Northian grammar: Difference between revisions

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Revision as of 04:46, 30 March 2022

Northian grammar is highly synthetic.

Overview

Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not their lexical meaning, that affects most classes of words in Northian. The system is most prominent in substantives, i.e. nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Though ablaut was transparent in reconstructed Proto-Erani-Eracuran, it has been obscured by sound change and analogical replacement in the process of its evolution into Proto-Nordic-Northian and subsequently Galic Northian, the oldest attested stage of the Northian language.  In particular, the erosion of consonant clusters and sound change in unaccented and coda vowels in the immediate prehistory of Galic has made many inflectional endings unrecognizable, yet protected by poetic metre and strict tradition, Galic texts retain many archaicisms. These processes have not occurred to the same extent in the Epic language, but there the word forms were subject to more rigorous regularization.

It is generally accepted that there was a fairly rigorous system of derivation in Proto-Erani-Eracuran, extending lexical roots by various affixes, before attaching inflectional endings. In this way, roots representing abstract meanings gave rise to nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

Grammatical tradition

By and large, the first grammatical work that survives as a received text was written in the 1st century BCE, when the Northians have become accustomed to urban living and are under Acrean dominion. It seems that these grammatical treatises were intended by authors to stem linguistic changes considered "erroneous" in ritualistic contexts, suggesting that many of the forms given by the treatises were no longer in living usage and were threatened even in liturgical ones. The Grammarian chastises those who say mēθras menerōs and mēθrō menerō for mētūs menēs "of mothers-minds" and claims that "neither mother nor god, above the heavens and below the earth, will understand what you say, for the ignorance even in the names of family members drives away Good".

Nouns

Basic endings

Basic endings
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative -Ø, -s -ē, -a -es
Vocative
Accusative -m -ns
Genitive -os, -s -ou̯s, -us
Locative -i, -Ø -ou̯, -u -su
Dative -ei̯, -i -mō, -ma -mus
Instrumental -a, -Ø

Of nouns, the Grammarian divides them into two kinds based on the position of the accent on the genitive singular form. The oxytone group includes all nouns that have accented endings, and paroxytone group, nouns that have unaccented endings. According to the Grammarian, this knowledge is very predictive of the other forms and accent positions of the nouns. Modern scholars reach the understanding that the oxytone nouns correspond with the hysterodynamic ablaut pattern, and the paroxytone nouns with the proterodynamic and acrostatic patterns.

m-stems

This class is known from only three but important nouns, θéɣõ "earth", žõ "winter", and "house". All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only three examples, this may not be an actual rule.

se θéɣõ, "earth"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θéɣõ zθémē zθémes
Vocative θéɣom
Accusative zθémum zumūŋ
Genitive zu̯u̯ō zu̯ōs zu̯õ
Locative zθéi̯me zu̯ō zumsu
Dative zu̯ē zuŋu̯ō zuŋu̯ō
Instrumental zoa

θéɣõ is one of the rarer Northian words that reflects all three ablaut grades.

θéɣõ "eath" is from the full-grade stem of Proto-Erani-Eracuran *dʰeǵʰōm "earth", where final -m drops and causes the preceding long vowel to become nasalized. Gen. zu̯u̯ō and dat. zu̯ē are the results of the zero-grade stem *dʰǵʰm̥ > *zm̥- > zw-. Final *-os regularly contracts to -ō, lengthening the vowel, and *-ey monophthongized into -ē. The e-grade stem is visible in the strong cases in singular and dual, sing. loc., as well as plural nom., as zθém < *dʰǵʰem-. In the sing. loc., the lowering of final *-i triggered the regular mutation in the preceding short vowel. The plural acc. unexpectedly displays zero-grade stem; final *-n̥s regularly > *-uns > Galic -ūŋ. The stem ending in -m mutates with the initial m- of the du. and pl. dat.-ins. endings.

The behaviour of žõ "winter" is underlyingly similar to that of θéɣõ, but other phonetic changes have caused the surface forms to be altered in other ways.

se dõ, "house"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative doma domes
Vocative dom
Accusative dōm, domum domūŋ
Genitive dēŋ demus demõ
Locative déi̯me demu deŋsu
Dative dei̯ma deŋu̯ō
Instrumental dema

"house", an extremely common noun, also displays three ablaut grades; however, its stems differ by the quantity and quality of the vowel in the same root syllable, as it has no suffix. In the sing. nom., final vowel is lengthened already in PEE. The regular strong stem is visible in the sing. acc., which has two forms. dōm stands as a poetic or dialectal term in place of expected domum sometimes; its creation is either late, as it does not have vowel nasalization, or reflects compensatory lengthening from dropping the final syllable of domum. displays a paroxytone accentual pattern and has the zero-grade endings: sing. gen. dēŋ < *dems and dat. déi̯me < *demi, the latter showing regular mutation after the lowering of the final *-i.

n-stems

sē akmō, "stone" tod dēmuŋ, "house"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative akmō akmenē akmenes dēmuŋ dēmunī dēmnō
Vocative akmo
Accusative akmenum kuŋmūŋ
Genitive kuŋmō kuŋmōs kuŋmõ damēi̯ŋ damenus demõ[1]
Locative kumeine kumnō kumuŋsu damenu deŋsu
Dative kuŋmē kuŋmō kuŋmus damēi̯ne dameŋma demnos
Instrumental kuŋma damēna
tod dēmuŋ, "home"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nomuŋ nomnī nomnō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive nemuŋ nemunus nemnõ
Locative nemunu nemsu
Dative nemne nemuŋma nemuŋmos
Instrumental nemna

r-stems

There are three subtypes within the r-stem group. mētur "mother" represents the group with initial accent, which persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade. βrētur "brother" is inflected in the same manner. This is a small group of nouns recognized by their unaccented endings in both nom. and gen.

sē mētur, "mother"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mētur mētu̯ra mēθres
Vocative
Accusative mēθrum mētu̯ruŋ
Genitive mētūr, mētūs mētu̯rus mēθrõ
Locative mēθre mētu̯ru mētuiru
Dative mēturma mēturmus
Instrumental mēθra

Gen. mētūs < *meHtr̥s, while mētūr appears to be a later regularization, restoring the *r that has been dropped in *-rs. Dat. mētrė < *meHtri, acc. mētrum show regular forms. Loc. mēteire appears with full grade suffix.

su̯éhi̯itur "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in -er and -or. They are recognizable by their zero-grade nom. endings and full-grade -ō endings in gen. The behaviour of the word ɣenur "hand" is underlyingly identical.

sē su̯éhi̯itur, "daughter"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative su̯éhi̯itur duɣaterē duɣateres
Vocative su̯éhi̯itur
Accusative duɣaterum duɣateruŋ
Genitive duɣaθrō duɣaθrōs duɣaθrõ
Locative duɣaθrē duɣaterō duɣatuiru
Dative duɣaturmō duɣaturmō
Instrumental duɣaθra

patēr "father" is a variation of the pattern of "daughter", where in the nom. the accent is on the ending instead of the stem; otherwise, it follows the pattern of "daughter" exactly.

sē patēr, "father"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative patēr paterē pateres
Vocative pater
Accusative paterum pateruŋ
Genitive paθrō paθrōs paθrõ
Locative paθrē paterō paθruiru
Dative patu̯rmō patu̯rmō
Instrumental paθra

The paroxytone declension of ster "star" is unique, sg. gen. stēr < *Hsters, dat. steire, etc.

l-stems

The l-stems originally inflect as other ablauting consonant stems, but because intervocalic *-l- regularly > -y-, the resulting paradigm presents certain quirks not seen in the normal consonant-stem paradigm.

sa sē, "salt" = ἅλς
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sai̯ē sai̯is
Vocative se
Accusative sai̯um sai̯ūŋ
Genitive slō slōs slõ
Locative sai̯i̯e slō sullu
Dative slē sullus
Instrumental sla
sa abō, "apple"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative abō aboi̯ē aboi̯is
Vocative abo
Accusative aboi̯um aboi̯ūŋ
Genitive ablō ablōs ablõ
Locative abei̯e ablō abllu
Dative ablē abllō abllus
Instrumental abla

s-stems

There are two classes in the s-stem group, one for masculine and feminine nouns, and another for neuter ones. The masculine and feminine nouns are formally indistinct but behave like other consonant-stem nouns, with or without ablaut. The noun mus "mouse" is unique in its preservation of an initial accent. The neuter nouns fall into two groups, those with oxytone or paroxytone accents.

sē nēs, "nose"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nēs narē nares
Vocative nes
Accusative narum naruŋ
Genitive narō narōs narõ
Locative naere narō nassu
Dative narē nasmō nasmus
Instrumental nara


tod kretō, "intellect, power"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kretō kretera kretera
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive kreterō kreterus kreterõ
Locative kreteire kreteru kretessu
Dative kretesma kretesmus
Instrumental kretera


tod menō, "mind"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative menō menera menera
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive menēs menerus menerõ
Locative meneire meneru menessu
Dative menesma menesmus
Instrumental menera
tod mēŋ, "meat"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mēŋ meŋhī meŋha
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive mēŋ meŋhus meŋhõ
Locative meŋ meŋhu meŋho
Dative meŋhma meŋhus
Instrumental meŋha

i-stems

The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In PEE, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all contexts, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different. Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.

sa socis, "ally"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative socis skoi̯ē sokoi̯is
Vocative soci
Accusative socim skoin
Genitive skiō skiōs skiõ
Locative skoi̯e skiō skisu
Dative skiē skimō skimus
Instrumental skī
sē mentis, "thought" tod more, "sea"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mentis mentēa mentēis more morēa morēi̯
Vocative meinte
Accusative mentim mentīn
Genitive muntēs muntēus muntēõ mrēs mrēus mrēõ
Locative muntēi muntēu muntēsu mrēē mrēo mrēsu
Dative muntēma muntēmus mrēma mrēmus
Instrumental muntēa mrē
sa potis, "master"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative potis potī potiis
Vocative poti
Accusative potim potīn
Genitive petis petius petiõ
Locative peti petiu petisu
Dative petima petimus
Instrumental petī

u-stems

sē genus, "chin"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative genōs geneu̯ē geneu̯is
Vocative genō
Accusative genōm geneu̯uŋ
Genitive genuō genuōs genuõ
Locative geneu̯i genuō genuru
Dative genuē genumō genumus
Instrumental genua
sa sui̯us, "child" = υἱύς tod pōi̯o, "flock" = πῶυ
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sui̯us sui̯ēu̯ sui̯eu̯is pōi̯o pai̯ēu̯ pai̯eu̯is
Vocative sui̯o
Accusative sui̯um sui̯uuŋ
Genitive sui̯eu̯s sui̯eu̯us sui̯eu̯õ pai̯eu̯s pai̯eu̯us pai̯eu̯õ
Locative sui̯eu̯i sui̯eu̯o sui̯eu̯so pai̯eu̯i pai̯eu̯o pai̯eu̯so
Dative sui̯eu̯ma sui̯eu̯mus pai̯eu̯ma pai̯eu̯mus
Instrumental sui̯ēu̯ pai̯ēu̯
sa θeɣus, "fish" = ἰχθύς tod doru, "wood" = δόρυ
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θeɣus θeɣō θeɣō doru dorō dorō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive zus zuus zuõ derus deruus deruõ
Locative zui zuo zuru derō deruo denuru
Dative zuma zumus deruma derumus
Instrumental derū

ī-stems

The ī-stems in oxytone is rare and contains only a few nouns.

sē sθerīs, "heifer"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sθerīs sθerīa sθurīis
Vocative sθerī
Accusative sθerīum sθurīuŋ
Genitive sθurīō sθurīōs sθurīõ
Locative sθurīē sθurīō sθunīru
Dative sθurīmō sθurīmus
Instrumental sθurīa

By contrast, the ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns.

sē genaθrī, "genitrix"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative genaθrī genaθrīa genaθrīis
Vocative
Accusative genaθrīum genaθrīuŋ
Genitive ŋaθri̯ēs ŋaθri̯ēus ŋaθri̯ēõ
Locative ŋaθri̯ēi ŋaθri̯ēo ŋaθri̯ēru
Dative ŋaθri̯ēma ŋaθri̯ēmus
Instrumental ŋaθri̯ēa

ū-stems

sē tenūs, "body"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tenūs tenōa tunu̯ēis
Vocative
Accusative tunu̯ēum tunu̯ēuŋ
Genitive tunuō tunuōs tunuõ
Locative tunu̯ēi tunuō tunuru
Dative tunuē tunumō tunumus
Instrumental tunua

The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely sokrō "mother-in-law".

sē sokrō, "mother-in-law" = socrus
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sokrō sokrēu̯ sokrēu̯is
Vocative
Accusative sokrēu̯u̯ŋ sokrēu̯ŋ
Genitive sokrēu̯s sokrēu̯us sokrēu̯õ
Locative sokrēi̯e sokrēu̯ō sokrēu̯ru
Dative sokrēu̯ma sokrēu̯mus
Instrumental sokrēu̯[a?]

r/n-stems

tod i̯ōr, "year" = ὥρα
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative i̯ō i̯ōrī i̯ēōr
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive i̯ēi̯ŋ i̯ēnus īnō
Locative i̯ēne i̯ēno iei̯ne
Dative i̯ēi̯ŋma īnē
Instrumental i̯ēn īnā
tod pāō, "fire" = πῦρ
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative pāō pāōrī pēwō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive pau̯ēn pau̯enus pūnō
Locative pau̯ei̯ne pau̯eno pūne
Dative pau̯ei̯ŋma pūnē
Instrumental pau̯ēn pūn

sāu̯u̯ō

The noun sāu̯u̯ō "sun" continues the PEE heteroclitic stem in *-l/n-. The nominative is due to assimilation of approximants and the regular sound change of *wu > wo. Genitive has χu̯eīŋ, for expected *xʷvēn < *swens.

sē sāu̯u̯ō, "Sun"
Singular
Nominative sāu̯u̯ō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive hʷu̯eīŋ
Locative hʷu̯eine
Dative
Instrumental hʷu̯ena

d-stems

tod kerd, "heart" = καρδία
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kerd kreda kordō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive krēθs kredus kurdō
Locative kerde kredu kerde
Dative kresma kurdē
Instrumental kreda

t-stems

sa nēp, "grandchild"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nēp nepotē nepotis
Vocative
Accusative nepotum neptuŋ
Genitive neptō neptōs neptõ
Locative nepoti neptō neptru
Dative nepte neptmō neptmus
Instrumental nepta
sē nōi̯h, "evening, night"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nōi̯h nehʷša nohʷšis
Vocative
Accusative nohʷšum nohʷšuŋ
Genitive nēh nehʷšus nehʷšõ
Locative nehʷše nehʷšo nehʷššu
Dative naohma naohmus
Instrumental nehʷša

a-stems

o-stems

sa θūmō, "smoke" tod i̯uɣõ, "yoke"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θūmō θūmō θūmōis i̯uɣõ i̯uɣōī i̯uɣō
Vocative θūme
Accusative θūmõ θūmōn
Genitive θūmōro θūmōus θūmōõ i̯uɣōro i̯uɣōus i̯uɣōõ
Locative θūmē θūmōu θūmōi̯o i̯uɣē i̯uɣōu i̯uɣōi̯o
Dative θūmōi̯ θūmōma θūmōmus i̯uɣōi̯ i̯uɣōma i̯uɣōmus
Instrumental θūmō i̯uɣō

Verbs

See also

  1. Oblique forms in plural suppleted from dōm