later establishing Manchukuo as a satellite state, with the last emperor of Qing and China, Pu Yi being installed as a puppet leader. Popular resistance against Japanese rule intensified, and by the end of World War II, a pro-Communist parallel government took over most parts of Manchuria, co-operating with coup-plotters in Xinjing and the Soviet and Mongolian invaders. A plebiscite held in October 1945 confirmed the independence of the new People's Republic of Manchuria.

An intensive Desinicization program was enacted, imposing the Manchu language on the majority Chinese population with limited success^[5], and the country provided support during the Korean War. During the 1960s, disagreements with Mao Zedong and Zhao Shangzhi over the latter's refusal to join the People's Republic were cited as a reason for the Sino-Soviet Split. In response for Chinese nuclear tests, Manchuria developed its own nuclear weapons, which it maintains to this day. After the fall of communism in 1991, Manchuria reformed its economy from a socialist economy to a mixed-market economy.

Although having the 15th largest economy in the world, the country has a lower GDP per capita compared to neighbors, compounded with government controversies. The government is only successful in privatizing smaller businesses, with the larger businesses remaining state-owned or owned by former government officials. It maintains amicable relations with most of its neighboring countries, and is a member of the United Nations, the G-25, the World Trade Organization, the Shanghai Co-Operation Organization, the World Bank, the Asian International Investment Bank, and the Asian Development Bank.

Etymology

The word Manchuria comes from the word Manju, decreed by Hong Taiji in 1636 to replace Jurchen, which was seen as derogatory. It may have come from the Buddhist deity Manjusri, or from a compound word meaning 'strong arrow'.

The current English name of Manchuria is rooted in controversy. It was first used by Japanese and Western geographers during the 18th and 19th centuries. ^[6] The Manchus reportedly have no native name for the land, except to refer to the territory as the Three Eastern Provinces (Dergi Ilan Goro).^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] Also, the Qing Dynasty consistently refer to their territory as merely China. It was during and after World War II that the word Manchuria gained currency, and was accepted as the normal English name of the country.

A few Western academics suggested renaming the English name of the country due to its associations with imperialism; the Chief Executive of Manchuria replied in 2013 interview with BBC: "This is telling a person that he needs to change his name because it was offensive, even if for that person it is harmless. It is bullying, pure and simple." ^[12]

Template:Chinese

History

Early History

Ancient Manchuria had been home for several ethnic groups such as the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens. During various points in Manchu history, several Chinese dynasties controlled portions of Manchuria, usually in the coasts, and the Chinese also set up tributary relations with the tribes. The Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and [[Buyeo also controlled parts of Manchuria. Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen also claimed that the Korean kingdoms might have substantial Tungusic-speak]]ing minorities and even have an Tungusic elite. ^[13]

Within the 10th to 11th century, the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria forged a state called the Liao, controlling Northern China and Manchuria, forcing the ancestors of the Jurchens into tributary status. The Khitan empire were the first state to control the entire modern region of Manchuria. ^[14]^[15]

The Mongol Yuan province of Liaoyang (Liyoo-a); the province included northern Korea

The Manchu Qing dynasty circa 1820. Manchuria is the homeland of the Jurchens and later Manchus.

Medieval History

A 12th-century Jurchen stone tortoise in today's Ussuriysk

By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, one of the tributary peoples of the Khitans rebelled against Liao rule and replaced them with the Jin Dynasty. Numerous campaigns against the Song Chinese enabled the Jurchen to capture territory in northern China. The Jurchens were then conquered in turn by the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty. During Mongolian rule, Manchuria was named as Liaoyang along with Northern Korea.^[16]In 1375, Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula, but the Ming defeated his forces and surrendered. The Ming Emperor Yongle consolidated control of the Manchurian lands, creating the Nurgan Regional Military Commission.^[17]

Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens under Nurhaci started to consolidate their control of the region starting in the 1580s. They had to contend with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, finally killing him in 1640 and incorporating his remaining troops to the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organization.^[18] During this period, Chinese cultural influence seeped through the Manchurian region and various ethnic groups living there.^[19]

In 1634, Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchens into Manchus, citing the former name as now derogatory.

A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk

In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels. Ming general Wu Sangui called the Manchu leadership to assist in seizing Beijing. Using the opportunity of the chaos, the Manchus overthrew the nascent Shun Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. It was estimated that twenty-five million people died as a result of the conquest. ^[20]

Qing Empire

Nurhaci, founder of the Manchu nation and the Qing Dynasty

After the Manchus conquered China, they built the Willow Palisade to control Chinese emigration to the ethnic Manchurian lands..^[21] Only ethnic Manchurians and Chinese bannermen are allowed to settle in Giring and Sahaliyan Ula.

During their reign over China, the Manchurians called their state "Dulimbai Gurun" and considered their state to be China.^[22]^[23]^[24] Their definition of China also included Manchuria, Tibet, and Mongolia as a whole, and the "Chinese language" also refered to Manchu and Mongolian. The Treaty of Nerchinsk stated that the Manchurian lands are considered part of China. ^[25]

As the centuries passed by, Han Chinese both legally and illegally settled to Manchuria, as Manchu banner landlords wanted Chinese labor and pay rent for their land to grow grain. 500,000 hectares of land were cultivated by Han Chinese by the end of the eighteenth century and about 203,583 hectares of Banner-owned lands were inhabited by Han, about 80% in estimate. ^[26]^[27] Many of these Chinese settlers were from North China and were introduced to settle on the Liyoo river to restore the land to cultivation. ^[28] Farmlands were also created by illegal Chinese settlers along with tenants. ^[29] Although the Qing Emperor Hungli/Qianlong repeated issued edicts against Chinese settlement in Manchuria, he later tolerated them as many of the Chinese settlers were suffering from drought. ^[30] .^[31] Chinese settlers even claimed land even from the Imperial estates. ^[32] To increase the revenue, the Daoguang Emperor even allowed sale of Banner land to Chinese settlers.^[33] Sinicization was accelerated that eighty percent of the population were Chinese.^[34]

An outbreak of bubonic plague occured in Manchuria in 1910-11, killing about 50,000 to 60,000 people in Harbin alone. ^[35] While the plague was contained, the high number of deaths forced Chinese and Manchurian officials to initiate stricter health measures, and shortly after the overthrow of the Qing, the North Manchurian Plague Office was established to combat outbreaks.

Fengtian Era

After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, Zhang Zuolin took over the administration of the Manchurian lands. In 1920, he then set reforms that enabled Manchuria, then known as the Three Eastern Provinces, to be relatively unscathed by the chaos of the warlord era in China. Although Manchuria remained officially a part of China, it was effectively isolated from China and protected by Zhang's Fengtian Army, and its naval and air forces are considered advanced compared to the other Chinese states. He tolerated the Japanese presence in Manchuria but is said to be losing patience at their control of Kwantung and the South Manchurian railroad.

Zhang Zuolin was later killed in the Huanggutun Incident on 2 June 1928, allegedly on the orders of the Kwantung Army due to the latter perceiving him as a traitor. Zhang Xueliang took his place, then allied himself with the advancing Kuomintang to prevent conquest.

A month after the reunification with the KMT, Zhang attempted to establish control over the Chinese Eastern Railway causing a armed skirmish with the Soviet Union. Zhang was now the de facto dictator of Manchuria, although he remained officially loyal to the Kuomintang supporting the nationalist government in the Central Plains War. However Chinese-Japanese relations were quickly deteriorating with Japan trying to exert more influence in Manchuria.

Manchukuo

In 1931, the Japanese forces in Manchuria seized the country from the Chinese, creating a satellite state called Manchukuo a year later. The Japanese installed Pu Yi as a figurehead leader while real power is in the hands of the Japanese advisers. Several anti-Japanese Manchurian commanders such as Tong Linge (Tunggiya Linge) joined Kuomintang forces in China, with several of them being killed in the Second Sino-Japanese War. ^[36]^[37]^[38] Manchuria was used as a buffer state between Japan and the Soviet Union as both countries clashed twice in 1938 and 1939. ^[39] It was said that Japanese control of the resources in Manchuria enabled it to execute the Pearl Harbor bombing and initate a conquest of Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. ^[40]

Several anti-Japanse Manchu leaders like Zhao Shangzhi, Chen Hanzhang, and Yang Jingyu fled to the Soviet Union and Mongolia and established a government in exile. A rift between Zhao Shangzhi and the Yanan leadership was only temporarily healed and Zhao decided to separate and rename his Northeast Anti-Japanese Army into the Manchurian People's Army and finally advocate a separate Manchurian communist state to "defend itself from Kuomintang" machination. A large number of former Northeast Anti-Japanese Army soldiers are of ethnic Manchu descent and Zhao who was mixed Chinese and Manchu wanted an "ethnic revival" of the Manchus and thus ordered Manchu-language education.

A coup by secretly communist Manchukuo officers during the Soviet-Japanese War in August 1, 1945 had taxed the already stretched Kwantung Army declared the establishment of the Manchu Republic, led by Zhang Xueming, Zhang Xueliang's brother, who secretly fled from Mainland China, and used the flag of the Fengtian Clique. However, in September 1, 1945, he had to cede power to Zhao Shangzhi, who secretly promised that Manchuria would never be sold out to either Chiang or Mao, in exchange of Xueming returning to China. Pu Yi escaped to Japan, but was captured by the Americans and made witness to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. He was imprisoned by the Soviet Union until released to live his exile to Japan.^[41] The majority of the Japanese settlers were either deported back to Japan or were kept as "hostages" by Zhao Shangzhi to elicit Japanese goodwill. Many of them only were able to return in the 1960s. ^[42]

Manchu People's Republic

Zhao Shangzhi, early Manchurian People's Republic leader.

During the final days of World War II, the Soviet Army in the Far East attacked Manchuria and together with the Mongolian People's Army and the Manchurian People's Army, and occupied the former state of Manchukuo. It was said that the Chinese refusal to hand over Inner Mongolia to the Mongolian People's Republic spurred the Mongolian dictator Choibalsan to declare that the former Manchukuo should be handed over to Zhao's government in exile. Chiang Kai-shek replied that both Mongolia and Manchuria should remain under Chinese control, which angered Zhao. Tensions flared, the Nationalist and Communist Chinese were prohibited by the MPA and Mongolian forces from occupying the former Manchukuo. .^[43]With the former Manchukuo Army soldiers being integrated to the Manchurian People's Army, Manchuria declared independence in February 1, 1946.

Soviet troops in Harbin, 1946

In exchange of recognizing independence, the main Chinese Communist Party forced Manchuria to accept Guan Xiangying, an ethnic Manchurian, as President, as well as Gao Gang as Chinese ambassador, in exchange of independence. However, Guan died in 1947, and Gao Gang had at point had eased himself with the main Manchu leadership headed by Zhao Shangzhi and Zhou Baozhong as figurehead President.

During the Korean War, Manchuria entered the war on the side of North Korea along with the People's Republic. A "People's Support Army" was sent by Manchuria alongside China's "People's Volunteer Army". Zhao reluctantly entered the war to both secure his southern border and to prevent China from occupying it as a pretext for inaction. 83,400 Manchurians were killed in action among 300,000 Manchurian soldiers who fought in the "War to Aid Korea and Resist America."

However, the high cost of the war and the defeat of North Korea had angered many Manchurian officials, and Zhao Shangzhi once considered resignation; he was retained at the request of the communist party. Yang Jingyu and Zhou Baozhong were removed for disagreeing with Zhao about the conduct of the war; Zhao formally became president in 1956. They both left for China, never returning to Manchuria again. Zhou Baozhong later became governor of Yunnan, while Yang Jingyu went back to Yenan province, quietly dying in 1965.

Zhao initiated the so-called "Sahaliyan Ula Protocol" in 1960, as a response to China and claiming that North Korea betrayed his country's trust. It aims to usurp China's place as the leading Asian communist power by using internal reform within party and government, publicly allying with the Soviet Union but at the same time maintaining its independence, and with prime minister Sheng Shicai, broadened their relations with the West. Thousands of pro-unification PRC Manchurians were jailed or executed. Zhao while publicly reforming the internal structure of the government, remained powerful. Unlike his neighbors, however, Zhao remained comparatively "moderate".

In 1956, Manchuria started a nuclear program, intended at first for peaceful purposes. However, the government believed that Manchuria would also need to use the nuclear program to create atomic weapons. Soviet documents revealed that the rationale is to prevent both American and Chinese aggression. Seeing Manchuria as too big for the Soviet Union to be brought into heel, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev tacitly allowed Manchuria to develop its own nuclear weapon, who is suffering with the fallout from Mao Zedong during the Sino-Soviet Split. Soviet scientists helped Manchurian scientists in the development of nuclear weapons, detonating it in 1972 with widespread condemnation. This encouraged the USSR to tacitly allow most Warsaw Pact countries with the specific exception of East Germany to develop their own arsenal; East Germany later procured their own arsenal and was inherited and kept by the present unified government of Germany.

In 1970, Zhao Shangzhi died, replaced by Chen Hanzhang as President and Tong Zhishan, Zhao's preferred successor, as General Secretary. Tong had to inherit the worsening border clashes within China due to the Cultural Revolution; already, Zhao was denounced in China for his failure to incorporate Manchuria to the PRC. Red Guards trying to infiltrate Manchuria were "killed on the spot". Soviet forces in Tiyeliyan and the Chinese-Manchurian border also engaged in border clashes. ^[44]

Manchuria was denied by the Republic of China from admission into the United Nations due to its claims, even though it acquiesced in its admission of Mongolia in 1961. .^[45]^[46]^[47] (see China and the United Nations) In 1971, the People's Republic in an overture to improve Manchuria-China relations, approved of Manchuria's entry to the United Nations.

Tong Zhishan, a naval officer during the Manchukuo Army era and the first admiral of the Manchurian People's Navy, personally supervised the growth of the armed forces, and had a shipbuilding program commenced, concentrating on destroyers and coastal defense ships. He also liberalized Tiyeliyan, which was already under a "special regime" and certain western products were allowed.

Modern Manchuria

Protesters against the communist regime in 1990

By 1990, Manchuria's economy is a breaking point; many people felt that the communists have long outlasted them. Chinese exiles after the 1989 protests aided the pro-democracy protesters. After much hesitation, Li Zhaolin resigned and a more moderate leader, Liu Binyan, took over.

After the fall of Communist regime in Manchuria, the government in Changchun feared that China will attempt to overthrow their government by force, as Chinese people who fled the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989 were allowed refuge by the Manchurian government. Also the border clashes with Korea have put into question Manchuria's peaceful intentions. ^[48]^[49].

Government and Politics

Manchuria is officially a unitary semi-presidential state with a unicameral legislature. However, it can be said that Manchuria is technically both a republic and a monarchy; the constitution officially recognizes the chief of the Aisin Gioro family "as part of Manchuria's intangible heritage and a symbol of the state and the unity of the people";his official title is called the Founder (Yuwanjun) by the government. Even then, he is still unofficially referred to as the Emperor, and has similar role as his Japanese counterpart. The Founder performs the rituals for the state. It was said that this role was a replacement for the ranking of General Secretary of the Manchu Communist Party which is deemed the highest office during the Communist era, but today the Founder serves as figurehead. His official residence is the Salt Palace.

National Assembly Building.

The President (Beliihitiyande) is the technical and actual head of state of the country; he is elected by the populace for a five-year term renewable only once in a re-election. He appoints the Prime Minister (Dorgi Yamun I Da) who heads the cabinet and the Legislative Assembly; he must be the leader of the party that receives the most votes in the house. The so-called "Joogiya's Mansion", the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era, was converted for the President's use.

President Baigiya Cunli

The Constitution of Manchuria serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which established clear separation of powers. However, for the most part of its history Manchuria was under autocratic rule. From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a Communist single-party state that ended in 1991 following the Sorghum Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a liberal democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria are still prominent and active in politics.

Foreign Relations

Manchuria's foreign affairs is conducted by its Foreign Ministry. Its key foreign policy is to retain its relative military power among other Asian nations, especially that along with China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, possess nuclear weapons in the Eastern Asia region. It pursues an independent foreign policy but has been notably close to Russia since 1945. However, Manchuria also pursued warmer relations with Western countries particularly the United States.

Manchuria is a member of several organisations such as the United Nations, G-20, WTO, APEC, IMF, WBG, ADB, East Asia Summit, ACD, PEMSEA, Non-Aligned Movement, Group of 15, and the Group of 24.

During the Cold War, it traditionally supported the Soviet Union until its demise in 1991. During the Manchukuo era, the Soviets opened consulates in Harbin. After the war, the Soviet Union upgraded their full relations with the new Manchurian communist government. Manchuria continues its relations with Russia amicably, and is viewed as Manchuria's traditional ally, and a special relationship with Russia emerged. ^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53] Manchuria has a neutral position on the Crimea problem, insisting that all problems should be solved by peaceful means if possible. Manchuria has amicable relations with all the other post-Soviet republics, especially Kazakhstan and Uyghuristan.

Manchuria also has traditionally warm relations with India, as Manchuria provided material for India's nuclear weapons program.^[54]

As Mongolia second-largest trading partner, Manchuria enjoy excellent relations with its western neighbor. There are issues being tackled including emigration of Mongols to Manchuria.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag^[55] ^[56]. As of 2018, Manchuria is now Korea's largest trading partner, accounting for 46 percent of the trade.^[57]

While Manchurian-Japanese relations are now better than before, their background was also complex. Manchurian politicians occasionally request compensation from Japan, in which Japan said it already made apologies. Japanese politicians in turn decry Manchuria's sidestepping in its roles in anti-Japanese pogroms in 1946. Nevertheless, Japanese-Manchurian relations are cordial and compared in the past, now done in an equal basis; anime and manga are regularly being shown in Manchuria with a large fandom in Manchuria itself, and Manchurian light novels and visual novels recently provide material for new Japanese animated series. Many Japanese people retire to Manchuria and younger Manchurians emigrate to Japan. Manchuria's embassy in Japan was still the one used by the former Manchukuo regime. 30% of the Chinese diaspora in Japan are of Manchurian origin.^[58]

Military

Manchurian Su-27.

Manchurian tanks in a military parade.

The Manchurian Armed Forces are one of the largest in East Asia barring China and Korea.

The Armed Forces is composed an army, navy, air force, and a guard corps. The MAF has the second largest army in East Asia in active forces (1,228,300), though its paramilitary forces (9,320,000) when added make it the largest military force in the world. ^[59]^[60] Manchuria has the largest special force and submarine force in the world. ^[61]

The President of Manchuria is the commander-in-chief of the MAF, which answers to the Ministry of Defence. The Chief of Staff of the Manchurian Armed Forces is a professional soldier with a four-star rank. The military's influence in civilian life had been shaped by its role by throwing its support behind the protesters in the 1991 anti-communist revolution. ^[62]

The predecessor to the MAF, the Manchurian People's Army, primarily received military equipment from the Soviet Union. The MAF's foreign weaponry are largely Soviet or Eastern Bloc in design if not in manufacture, and many of the weaponry made in Manchuria are of East Bloc heritage as well. Recently Manchuria has started purchasing weaponry and equipment from Germany, Japan, and Israel. ^[63]

Manchuria possesses nuclear weapons. ^[64]^[65] The nuclear weapons program were built in the 1960s as an anti-Chinese deterrent, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was rumored that the Soviets actually sold some of their newer weapons to Manchuria in exchange not to sell Manchurian weapons to countries Russia disapproved of. Manchuria signed the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty in a new revised form; it also signed the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1987.^[66]^[67]

Patriotic Civil Service is the term called for conscription; all males at the age of 18 are considered recruits; people who had disabilities are granted honorary ranks but are only allowed to participate in civil relations. Refusal to serve is considered a capital punishment during early communist times which meant automatic death penalty; this was reduced and concentious objectors are sentenced to hard labor camps, which were still criticized. After the fall of the Communist system, conscientious objection is no longer punished; "equivalent civilian work" or heavier taxation were used instead.

Geography

The territory within Manchuria lies within the northern part of the North China craton, which is an area of Precambrian rocks over 100 million hectares. Manchuria is traditionally divided into three geographic regions: the Hingan mountains, the Manchurian plain, and the Golmin Shanggiyan Mountain region. The Hinggan mountains are a Jurassic mountain range^[68], stemming from a collision between the North China craton and the Siberian craton.

Manchuria was never glaciated during the Quartenary period, but the fertile soils of the lower-lying areas indicate movements from the western mountains in Asia such as the Himalayas and the Tien Shan mountains, and also the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts.^[69]

In the middle between the Hinggan Range and the Golmin Sanggiyan Mountains is the Manchurian plain, also known as the Dongbei plain in Chinese or the Sungari-Liyoo Plain, with the Sungari, Non, and Liyoo Rivers running through the plain. Here is the area where widespread cultivation takes place. Majority of the soybean, millet, wheat, and rice are being planted in this region. The area is connected to the North China plain to the south-west.

Mederi Bolori River near Ninguta City

Climate

Manchuria's climate provided contrasts, with very Arctic-like winters and hot, tropical summers. The position of Manchuria between the Eurasian landmass and the Pacific Ocean contribute to this climactic situation. Due to being in the border region of Eurasia and the Pacific, the climate triggers monsoonal wind reversal.

The dominant climate type according the Koppen scheme is the hot-summer dry continental, especially in the plain. In the far north, dry-winter subarctic climate prevails, and in the west, pockets of cold semiarid climate persist. ^[70]

Temperatures during the winter are usually cold due to the Siberian High, ranging from -5 °C (23°F) to -30°C (-22°F), depending on latitude, which is considered colder when further north. ^[71] The Siberian winds are relatively dry, however, and the snow is rarely heavy. ^[72] Thus Manchuria, despite being colder than North America, never glaciated due to the strong westerly winds from western Eurasia. ^[73]

In contrast, during summer, moist, southwestern winds bring thunderstorms, usually bringing 400 to 1150 mm of rain depending on the area; the area around the east receives more rain.

Administative Divisions

Manchuria is organized into provinces (golo, голо), subdivided into leagues (culgan, чулган), banners (guusa, гөса) and towns (sumu, суму). Leagues only exist for legislative purposes. Certain cities such as the capital Cangcon, Halbin, Mukden, and Tiyeliyan having provincial status, but lack the league divisions and is treated as one level. Instead of banners and towns, cities with provincial status have wards and districts on their stead.

Administrative divisions of Manchuria

#	Name	Administrative Seat	Manchu	Population	Area (km²)	Flag
1	Huleigiolo	Hailar	Hулеигиоло ᡭᡠᠯᡝᡳᡤᡳᠣᠯᠣ	2,549,278	263,953
2	Sahaliyan Ula	Aigun	Сахалиян Ула ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ	2,623,541	10,414.94
3	Liyoo Ning	Išangga Gašan	Лиёо Нин ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᠨ᠋ᡳᠩ	3,044,641	19,698.00
4	Halhuun Ula	Erdemu be Aliha	Халхун Ула ᡭᠠᠯᡥᡡᠨ ᡡᠯᠠ	1,819,339	10,354.99
5	Girin	Girin Ula	Гирин ᡤᡳᡵᡳᠨ	8,106,171	12,860.00
6	Hinggan	Jerim	Хинган ᡥᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ	1,858,768	4,743.24
7	Yeonbyeon	Yongil	Янбиян ᠶᠠᠨᠪᡳᠠᠨ	2,271,600	43,509
8	Tiyeliyan	Tiyeliyan	Тиелиян ᡨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ	1,392,493	6,690,432
9	Niyengniyeltu	Cangcon	Ниыенгниыелту ᠨᡳᠶᡝᠩᠨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡨᡠ	6,690,432	12,573.85
10	Nemeri Ula	Cicigar	Немери Ула ᠨᡝᠮᡝᡵᡳ ᡠᠯᠠ	2,444,697	67,034
11	Acan Ula	Giyamusi	Ачан Ула ᠴᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ	1,709,538	62,482
12	Mukden	Mukden	Мукден ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ	2,138,090	11,272.00
13	Liyoo Dergi	Hetu Ala	Лиёо Дерги ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᡩᡝᡵᡤᡳ	10,007,000	68,303
14	Halbin	Halbin	Халбин ᡥᠠᠯᠪᡳᠨ	3,386,325	14,382.34	File:Flag of the City of Harbin.svg

Cities with urban area over one million in population

Independent cities in bold.

#	City	Urban area^[74]	District area^[74]	City proper^[75]	Prov.	Census date
1	Mukden	5,718,232	6,255,921	8,106,171	MK	2010-11-01
2	Halbin	4,933,054	5,878,939	10,635,971	HL	2010-11-01
3	Tiyeliyan	3,902,467	4,087,733	6,690,432	TY	2010-11-01
4	Cangcon	3,411,209	4,193,073	7,674,439	CC	2010-11-01
5	Engemer Alin	1,504,996	1,544,084	3,645,884	LN	2010-11-01
6	Girin	1,469,722	1,975,121	4,413,157	GR	2010-11-01
7	Sarhu	1,433,698	1,649,825	2,904,532	SU	2010-11-01
8	Hetu Ala	1,318,808	1,431,014	2,138,090	LN	2010-11-01
9	Cicigar	1,314,720	1,553,788	5,367,003	SU	2010-11-01
10	Bengsi	1,000,128	1,094,294	1,709,538	LN	2010-11-01

Economy

Manchuria has a economy that is measured to be the 15th largest in the world by 2018, at US$989 billion. Manchuria has been one of the strongest in the Asia-Pacific region despite not reaching the levels of the Asian Tigers. The service industry is smaller compared to the other East Asian countries. It was surmised that Manchuria developed first at the start of the Cold War and stagnated at the end of the Cold War. ^[76] ^[77]

During the Qing period, Manchuria was one of the most industrialized parts of the Chinese Empire, and its coal deposits made it a highly-urbanized country. During the Manchukuo era until 1945, Manchuria was considered more industrialized than China and even Japan; Japanese investment has expanded Manchukuo industries.^[78]^[79]^[80] Indeed, China refers to Manchuria as the "Eldest Son" of industrialized communist countries in Asia. After the fall of communism, Manchuria struggled to keep its industry as it stagnated, prompting the government to diversify its economic structure. ^[81]

Attempts to deregulate the economy during the 1990s faltered due to heavy resistance from newly-legalized trade unions, and hampered by the Korean crisis in the 1990s. Indeed, in 1991, Manchuria's GDP shrunk in 1993 to the level it achieved in 1976, and considered a "national scandal". President Tiyan Fengsan of the People's Party then installed mixed-economic policies and an economic system system more similar to Japan during the 1950s. Instead of privatization of state-owned companies, Tiyan encouraged businessmen to set up their own businesses. It was said that the failure of Manchurian privatization policies actually cushioned the economy from the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis as well as the 2008 Global Financial Crisis. Manchuria managed to keep the majority of its labor-intensive manufacturing from being transferred to the neighboring PRC keeping unemployment at bay, although pay was low compared to Korea. There are calls for the government to abandon state-owned enterprises altogether as they are a remnant of communist and Manchukuo era policies. ^[82]

Manchuria's economy still remains industrial, with steel, automotive, rail, aircraft, and shipbuilding industry predominating. Manchuria also has coal and petroleum industry and has several petroleum refinery facilities. The appliance industry has also been booming since the 2010s, and Manchuria's software production has been ramped up since 2005.

Despite decline of agriculture due to industrialization, it remains important. Fishing is important on the coasts and rivers, while farming is dominant in the south with corn, wheat, soya, and sorghum commonly cultivated there. Animal husbandry is also common, with cattle, pigs, horses, and sheep being raised.

File:Shenyang montage.jpg

Mukden, financial center of Manchuria.

Agriculture

Agriculture still plays a vital role in the Manchurian economy. ^[83] In the northern cold regions, corn, wheat, sorghum, flax, potatoes and sunflowers are grown. In fact, Manchuria is the chief source for US soybean.^[84] In the east, rice is grown especially in Yanbiyan, whereas in the south, corn, sorghum, cotton, and soybeans are cultivated. The south is also where Manchuria's fruit industry dominate. Herding is also common, with pigs, cows, and horses predominating; the dairy industry also supplies all of Manchuria's yearly needs. Sheep farming is common in Baicheng.

Manchuria's agriculture has undergone a shift after 1990. Prior to 1990, all farming are done within collective farms confiscated from the Manchukuo puppet government and Japanese companies, with 50 families inhabiting a farm called Concentrated Agricultural Farm. The collective farms have moderate to high production rates but needed subsidies for technology. In 1990 collective farms remain but as their subsidies were cut off, many failed and shuttered. Conversion to co-operative farms alleviated the situation. Private plots, de-facto recognized by 1971, were legalized by 1990.

Currency

The currency is known as the Jiha, divided into 100 Menggun. It is issued by the Manchurian Central Bank. Manchuria copied Singapore's example of allowing its exchange rate to fluctuate within an undisclosed trading band.^[85]

Industry

Manchuria's industry has developed considerably, mainly producing light and heavy industrial products. In the 2000s after the Korean crisis, Manchuria tried to attract foreign investment, including those of Korea, China, and Japan and there was a boom in manufacturing. The growth was undone as many opted to go to China to build factories instead. Russian and East European industries took up the bulk of foreign investment. However, it is still a major production base for heavy industry. Many companies have origins in the Manchukuo era and nationalized by communists; the saying that "Manchuria X Corporation" owns everything in Manchuria is still evident, as these state-owned industries control 45 percent of the economy.

In 2012, President Liyoo Siaobo initated the Revitalize Manchuria program to address the economic situation in the country.^[86] While it saw moderate success, Liyoo's untimely death and political infighting hampered its implementation.^[87] In addition, the old communist bureaucracy was still largely in charge of Manchuria's economy, prompting government leaders to encourage private enterpeneurships without government spurring.

There are three industrial zones in Manchuria: Mukden-Tiyeliyan Industrial Zone, Cangcon-Girin Industrial Zone, and Halbin-Sartu Industrial Zone. Two major urban agglomerations have been formed: the central and southern Liaoning urban agglomeration and the Hachang urban agglomeration. The main industrial cities are Mukden, Tiyeliyan ,Engemer Alin, Bensi, Fusi Hecen, Girin, Cangcon, and Halbin.

Transportation

Manchurian railways by 1945.

Transportation in Northeast China is dominated by railways, with roads coming in second and air and sea transport not falling behind.

Railway network

The late Qing's Dong Qing Railway and the South Manchurian Railway constitute the "D" word Manchurian Railway. While serving Russian and Japanese interests, it also promoted the development of the country. Harbin, as the intersection of two railways, replaced Qiqihar and became the major city in North. During the Manchukuo era, the Japanese expanded the railway network, which is not much different from the current form.

In recent years, high-speed railway lines such as the Qingdao-Liyooning Passenger Railway, the Hal-Tiyelian High-speed Railway, the CangGirin InterCity, the HaJi Railway, and the MukDan Railway have also been completed and opened to traffic.

Cangcon tram.

Cangcon Railway Vehicle high speed train in Mukden.

Highway

Manchuria has an extensive highway system.

Shipping

Manchuria's major port is Tiyeliyan, with Huludao as a close second. Tiyeliyan's port handles the bulk of shipping in Manchuria.^[88]During 1973, Tiyeliyan handled 23.1 million tonnes.^[89]By 2015, this now stands to 555 million tonnes.^[90]

Aviation

Mukden Airport.

There are currently 22 major civil airports, including international airports: Mukden International Airport, Halbin International Airport, Ice Hoton New International Airport, Tiyeliyan International Airport, Hailar Airport, Yanji Airport, Mudanbira Airport, Yingkou Airport, Dandong Airport and Giyamusi Airport. The first four airports have flights globally, while the rest are concentrated on neighboring Asian countries. The Ilan-Ula (Sanjiang) Plain is has many airports.

Energy

The slim majority of Manchuria's energy resources are being based on fossil fuels; they have been replaced by nuclear energy and hydroelectric energy. Coal is being steadily replaced due to being used as shale oil for export. Manchuria also shies from using petroleum as fuel for power plants, preferring it to be used as fuel for vehicles and petrochemicals instead. Renewable energy like solar and wind power had been limited due to lack of funds and overabundance of energy supply.

Demographics

Languages

The official language is the Manchu language, which came to mean both the Tungusic Manchu-Sibe language and the Mandarin Chinese spoken in Manchuria. While the majority of the population of Manchuria are proficient in Chinese or "Guanhua" as it was called (65%), most of the native-speakers of Manchu (28%) are ethnically Manchurians or Sibe people; the rest speak it as a second language and is the lingua franca of the government and the military. The near-exclusive use of Manchu in the military and the government, mandated in the communist era, which employed universal conscription was cited as a reason in the Manchu-language revival. Manchu-Sibe as it was called is written in the Cyrillic script introduced in 1949, although the older vertical traditional Manchu script is being slowly re-introduced.^[91]^[92]^[93] Manchurians also conduct free language sessions throughout the country to make the Manchurian people proficient in the language, and there are even Manchu language classes in neighboring China.^[94]^[95]^[96]^[97]It was said that the communist government deliberately revived the Manchu language to differentiate itself from China and to reduce illiteracy among the population.

Other languages are Korean, spoken in Yeonbyeon, Japanese in Tiyeliyan and isolated southern communities, Mongolian, Orochon, and Daur in the west, and Russian in the border areas and in Halbin.

Fertility Rate

Manchuria has the lowest fertility rate in the world.^[98] It was estimated that in 2015, Manchuria's fertility rate was 0.55 percent, even lower than Japan, which already have a low fertility rate.

Society and Culture

Education

Manchuria inherited from Manchukuo and Communist times an efficient educational system. ^[99] Manchuria's government had established numerous universities and schools. City universities tend to be of better quality than provincial schools, a problem acknowledged by the government. ^[100]

Manchuria's education system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Facilities are either maintained by both private and public schools under the Ministry of Education. The ministry also sets a National Curriculum that provides guidelines for teachers; it is always regularly updated.

All education is compulsory in primary and secondary. Subsidies remain for these schools; most tertiary school subsidies ceased after the fall of the communist regime.

Manchurian schools usually conduct school festivals, a trait inherited from the Manchukuo and communist eras. ^[101]

Like its fellow East Asian countries, Manchuria's education system has been criticized to pressures given to its students and also due to being behind its neighbors, even China's.

Culture

The Jakun Gusa or Eight Banner system is said to be the bedrock of Manchu culture.

Cuisine

Manchurian cuisine (Manju sogi) is a amalgamation of ethnic Manchu, Chinese, Korean, Mongolian, and European influences. The Man-Han Imperial Feast was known in Asia as a court dish during Qing times, modified in the present-day to suit modern tastes and only using domesticated meat.

Manchurian cuisine is concentrated on grains, vegetables, and meat. Wheat, sorghum, soybean, and rice are commonly used as staple grains, with potatoes and corn becoming common in the late 20th century. Gidaha Lafu, or Suancai in Chinese, is fermented cabbage similar but not identical to the Korean Kimchi, and is commonly used in dishes. Bairou Xuechang is a famous pork and cabbage dish, as well as ludagun.

Sport

Manchuria's national sports are said to be ice hockey, football, basketball, and the indigenously developed sport of Pearlball.

Manchuria's football association is founded during the Manchukuo era.^[102] While it is a competitive team in the Asian championships, it was only able to enter the FIFA World Cup in 2010, defeating Cote d'Ivoire's national football team but was crushed by both Portugal and Brazil.

Manchuria was supposed to compete in the Summer Olympics in 1932, but its only candidate, Liu Changchun, defected to the Republic of China and became the first Chinese Olympic representative. Attempts to join the 1936 Olympics in Berlin were frustrated by the International Olympic Committee'sdecision not to allow unrecognized states in the Olympics. Manchuria was to join the 1940 Summer Olympics but World War II prevented its entry^[103] Instead, it sent atheltes to the 1940 Far East Games organized by Japan. ^[104] It was only able to compete in 1952 in Helsinki due to Finnish invitation, and as the Manchurian-Chinese delegation at the insistence of the Republic of China. By 1956, it was able to compete under its own name since. Manchuria is more successful in Winter Games, primarily due to the country's climate. Attempts to block Manchuria's entry in the 1996 Atlanta Olympics failed due to American intervention and Manchuria's immediate withdrawal from the former Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

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