Northian grammar

Northian grammar is highly synthetic.

General overview

Ablaut

Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not the meaning of the morpheme in which they are located, that is inherited from Proto-Erani-Eracuran. It affects most classes of words in Northian.

Though ablaut was a regular process closely tied to accent in the reconstructed proto-language, with some authorities proposing a direct correspondence between the accent and the full-grade vowel, by Galic times any precise corresondence had been lost (probably already by the final stage of the proto-language). Moreover, existing formulae have been disrupted by sound change and both general and sporadic analogical replacement. The result that surfaces in Galic Northian is a rich yet unpredictable plethora of alternate morphologies that often confuse even later Hamruvunts, whose theses about correct grammar are sometimes woefully misguided by modern standards.

In nouns, there are four main ablaut patterns that Northian inherited and evolved from its ancestors, in the scholarly discourse termed acrostatic, proterokinetic, amphikinetic, and hysterokinetic. The medieval Northian grammarians astutely observed that the position of the accent in the dative singular predicts the correct set of endings: where it was on the final syllable (oxytone or OX), full-grade endings (e.g. -ṓ, -aí) was used in the oblique cases, and where not on the final syllable (paroxytone or PX), the zero-grade set of endings (e.g. -i) were used. The former situation regularly developed from amphikinetic and hysterokinetic patterns, and the latter from the acrostatic and proterokinetic ones. The OX nouns were characterized by the nearly-universal genitive singular ending -ṓ, while the PX nouns had unpredictable endings there owing to the vagaries of sound change.

The medieval grammarians were not able to distinguish between the proterokinetic and acrostatic ablaut patterns because the latter were quite few and subject to the heaviest erosion in identifiable morphs and thus relegated as "irregularities" to be learned by rote. Surprisingly, Himinastainas observed that such "irregularities" arose mostly in body parts and the commonest objects, so learning them by rote "is imperative". Amphikinetic and hysterokinetic nouns were not distinguished, on the other hand, because they differed principally in the nominative singular, which, on the surface, is largely irregular and must be learned by rote anyway.

Accent		Root	Suffix	Ending	Pre-form	Root	Suffix	Ending	Outcome	Galic
Acrostatic	nom	ó	Ø	Ø	*nókʷ-t-s	ó	Ø	Ø	noxṯ	Paroxytone
	acc				*nókʷ-t-m̥				noxtam
	gen	é	Ø	Ø	*nékʷ-t-s				noxš
Proterokinetic	nom	é	Ø	Ø	*mér-tis	é, Ø	Ø	Ø	mərətiš
	acc				*mér-tim				mərətim
	gen	Ø	é	Ø	*mr̥-téi̯-s	Ø	é	Ø	mərətaiš
Amphikinetic-I	nom	é	ō	Ø	*léy-mō	é	ō	Ø	láimō	Oxytone
	acc	é	o	Ø	*léy-mon-m̥	e	ṓ, ó, Ø	Ø	limṓnąm
	gen	Ø	Ø	é	*li-mn-és	Ø	Ø	ó	limnō
Amphikinetic-II	nom	é	Ø	Ø	*kré-tu-s	Ø	Ø	Ø	xarətuš
	acc	Ø	é	Ø	*kr̥-téw-m̥	Ø	Ø	Ø	xarətum
	gen	Ø	Ø	é	*kr̥-tu-és	Ø	Ø	ó	xarəźuuā
Hysterokinetic	nom	Ø	é	Ø	*ph₂-tḗr	Ø	é	Ø	fitō
	acc				*ph₂-tér-m̥				fiterəm
	gen	Ø	Ø	é	*ph₂-tr-és	Ø	Ø	ó	fiδrō

In the most summary way, the acrostatic nouns had a persistent accent on the root syllable, while the proterokinetic ones shifted the accent one syllable to the right (namely to the suffix) in the oblique cases. The amphikinetic nouns were of two types, differing only in the nominative singular: one type, the more common, had a lengthened o-grade in the suffix, while the other one had the zero grade. In both, the root was accented. The sources of both the unaccented o-grade and its length are disputed. The corresponding accusative had an accented suffix, and the accented shifted further right to the ending for the oblique cases. The hysterokinetic nouns had an accented suffix in the direct cases and accented ending in the oblique.

In their evolution to Galic Northian, the following changes have occurred. For amphikinetic nouns with an o-grade suffix, the nominative stem extended to the accusative; this must have been a fairly late alteration as the accusative suffix often has the long vowel of the nominative, showing that the long vowel was no longer analyzable as a full grade plus a lengthening element specific to the nominative, i.e. out of place in the accusative. There are also sporadic survivals of the short accusative suffix.

Amphikinetic nouns with the zero-grade suffix had differing developments: where the oblique stem ended in an approximant (-u, -i), it spread to accusative; perhaps this occurred under the influence of the proterokinetic, as with them these amphikinetics shared a zero-grade suffix in the nominative, cp. amphikinetic xrétuš "will" and proterokinetic xrétuš "powerful". It is possible that the vocalized approximant was re-analyzed as a full-grade vowel, i.e. xarətúm with a "u-grade" before the accusative ending -m. Where the stem did not end in an approximant (-r, -s, -m, -n), the development was largely arbitrary, e.g. acc. sing. both more common xmam (formed from the oblique stem xm- plus acc. ending -am) and more archaic xā̊ < *dʰǵʰḗm, from taɣam < dʰéǵʰ-m̥.

Proterokinetic nouns had their root syllables levelled nearly completely in favour of the zero grade, unless this produced an impermissible sequence of consonants, but the accent position is usually not altered and often discloses a former full grade. There are sporadic survivals of the full-grade root, but none in the productive suffixes of -ti- and -tu-, and accented zero-grade suffixes are common there, perhaps also under the influence of the hysterokinetics. This produced a morphologically proterokinetic but accentually static pattern that became dominant for these suffixes in later Northian. The hysterokinetic declension survives particularly well in Northian, preserving a distinct full-grade in the accusative and a zero-grade in the oblique cases.

It is notable that, perhaps owing to a lack of ablaut in the root syllable, the hysterokinetic pattern was the most stable and productive (the acrostatic pattern is assumed to be vestigial even in the proto-language). The patterns with root ablaut, namely amphikinetic and proterokinetic, either lost productivity or were levelled to remove ablaut in the root. Many suffixes which have original amphikinetic patterns developed hysterokinetic compounds which later became productive, while the amphikinetic suffix lost productivity. Issinar asserted in 1940 that, taking the root and suffix together as a unit and allowing for the long-grade in the nominative, Northian nouns could have a maximum of two distinct stems; this rule appears to hold in many cases, though not without exception.

Ablaut rules developed differently in many suffix classes. For example, the mn-stems usually had the long suffix original to the nominative intruding the accusative, but the wn-stems often has a zero-grade suffix in the accusative; possibly this is because the combination C-wn- was vocalized as C-un- early, and the -u- there was thought of as an original, full-grade vowel. Additionally, many words show compounds of suffixes, particularly derived feminines in -ī and -ū, and the accentual rules in these words sometimes depends on the character of the root, compulsorily it is verbal, and in other times becomes static on the suffix. Some classes of words apparently had vacillating accent or even no recorded accent, suggesting that these derivations were not common enough to have a widely-recognized pattern even if their meanings can be worked out.

Nominals

Athematic

The following chart recapitulates the ordinary endings of athematic nouns in Galic Northian. Because the ablative is syncretized in the singular with the genitive, with the dative and instrumental in the dual, and the dative in the plural, it is usually not listed separately in grammatical tables for athematic nouns.

Forms are often unpredictable and variable under the influence of ablaut, laryngeals reflexes, analogy, vowel contraction, and compensatory lengthening for illegal consonant clusters in coda position. All endings are subject to modification according to the suffix. OX stands for the oxytone group of patterns, and PPX for the paroxytone and proparoxytone group. Certain neuter nouns do not take plural endings but collective endings with a lengthened stem; these nouns are not formally predictable. Because neuter nouns always have the same nominative and accusative forms, only their nominative endings will be listed, and in grey.

	Athematic endings
	Singular		Dual		Plural	Collective
	OX	PPX	OX	PPX
Nominative	-ō, -ā̊, -s, -š, -Ø, -Ø		-ōi, -āḥ, -ōḥ, -īḥ	-a, -ā̊, -ī̆ḥ, -āḥ, -V̄R-Ø, -īḥ	-iš, -āḫ, -ōḫ, -a, -V̄R-Ø	-ō
Vocative	-Ø
Accusative	-m, -ā̆m, -ąm, -əm, -ā̊				-ā̊, -ūš, -ī
Locative	-i, -eC-Ø	-eC-Ø	-ō	-ū	-hū, -štū	-eC-Ø
Genitive	-ōḫ, -ā̊	-s, -š, -ā̆ṇġ, -ā̊, -Ø	-ōš	-uš, -auš	-õm, -ą̄m
Ablative			-mō	-mō, -ma	-muš
Dative	-ai, -oi	-i
Instrumental	-C-a, -V̄R-Ø				-(m)βiiōḫ, -βiš, -βīš, -īš

nom sing A general discussion of the athematic declension cannot omit the comment that, while many divergent forms are phonetically conditioned, there too are divergences resulting from divergent proto-forms. In no other place is this statement truer than in the nominative singular.

The marker of the nominative singular has been a tormented subject, in no small part due to the fundamental disagreement on whether the parent language had a nominative-accusative or ergative-absolutive alignment. Languages with the former usually had an unmarked nominative, while the ergative (the case of the agent) often developed from a marked genitive, the absolutive then being unmarked. Animate (= masculine and feminine) nouns may have been in the proto-language sigmatic, that is ending in *-s, or asigmatic, that is without final *-s and taking the zero or long o-grade in the suffix; as root nouns had no suffix, they were thought to have been obligatorily marked by *-s. The source of this long o-grade, in default of *-s, is disputed: some authorities regard it as a vestige of a final *-s dropping after a resonant, but others hold there was no *-s originally and attribute the long vowel to ablaut variation sensitive to the case.

In Northian, final *-s has been suffixed to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistory, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution. We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants.

1. -s is always present and surfaces as -š after *i- and *u- in animate nouns, and its absence in these stems indicates neuter gender, both instance without regard to ablaut pattern.
2. Final *-s was absent in resonant-stems (-m, -n, -r, -l), whose nom. sing. was often signified by lengthened o-grade in OX and PX (though a few nouns have zero-grade). The long final syllable ending in a resonant was then opened, giving rise to -ā̊ and -ō.
3. After obstruents the distribution of *-s is not predictable: bā̊ "wife" and ϑanū "body" were asigmatic, but ą̄mərətās "immortality" certainly had *-s.

In OX resonant stems the lengthened grade is altered prehistorically by the opening of closed long syllables ending in a resonant. In PX and PP resonant stems, e.g. mātar and dā̊, as well as select OX nouns with the "reverse endings", e.g. táɣam, the nominative was also endingless but is affected by the vocalization of the zero-grade suffix, which is sensitive to the length of the preceding syllable. If short, the vocalized suffix will be long, and vice versa.

voc sing The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases. Where the stem had *-s it is dropped, and without *-s the stem is in the full grade or short-vowel grade.

acc sing In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m; as it contained no vowel, it could never bear an original accent. In stems ending in non-resonants, the ending is vocalized as -m̥ > *-am. In auslaut, this ending is often lengthened if the preceding syllable is light to -ām, varying according to the length of the preceding syllable; in sandhi forms, this lengthening does not always occur in front of a disyllabic enclitic. If the ending followed -i, long or short, it becomes -in. If the stem ended in a long vowel, such as with gunā- and ponθō-, the final syllable with -m is opened and becomes -ą̄ as with the nom. sing. Where the stem ended in -m itself, the sequence -m-m̥ was syncopated into the stem and surfaces as a long vowel at the PNN level, but likewise it is opened in Galic as -ā̊.

loc sing The locative generally took the accusative stem and either added final -i or was endingless. For the effects of -i on the preceding vowel, see dat. sing. entry.

gen sing In OX the gen. singular always ended in -ōḫ < PNN *-os; its consistency led grammarians to consider it the feature of the OX declension. Where the stem ended in a open long vowel, the ending can become -ā̊ḫ, but this is merely orthographic—this ending is always disyllabic.

In PX and PP, the ending *-s when attached to the stem surfaces with a motley of forms, and this (compared to OX) irregularity in turn is the feature of the PX declension. In stems ending in a short vowel plus nasal, *-s becomes something like a glottal stop, as in fūvāṇġ < PNN *fiwen-s. Where the stem ended in a liquid, as in abel-, -s survives at the expense of the stem consonant and also causes the vowel to lengthen, here as abēs. In PX forms, final *-s is attached to a zero-grade suffix, as in mātūš < PEE *meh₂tr̥s and nomaṇġ < *Hnomn̥s. Conversely, if the stem ended in -ā or -ē, the result is -ā̊ < *-ās, e.g. jñiϑriiā̊. In s-stems, the ending generally disappears, e.g. māṇġ < *mn̥s-s. The ending is only neatly preserved after -i and -u and their respective allophones.

abl sing For all athematic nouns, the ablative singular was syncretized wtih the genitive singular.

dat sing In OX the dat. sigular ending was *-ei̯. This ending susceptible to colouring by a preceding *h₂-, as well as the influence of -i̯, to become -ai. If the preceding consonant was *u̯- or *h₃-, result was -oi. In PX, the ending was *-i. For all resonant stems, the ending -i caused the preceding vowel to mutate; an original *a became aē, and an accented *é became -ái. For stems ending in -n, the -n sandwiched between i became ñ. In all cases the dat. singular ending following a vowel was a separate syllable.

ins sing The OX ending -ōi̯ for the ins. singular originated as *-eh₁ in the proto-language. This ending is rarely problematic by phonological processes, but it is liable to be replaced in some stems, e.g. endings -ī and -ū in the i- and u-stems respectively, from the PX declension. The PX ending evolved from *-h₁. This ending was preserved only after plosives as -a. Following resonants, the preceding vowel was lengthened. If the preceding vowel was already long, disyllabic -ā̊ was the general outcome.

nom / voc / acc du For animate nouns, the du. ending for all direct cases in OX was generally -ōi̯ < *-ē. After i, the ending became -ā, and after u, -ō. After stems ending in laryngeals, the outcome was -å. In PX, the ending -a is visible after only after plosives, as it had the proto-form of *-h₁. After resonant and vowel stems, the ending was dropped causing the preceding vowel to lengthen, e.g. dorāu̯. After laryngeals, -å could also appear, since the intervening laryngeal caused ending to become vocalized. For all neuter nouns, the ending was -ī.

loc du In OX the dual loc. ending was -ō < *-ou̯. In PX, the ending was -ū, which developed from original *-u lengthened in final position; the ending is only altered after stems ending in -u̯-, where prehistorically the ending dissimilated to *-o and then became -a in an unaccented position.

gen du The proto-form of the dual genitive is usually considered the same as the locative, with added *-s at the end. Thus in OX the ending that surfaced was -ōš for *-ou̯s. In PX, the ending was -uš, which like the locative dissimilated to *-os if there was a preceding u. In this case, the ending was -ōḫ.

abl / dat / ins du These three forms were syncretized in Northian as -mō in OX and -ma in PX.

nom / voc pl The proto-form here was *-es. If this ending followed i, it became -āḫ, or if it followed u, -ōḫ. Otherwise, since this ending was never accented, it became -iš. For neuter nouns, the nom. and acc. ending was from *-h₂, which appears as -a following stops and causes preceding vowels to lengthen if adjacent to one or separated by a resonant.

acc pl This ending was derived from PEE *-n̥s following consonants or *-ns following vowels. *-n̥s generally gave rise by way of PNN *-uns to -ā̆ṇġ and -ā̆ŋhiš, both sensitive to the length of the preceding vowel. -ā̆ŋhiš is an allomorph that probably represents the nom. pl. ending appended to the acc. pl. ending, which had become rather opaque. In the case of *-i-ns, such as with the i-stems, the resulting ending was -īš.

gen pl The ending was consistently -õm, or -ą̄m after vowel stems.

abl / dat pl The ending was consistently -muš.

ins pl The ending was consistently -bi̯āḫ.

Thematic

	Basic ā-stem endings			Basic o-stem endings
	sing	du	pl	sing	du	pl
nom	-āḥ	-ayī	-aŋhā̊	-ōḫ, -õ	-ō, -oịī	-ā̊, -ohiš, -āḥ
voc				-i
acc	-ā̊		-a·ā̊	-õm	-ə̄ṇġ
loc	-ayi	-āvū	-āŋhū	-ōi̯	-ū	-ohū
gen	-ā̊	-āvuš	-a·ą̄̊m	-ōiiō	-ōš	-o·ōm
abl	-a·āṯ	-āmiiā	-āmβiiā̊	-ōṯ	-omiiā	-omβiiā̊
dat	-a·ai̯			-ōi̯
ins	-ā		-āi̯š	-ō		-ōi̯š

nom sg The ā-stems showed the expected ending -ā. M. and f. o-stems have -ōḫ < *-os, which scans short at the end of sentences and other pauses. N. o-stems have -õm.

voc sg The ā-stems have the same form as the nom. M. and f. o-stems have -i < *-e, while n. o-stems have the same form as the nom. In both cases, the accent is always retracted to the first syllable of the word.

acc sg for ā-stems is affected by Stang's law, which appears as -ā̊. The ending for m. and f. o-stems is the same as the n., -õm.

loc sg ā-stems have dysyllabic -ayi; o-stems have monosyllabic -oi.

gen sg ā-stems show -ā̊ for *-eh₂-s; o-stems have the compound suffix -ōiio, for *-osyo.

abl sg in ā-stems is dysyllabic aā̊ṯ; the quantity owes to dissimilation.

dat sg ā-stems

ins sg ā-stems

Verbs

Stems

Unlike nouns, verbs may form more than one stem and be still considered the same lexical item. It is thus necessary to discuss the relationship between the various stem-formations as they are attached to the root. The relationship between verb-stems and endings they receive are as follows in the Galic language:

	Present stem	Aorist stem	Perfect stem	Bare root	Future stem
Primary endings	Present indicative				Future indicative
Thematic endings				Root subjunctive
-e ~ o- + thematic endings	Present subjunctive	Aorist subjunctive	Perfect subjunctive
e- + secondary endings	Imperfect	Aorist	Pluperfect
-i̯ā ~ ī- + secondary endings	Optative	Aorist optative	Perfect optative		Future optative
Secondary endings	Injunctive	Aorist injunctive	Perfect injunctive		Future injunctive
Imperative endings	Imperative	Aorist imperative	Perfect imperative	Root imperative	Future imperative
Future imperative endings	Future imperative		Future perfect imperative
Perfect endings			Perfect indicative

From each root, which is agnostic as to part of speech in the proto-language, can arise multiple stems classified as present, aorist, or perfect, differentiated by their affixes. To these stems are attached endings to constitute the finite verb, which conveys tense/aspect, mood, voice, person, and number.

Primary and secondary athematic

The athematic verb endings, like their noun counterparts, are directly attached to the verbal stem without an intervening theme vowel. The primary endings are used for the athematic present, and the secondary endings for the athematic present injunctive, the imperfect, and (with the suffix) the optative, as well as the aorist indicative, injunctive, and optative.

There are two sets of (phonologically conditioned) parallel endings called the long and short endings. The long endings (noted below in grey) arise from a laryngeal between the stem and ending, whose effects are determined by neighbouring sounds. Where it precedes a guttural consonant, it becomes a, and a coronal consonant, i. If it preceded e, as in the case of the act. 3 pl., the e is coloured according to the laryngeal's identity. Otherwise, all laryngeals in this position behave alike and are indistinguishable. If the laryngeal was separated from a following consonant by another laryngeal, as in the case in the mid. 1 and 3 sing. and 2 and 3 du., the two adjacent vowels resulting are liable to be contracted in orthography, but this is merely a writing convention.

Primary active endings				Primary middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing		du		pl
					trans	intrans	trans	intrans	trans	intrans
1p	-aē-mi	-ū-viñi	-aē-miñi	1p	-a-ai̯		-ū-vozδa		-a-mozδa
2p	-i-si	-i-tāḫ	-i-te/ti/ta	2p	-i-tai̯		-a-ātaδai		-i-zδuuo
3p	-i-ti	-i-tes/tiš	-enδi/ā̆t	3p	-i-toi̯	-o	-a-ātāi̯ī	-a-ā	-i-nδro	-i-r/ro/ūš

Secondary active endings				Secondary middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing		du		pl
					trans	intrans	trans	intrans	trans	intrans
1p	-(ā̆)m/n	-ūvōḫ	-amōḫ	1p	-aa		-ūvoδa		-ameδa
2p	-i(s)	-itam	-ité	2p	-ita		-ii̯(a)tāδi		-iδō
3p	-it	-itim	-ā̆t	3p	-ito	-o	-ii̯ātā	-aā	-(a)r

1 sing. The primary and secondary active endings differ with the hic et nunc particle *-i in the proro-language, for the singular active. The element m is accepted in mainstream reconstructions of Proto-Erani-Eracuran to signify the first person. As m is a sonant, the ending -i in the primary conjugation can trigger mutation in the preceding syllable in the usual manner, e.g. diθēi̯mi < *didʰeh₁mi. In the secondary conjugation, final -m can vocalize to -ā̆m if following a stop.

In the middle voice, the ending evolves from *-h₂ey > -ai̯.

2 sing. In the primary conjugation, the signifying element of the active second singular *s can become h or z depending on the phonetic context. In the secondary is usually dropped after stems ending in a plosive or sonant, but it does regularly appear in the optative where it obligatorily follows a vowel.

The middle ending here is *-th₂ey > -tai̯.

3 sing. This -ti ending is usually retained in the primary conjugation. If the stem ended in a dental, the ending was liable to mutate in several ways. In the secondary, -t can displace preceding stops or be dropped in some contexts.

The middle ending of the third singular depends on the meaning of the word and the stem used, which is not quite predictable and must be learned in some cases. In many stem-classes, an middle verb with intransitive menaing will take the ending -o, and those with transitive meaning, -toi̯. In other cases, the ending -toi̯ is always used, regardless of meaning.

1 du. The active ending is from *-weni; mutation inevitably occurs in the first syllable, giving -u̯iñi.

In the middle, the form -u̯ozθa < *-wesdʰh₂ is found.

2 du. Here the active ending -tāḫ is for *-th₂es. An epenthentic -s- is sometimes found if the stem ended in a dental to avoid a sequence of two dentals together, and the resulting combination is sometimes resolved to prehistoric *-ss-. But this was not a universal phenomenon, and sometimes the geminate dental either drops or evne surfaces. Such examples are often interpreted by analogical restoration.

-tõ is found in the middle for *-tom.

3 du. The active allomorphs -tes ~ -tiš reflect *-tes, in accented and unaccented positions, respectively. For most athematic verbs the accent is mobile, consistently on the ending, so the former will be more common; the latter is seen on verbs with recessive accent like déθitiš and éstiš "you (pl.) give" and "sit". As with all endings which begin with t, it is liable to following another dental.

As in the case of the third singular, the middle ending here is sensitive to the stem-class of the verb and its general meaning. The transitive ending is -tą̄ < *teh₂m, and the intransitive ending is usually -ā. This latter ending is unique in the Erani-Eracuran family and has no known comparanda, and so it is possibly an innovation, though it is also argued to be an unique archaicism. But it is phonologically rather opaque, which hampers restoration of its proto-form.

1 pl. In the active one finds -miñi < *-meni, which is usually retained without complication.

In the middle, the ending -mozθa is encountered, for *-mesdʰh₂.

2 pl. Here, much akin to the 3 du., the allomorphs are either -te or -ti. -ti is clearly from *-te and is seen on verbs of recessive accent. However, a deviant form -ta also exists for some verbs, but the origin of -ta is unexplained.

The middle ending -θvo < *-dʰwe is found for the second plural. An -s- may be attached to the beginning of this ending for some verbs, and this augmentation is not restricted to those stems ending in a dental.

3 pl. In the third active plural, the ending -enθi is used. This ending is susceptible to laryngeal colouring if the verb stem ended in a laryngeal. Furthermore, this ending is the only one that regularly shows ablaut: where the accent was in the stem, the ending is *-n̥t > -at.

For the third plural middle, there are also endings which change according to the stem-class and meaning of the verb. Verbs with transitive meanings will generally have -nθro, while those with intransitive meanings may have either -ro or -ūš < *-r̥s.

Primary and secondary thematic

The primary and secondary thematic endings include a theme vowel between the stem and the ending-proper, varying between *e ~ o. The thematic endings formally differ in the active singular and third plural from the athematic ones but are transparently the same, with the addition of the theme vowel, in others. It is still a matter of active debate what the contrast between athematic and thematic endings was in the proto-language. The primary and secondary thematic endings are used in present and aorist stems in the same manner as the athematic ones.

Thematic active endings				Thematic middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing	du	pl
1p	-ō	-ou̯ōḫ	-omōḫ	1p	-ā̊i̯	-ou̯ōzθa	-omozθa
2p	-ei̯	-etāḫ	-eti	2p	-etai̯i	-etõ	-eθō
3p	-ei̯i	-etiš	-onθi	3p	-etoi̯i	-etą̄	-ō

1 sg. The first singular active ending is -ō. The middle ending is -ā̊i̯ for *o-h₂e-i—the ending is disyllabic in Northian.

2 sg. The ending for the second active singular is -ei̯ The middle ending is the same as the athematic one, with the theme vowel e inserted.

3 sg. In the third singular one finds the ending -ei̯i; note that this ending is disyllabic, unlike that of the second singular. Ditto for the middle.

1 - 3 du. and 1 and 2 pl. For all these items the thematic forms are the same as the athematic ones, with thematic o or e added.

3 pl. The endings here are active -o and middle -ō.

Thematic secondary endings, active or middle, are all the same as athematic ones, with thematic vowel inserted in like manner as the primary.

Imperative athematic and thematic

The imperative in Northian does not have opposition between primary and secondary. It is observed that the imperative usually implies immediacy, while the stem has aspectual value regarding the action required. The first person imperative is always defective: a speaker expressing a requirement for oneself would use the future tense. For all dual forms, the imperative is the same as the indicative, there being no sign that these ever had distinct imperative endings in Northian.

Imperative active endings				Imperative middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing	du	pl
1p	—	—	—	1p	—	—	—
2p	-θi	-tāḫ	-ti	2p	-svo	-ātaθa	-θvo
3p	-tū	-tiš	-nθū	3p	-to	-ātā	-nθō

The imperative forms for thematic verbs are as follows:

Imperative active endings				Imperative middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing	du	pl
1p	—	—	—	1p	—	—	—
2p	-Ø	-etāḫ	-eti	2p	-esvo	-ātaθa	-esθvo
3p	-etū	-etiš	-enθū	3p	-eto	-ā̊tā	-onθō

Perfect

The perfect was an athematic formation, irrespective of the thematicity of the present or aorist stems.

Perfect active endings				Perfect middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing	du	pl
1p	-a	-u̯o	-me	1p	If the perfect active is transitive, the middle is formed from the perfect subjunctive
2p	-ta	-āta	-é	2p
3p	-i	-ātā	-ṓ	3p

3 sg the ending -i is the unaccented outcome of *-e, which is coloured by any preceding laryngeal and therefore may surface as -a if the stem ended in *-h₂ or *-h₃.

2 pl -e is the accented outcome of *-e, which is also liable to be coloured by laryngeals and may appear as -a or -o with stems ending in *-h₂ or *-h₃, respectively.

Evolution

Northian is one of the relatively few Erani-Eracuran languages to retain multiple productive ablaut patterns in all classes of words, though OX endings have gained ground in many stem-classes at the expense of proterokientic and acrostatic formations. This tendency is attributed to surface consistency in hysterokinetic endings, which are regularly accented sing. gen. -ōḫ < *-os and dat. -ei̯ < *-ei̯.  The proterokinetic and acrostatic endings were easily eroded and disfigured by comparison. Despite morphological alterations, the grammar of nouns did not have considerable tendency to evolve.

The most dramatic change from the Galic to the Epic language must be found in verbs rather than nouns. The Galic verb formed multiple stems with aspectual value, to which suffixes and personal endings were added to specify mood and tense. This system is cognate to those found in sister languages acorss the Erani-Eracuran family, particularly in Tennai and Syara. Even in the Didaskalic material, this system was very much intact, yet early in Epic literature, around 650 BCE, a less diverse and less inflected verbal system was already dominant. Particularly, the opposition between present and aorist forms had been lost, and the perfect became a generalized past tense stem.

Nouns classes

The following chart lists the stems and accent patterns in Galic Northian. A green cell indicates that the stem and accent combination is productive, either in se or through a compound suffix; a yellow cell indicates an attested stem-accent combination; a red cell indicates no or only dubious attestations. The far-left column gives the traditional classification of nouns into oxytone (OX) and paroxytone (PX) by their dative singular forms, which have subsequently been refined into two classes each reflecting the more specific ablaut patterns that have survived into Galic times.

	-C	-t	-m	-n	-r	-s	-i	-u	-ī	-ū	-r/n	-nt
OX-B	About 80 root nouns and suffixed nouns in -k, -l, -ns, -d, etc., fos = "foot", xō = "heart"	A few in -ōs, nepōs "child"	About 20 feminine, in -ō or -am; gīy-ō "winter"	Many, in -ō and -ə̄, often binds m-, n-, s-, t-, etc., θxām-ō "human"	haz-ərə "hand" and personal, feminizing suffix -ez-ərə	A handful in -ā̊, aōšt-ā̊ "dawn"; the perf. act. ptcpl. waiduš "knowing"	Some in -ō and -iš, hak-ō "friend, ally", ouu-iš = "ewe"; neuter var. in -ai, oxθ-ai "finger"	A few dozen in -ōš or -uš, gen-ōš "jaw", xrétuš "will"	Some in -ī, štoīr-ī "heifer"	A handful in -ū, θan-ū "body"	Derived collectives of heteroclitics, in -r ~ n-, long o-grade in nom. > -ā̊	A few in -āṯ, oδāṯ "tooth"
OX-A	No	Productive suffix -tāt-, āmmərə-tās "immortality" and -tūt-, wəš-tūs "moistness"	No	Productive, in -en, uxšt-ā̊ = "ox", and -ṓ, yəuu-ṓ "youth"	Productive through agentive -ter, duhit-ō "daughter"	Productive, comparatives in -iiā̊- maj-iiā̊ "bigger", perf. act. ptcpl. in -uuā̊-, βiβiž-uuā̊ "trusting"	No	No	No	No	No	Productive pres. aor. act. ptcpl. of thematic verbs, in -ās hadáii-ās "sitting"
PX	No	No	No	Productive, neuter var. of OX n-stems, exhibiting same bound suffixes	No	Productive, neuter var. of OX s-stems, in -ō; neβ-ō "cloud", xrat-ō "power"	Productive, animate in -iš, action nouns -tiš, gomβ-iš "a step"; neuter in -i, mor-i "sea"	Productive, animate in -uš, wiš-t-úš "witness"; neuter in -ū, oii-ū "life"	Proliferate suffix deriving feminines in -ī; geniδr-ī "genitrix"	Same as -ī but more common in adjectives, in -ū; hoxr-ū "mother-in-law"	Neuter, in -r ~ n- suffix, ya-ərə "year"; more in -tar, -mərə, -zərə	No
PP	About 30 root and suffixed nouns in obstruent stems	nox-ṯ "night" and haš-ṯ "bed"	No	No	māt-ar "mother", βrāt-ar "brother"	men-ō "mind" (with o-grade of the suffix), kraō-š "gore"	aŋhi "serpent"	Neuter nouns in -ū, gon-ū "knee", wəšt-ū "settlement"	Feminine pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, déδāṯīš "of the giving one"	No	A few, in -r ~ n-, f-ō "shrine"	A few nouns; pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, déδāṯ "giving"

As appears from this schematic, most suffixes are associated with more than one accentual pattern. But even in Galic, the majority of suffixes have only one productive accentual pattern or separate productive patterns associated with masculine-feminine gender and neuter gender (the case of the n-stems and s-stems). Additionally, some suffixes are only productive through petrified compounds, which tended to be hysterokinetic and have invariant stems, such as the comparative in -iiā̊- and perfect active participle in -uuā̊-; otherwise, the s-stems in amphikinetic is non-productive.

Where there are multiple productive accentuation patterns, neuter nouns are almost always identified with the proterokinetic pattern, and masculine-feminine with the hysterokinetic or amphikinetic. The exception is for i-stems and u-stems, wherein proterokinetic accentuation is standard, and particularly productive through the compound with -t.

Adjective classes

Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms. Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.

Classes

	-k	-n	-s	-i	-u	-h₂	-r/n	-t	-nt	-ā	-o
OX	mera-xš "soft"	Masculine forms of adjectives with heteroclitic neuters, in -ṓ, fīuuō "fat, fertile"	Productive adjective in -ā̊, humen-ā̊ "well-intended", neut. -ā humen-ā; productive comparative in -iiā̊ -ištṓ, θáñ-iiā̊ "thinner"; productive perf. act. ptcpl. in -uuā̊ -uštṓ, tita-uuā̊ "having made", fem. -uśiiā, neut. -uš	A handful, in -iš, θraišt-iš	A handful, in -uš -uuṓ, meδ-uš "sweet"	máh-iš "big"	Adjective forms of neut. heteroclitics, masc. form in -ō and fem. in invariant -r-ī, faōuu-ərə "fat, fertile"	duš-ṯ "bad"	Productive derivative meaning "rich in, bearing of" in -uuā̊, β-uuā̊ "rich in power", from p- "power"; productive pres. act. ptcpl. of athematic verbs with mobile accent in -ṓs -ā̆tṓ, and of thematic verbs, in -ṓs -óṇδō	Masculine and feminine in -ō, some obligatory feminine in -ā, neuter in -õm
PX	No	No	No	Productive, adjectives in -uš, feminine in -ū or -uuī, neuter -ū, fərət-uš fərət-ūvī fərət-ū "flat"	Productive, adjectives in -iš, feminine in -yī, neuter -i, hámil-iš hámil-ayī hámil-i "similar"	Productive, feminine derivative of u-stem and i-stem adjectives, in -ī -iiā̊	No	No	No
PP	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Present active participles of athematic verbs with root accent, in -ā̆t, -ā̆s

Adjectives need to agree with the nouns they modify not only in number and case but also in gender, but forms for each gender may not necessarily be distinct from each other. Synchronically, many adjectives have a single form for animate (both masculine and feminine) referents, and a handful have the same forms for all three grammatical genders. Whether an adjective has distinct forms for each gender is lexical, and there is no obvious semantic difference which appears to condition their presence or absence. The usual historical explanation is that the feminine gender was a late grammatical development and did not always correspond to semantics of biological gender, though the mechanisms of the grammaticalization of the feminine gender is uncertain.

For o-stem adjectives with a masculine nom. sing. terminating in -ōḫ, there is always a separate neuter form ending in -õ. Those which have a distinct, obligatory feminine form will have one ending in -ā. Thus these adjectives are called "three-ending" o-stem adjectives. Those without a distinct, obligatory feminine ending terminate in -ōḫ for both masculine and feminine referents. These are "two-ending" o-stem adjectives. It should be noted that feminine forms of o-stems add the -ā directly to the stem, not after the -o theme vowel; this is in contrast to the *-h₂ stems (see below) which is usually added following an existing suffix.

Adjectives terminating in -k, -n, -s, and -t generally do not have distinct forms for masculine and feminine referents, but a handful will have a -ī suffix following the existing suffix to create a distinct feminine form. The netuer form is distinguished from the animate form in one of two manners. It may be by ablaut, taking a short vowel grade when the animate has long grade or a zero grade when the animate has short. Or it may be by the absence of final -s in the nominative, where the animate nom. has -s.

Adjectives in -i and -u often have distinct feminine forms ending in -ī, but there are also adjectives which have just one form for animate refernets or even one form for referents of all genders. Furthermore, there are feminine forms which have a long vowel where the masculine has a short vowel, e.g. fem. nom. sing. -ī and -ū, contra masc. nom. sing. -iš and -uš. The long vowel is conditioned by final *-h₂, which is the same as in *-ih₂ > the usual feminizing suffix -ī.

Adjectives in -nt and -wos, mostly participles, create their feminine forms by adding -ī.

There is also a class of heteroclitic adjectives based on heteroclitic nouns, which are all neuter except hāuuərə "Sun", a feminine term. Those heteroclitic items which have PP inflection take the PX inflection for their primary adjectival forms, which are also neuter and have zero grade in the suffix. The masculine form is produced by adding OX n-stem endings, and the feminine by the -ī suffix to the neuter form. In the feminine, the heteroclitic suffix has full grade and the suffix zero grade in the strong cases, and vice versa in the oblique cases.

It has been noted that adjectives often show a different ablaut pattern compared to nouns derived from the same stems. That is to say, a noun with proparoxytone or paroxytone accent can often respectively form an adjective of similar meaning with a paroxytone or oxytone accent or oxytone accent. The source of this derivation is academically debated but remained visible and productive in Northian.

All Nordic languages have an extant distinction or some vestige of it between strong and weak declensions for the same adjective, where the "strong" represents the adjective's inherited declension and the "weak" its declension as an n-stem. This is not true of Northian, which lacks a weak declension. This would suggest in historical terms that the weak declension developed after the Nordic-Northian split in the Middle Bronze Age, and all the Northian adjectives are thus "strong" in Nordic terms.

Numerals

1 – 4

Cardinal numbers one through four are declinable as athematic adjectives of various declensional patterns, agreeing with the nouns (explicit or implicit) they modify in gender, case, and number. Of course, "one" is only inflected in the singular, "two" in the dual, and "three" and "four" in the plural. Numbers five and above are indeclinable.

	"one"			"two"			"three"			"four"
	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.
nom	hā̊	hõm	hámīḥ	žuuō	duyīḥ	žuuayīḥ	θráiiāḫ	θrī́ḥ	θrižrāḫ	koδuuóriš	kótur	koδuuərəšriš
voc	hõm
acc	hā̊		hámīi̯am				θrī́		θrižrā̊	koδuuórā̊		koδuuərəzrā̊
loc	himi		hmi̯āi	duō		θvāu̯u	θrišū		θrižərəžū	koδuuərəžū		koδuuərəzərəzū
dat	hmei̯			dumā́		θvāma	θrimuš		θrižərəmuš	koδuuərəmuš		koδuuərəzərəmuš
loc	hmōḫ		hmi̯āu̯				θriβi̯ō		θrižərəβi̯ō	koδuuərəβi̯ō		koδuuərəzərəβi̯ō
gen				duōš		θvāu̯uš	θri̯õm		θrišrõm	koturõm		koδuuərəžrõm
ins	hmōi̯		hmi̯å	dumā́		θvāma	θrišūr		θrišra	kotura		koδuuərəzar

"One" is a root noun with a stem ending in -m. As with other stems ending in -m, the accusative preform *sem-m̥ would by regular phonetic change become *sēm, i.e. the same as nominative *sēm, because the PEE ending *-m̥ regularly absorbs the previous resonant, hence also nom. zi̯ōš < *dyou-s but acc. zi̯ā̊ < *dyēm < *dyew-m̥; in the number, -əm is often but not always restored. In the oblique cases, the stem is in zero grade and appears as hm- < *sm-. The feminine forms are a regular development from the familiar -īḥ suffixation.

"Two" is only declined in the dual number. There are two stems in use: the monosyllabic dvō- and the dysyllabic duo-. It is not certain why the stem scans as two syllables in the neuter forms.

"Three" is a regular PX i-stem noun and is only declined in the plural. Nom. θráiiāḫ shows regular development of *e > a after yod and attraction of the previous front vowel. <ị> is inserted by Runic writers. As with other PX nouns of animate gender, the accusative plural has a zero-grade suffix followed by a zero-grade ending; *tri-ns > θrī́. The feminine forms employ the feminizing infix -sr-, which is always found in the zero grade, and take regular athematic endings. There is also a specific personal form if three women are specifically spoken of, which is θrai̯štar θrižrōḫ < *trey-sr̥, *tri-sr-os.

"Four" behaves like most athematic nouns and also employs the feminizing infix -sr- for its feminine forms. Note however that the ablauting element was the second syllable of the stem -twor-, which in zero grade appears would be PNN *-tur-. Which of the two resonants vocalize depends on the phonetic environment. Where the suffix stands alone the *-w- is vocalized, as in neuter nominative kotur < *kʷetw̥r. But where an obstruent follows the suffix it is the *-r- that becomes syllabic, as in koδuuərəmuš < *kʷetwr̥mus. There was also a singular form koδuuā̊ < *kʷetwōr = Venetian quattuor.

The feminine forms for "four" have the particularly long stem of hoδvərəzərə-, which is for *kʷétwr̥-sr̥- where the ending begins with a consonant. The masculine form for "four" frequently supplants the feminine owing to the sheer length of the etymological stem.

5 and higher

• fenkə "five"

From PEE *pénkʷe.

• xšuuāxš "six"

From *kswéks.

• haftam 7

From *septm̥.

• oxθō 8

The proto-form of this word is disputed. Northian oxθō can be traced back to both *(H)oktow and *(H)oktoH, with or without an initial laryngeal. Morphologically, it is the dual of óxθō "fingers", in ei-stem.

• nauuam 9
• dekam 10

Pronouns

First person

	sing		du		pl
	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic
nom	áhō		vṓ		vōi̯
acc	ammṓi̯	mi	āŋhō	nō	aŋhmṓi̯	nā̊́ḫ
gen	mémi	moi̯	nō		āŋhér-
dat	máji̯o		nanā́		āŋhméi̯

Second person

	sing		du		pl
	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic
nom	tū́		yṓ		yā̊́ḫ
acc	svō	ti	ūšō	vō	ušmé	vā̊́ḫ
gen	téve	toi̯	wō		yuštr-(I/II)
dat	tévi̯ō	toi̯	wanā́		ušmḗ

Demonstrative

	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masc.	Neut.	Fem.	Masc.	Neut.	Fem.	Masc.	Neut.	Fem.
Nominative	ha	taṯ	hā	tō	toī	tāī	toy	tā	tāy
Accusative	tõm		tāmam				tṓn		tā́s
Locative	tohme		tesi̯āi̯	tṓu̯			toisu		tēsu
Genitive	tohi̯ō		tezās	tṓmōuš			toiom		tēom
Dative	tohmoi̯		tesi̯åi̯	tṓzmā			toiomus		tēmus
Instrumental	toi̯		toi̯

Indefinite article

The Northian indefinite article, which introduces an indefininte noun phrase, is derived from the PEE root *oiwos, meaning "one". Note that the endings are those of demonstratives.

	aēuuōḫ, "a, an"
	M & F	N
nom	aēuuōḫ	aēuuó
voc
acc	aēuuõm
loc	aēuuōi̯
dat
abl	aēuuōṯ
gen	aēuuōi̯š
ins	aēuuō

Verb classes

Athematic present

The shapes of the stem in the Erani-Eracuran parent language decides the resulting forms in Northian:

• VC—these take the short (regular) endings.
• VH—these take the short (regular) endings in the strong forms and long (augmented) endings in the weak forms, with any laryngeal-colouring effects visible on both stem and endings which interface with the stem-final laryngeal.
• VCH—these take the long (augmented) endings, with any laryngeal-colouring effects visible on endings which interface with the stem-final laryngeal.

Aside from the shape of the stem, there are two accentual patterns found in present stems:

• Mobile accent—this pattern is found within all stem-classes and is the most common by far; the accent is on the stem in the singular active and on the ending in all other forms.
• Persistent accent—some root stems take this accent pattern, and the accent is on the stem in all cases; the singular indicative and imperfect active usually has a lengthened vowel, in contrast to the short vowel of all other forms. The injunctive can sometimes have short vowel throughout, but this is completely unpredictable. The 3 pl form, which is sensitive to ablaut, takes the zero grade form.

Present stems

The imperfective system in Galic largely continues the system of reconstructed Proto-Erani-Eracuran. With regard to the historic development of the Northian languages, the imperfective stem is evidently the most productive, followed by the stative and perfective stems in this order. Except for inherited items, all verbs not directly derived from roots could only be imperfective. Imperfective stems could be directly conjugated from the root or with the addition of affixes; as decided by the affix, the athematic or thematic endings may be used. Many athematic stems display ablaut, and in Northian it is customary to give the first person singular active to show the form of the strong stem and the second person plural, for the weak stem.

#	Class	1 sg. / 2 pl.	Function	Examples
1a	root	CéC-mi / CØC-té CéCaē-mi / CØCi-té	Used for inherently imperfective roots. This root type often but not always shows root ablaut, varying between *e ~ Ø. The accent is on the root if it is in full-grade, and on the ending if the root is in zero-grade. These verbs are common in Galic but uncommon in Epic.	es- / s- "to be"
1b		CḗC-mi / CéC-ti	The same as the type above, but with ablaut varying between *ē ~ e. The accent persists on the root.	ēs- / es- "to sit, stay"
2a	root	CéC-ōḥ / CéC-iti	Used for inherently imperfective roots. The root consistently shows full grade and is accented.	ver-e- "to transport"
2b		CØC-ṓḥ / CØC-éti	Used for inherently imperfective roots. The root consistently shows zero grade, and the theme vowel is accented.	tuδ-e- "to push"
3	reduplicated	Ci-CéC-mi / Ci-CØC-té Ce-CéC-mi / Ce-CØC-té	Creates imperfective stems from eventive roots. The reduplicated syllable varies between *e ~ i, with no apparent difference in meaning. The root syllable generally undergoes ablaut, with e-grade in strong forms and zero-grade in weak forms. Roots which end in a laryngeal have a characteristic long vowel in the strong form and a schwa in weak, which merges with the ending if it begins with a vowel.	de-δō- / de-δ(i)- "to give" hi-štā- / hi-št(i)- "to stand (something) up"
4	né ~ n	CØ-né-C-mi / CØ-nØ-C-té	Creates imperfective stems from perfective roots. The affix *ne ~ n is inserted between the vowel and final consonant of the root. The root is always in the zero-grade, while the infix undergoes ablaut.	li-ne-k- / la-ṇ-x "to leave (behind)"
5	nā́ / nṓ ~ ni	CØ-nā́-mi / CØ-ni-té CØ-nṓ-mi / CØ-ni-té	This class originates from the same process as class IV, but due to sound changes the surface forms are different. In strong forms, the combination *-ne-h₂- becomes -nā-, while in weak forms the *-n-h₂- generally causes the preceding vowel (in zero grade) to lengthen. If the root ends in *-h₃, the strong form has -nō-, but this is somewhat rarer as roots rarely end in this consonant. The final -i in the weak forms of this root is the "laryngeal i", which only appears before consonants and as i only before dentals, or as a before gutturals. If preceding e, it colours e to match (as a rule of thumb) the same consonant in the strong stem; this is the situation in the 3rd act. pl., where the ending was *-enti.	kri-nā- / kri-n(i)- "to buy" gā-nō- / gā-n(i)- "to know"
6	naō ~ nu	CØ-naō-mi / CØ-nu-té	This class also originates from the same process as class IV. Preceding another vowel, naō- is written as nauu-. In weak forms, the suffix *-n-u̯- can become -nuu- preceding another vowel, e.g. kərənuuəṇδi "they make", or -āuu- following a non-resonant.	kərə-naō- / kərə-nu- "to make"
7	reduplicated	Cí-CØC-ōḥ / Cí-CØC-iti	Like the athematic verbs in class III, these are imperfective verbs formed from eventive roots, but with thematic endings. The root syllable is in zero-grade. The accent is consistently on the reduplication syllable.	pí-p-i- "to drink" hí-zd-i- "to sit (something) down"
8a	ii	CéC-ii-ōḥ / CéC-ii-ati	This very prolific suffix creates imperfective stems from perfective roots. They characteristically had a full-grade and consistently-accented root. As a rule, present stems in class 8a corresponded with an aorist stem in class 1 (root aorist), and so in the Epic language verbs in this class drop the -ii- to form the first subjunctive.	špač-ii- "to observe, spectate"
8b		CØC-ii-ṓḥ / CØC-ii-áti	Similar to the above, but this type had a zero-grade root and consistently accented endings. Further, members of thsi class were often deponent, i.e. lacking an active voice. Where an active voice is found, there is usually no contrast in meaning to the middle.	worj-i̯- "to rotate"
9	sk-	CØC-šk-ṓḥ / CéC-šk-éti	Creates imperfective stems from perfective roots.	gā-šk- "to walk, pace"
10	s-	CéC-s-ōḥ / CéC-s-iti	Only a few examples are known from this class.	lek-s-e "to protect"
11	ḗ-	CØC-ḗ-ōḥ / CØC-ḗ-yiti	Verbs in this class mostly express states of being, derived mainly from adjectives. The suffix ended in a laryngeal, so in Galic verbs in this class have disyllabic endings that are orthographically merged.	ruδ-ḗ "to blush"
12	áii-	CóC-aii-ōḥ / CØC-áii-ati	Stems of this class have root syllables in the o-grade.	soδ-aii- "to sit, calm"
13a	s-	CéC-s-ōḥ / CéC-s-eti Ce-CéC-s-ōḥ / Ce-CéC-s-iti	This formation has two functions. When applied to present and aorist stems, desiderative verbs are created, but when applied to perfect stems, a meaning somewhat similar to future perfect is created.
13b		Cí-CØC-s-ōḥ / Cí-CØC-s-iti	The same as above, except with i-reduplication of the initial syllable, which stands in the zero grade.
14	sii-	CØC-sii-ōḥ / CØC-sii-ati	Creates future stems from present and aorist stems. The shape of this stem depends on that of the root: if the root ended in a vowel, the suffix will change to -hiia-, and the vowel preceding will obligatorily become a.
15	aii-	CVC-aii-ṓḥ / CVC-aii-áti	Creates verbs from o-stem (2nd declension) nouns.
16	āii-	CVC-āii-ṓḥ / CVC-āii-áti	Creates verbs from ā-stem (1st declension) nouns.

Root with mobile accent

gonmi, hāté, "to strike"

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	gón-mi	egónam	gónąm	gón-ō	gñ-iiā̊	—	gān-ūm	igun-ūm	gān-ūm	gén-ą̄m	jñ-īma	—	—
2 sg	góŋ-hi	egṓṇġ	gṓṇġ	-ai	-iiā̊(s)	gān-θī́	-šθoi̯	-šθo	-šθo	-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	gān-švō	gān-θitoṯ
3 sg	gón-δi	egóṇṯ	góṇṯ	-iyi	-iiāṯ	-itū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo	-θoṯ
1 du	hŋʷ-uuəíñi	egñ-uuó	gñ-uuó	-ouuiñi	-īuuó	—	gāŋ-vózθa	iguŋ-vóθa	gāŋ-vóθa	-ou̯ozθa	-īvóθa	—	—
2 du	hā-tāḫ	egā-δõm	gā-δõm	-étāḫ	-ītõm	-θāḫ	jñ-ātiθai̯i	igñ-ātiθa	jñ-ātaθa	-ētaθai	-ītaθa	jñ-ātaθa	-θoṯ
3 du	-tḗ	-δā̊	-δā̊	-étiš	-ītā̊	-θés	-ātāi̯i	igñ-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	jñ-ātā	-θoṯ
1 pl	hŋʷ-míñi	egñ-mó	gñ-mó	-omiñi	-īmó	—	gān-mózθa	igun-meθa	gān-meθa	-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	hā-δé	egā-δé	gā-δé	-éti	-īté	gén-θi	-šθve	-šθve	-šθve	-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve	-θoṯ
3 pl	gñ-énδi	egñ-éṇṯ	gñ-éṇṯ	-ō	-iiāṯ	jñ-énθu	jñ-énθroi̯	igñ-ónθro	-ónθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo	-nθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

ahmi, šté, "to be". This verb of singular importance has a rather opaque stem owing to the vagaries of *s in various phonetic positions. In principle, when *s precedes *m, *u̯, or a back vowel and when it stands in initial position and precedes any vowel, it becomes h; then any front vowel which borders h becomes a. Before a voiced consonant, *s becomes z. Thus the a-vocalism of hánθi "they are" is due to the colouring effects of h and not an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal, and so the subjunctive endings beginning in e are not coloured to a. ahmi has no attested middle voice.

	active						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	áh-mi	é-ez-ąm		áh-ō	h-iiā̊	—	—
2 sg	á-hi	á-ā̊-ḫ		-ayi	-iiā̊	z-δí	z-δitóṯ
3 sg	éš-ti	é-eš-ṯ		-ai	-iiāṯ	š-tū́	š-toṯ
1 du	h-uuəíñi	ēz-uuó	h-uuó	-ouuəíñi	h-īuuó	—	—
2 du	š-tāḫ	ēš-tõm	š-tõm	-átāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-toṯ
3 du	-tḗ	-tā̊	-tā̊	-átiš	-ītā̊	-tā̊	-toṯ
1 pl	h-míñi	ēz-mo	h-mo	-omiñi	-īmó	—	—
2 pl	s-té	ēš-té	š-te	-áti	-īté	éš-ti	-toṯ
3 pl	h-ánδi	ā-h-áṇṯ		-onδi	-ii̯āṯ	h-āδu	h-āδoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās

Root with persistent accent

āhmi, asti, "to dwell". A small but important class of root present verbs have persistent accent. Thus, rather than having an accent that shifts to the endings in the non-singular active and the entire middle, the accent persists on the root syllable; many, but not all, such verbs will have a lengthened vowel in the singular active. The 3 pl form takes the zero grade in all cases because the accent persists on the root.

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ā́h-mi	ā̊s-am	áh-am	ā́h-ō	áh-i̯ą̄m	—	áh-ūm	ā́h-ūm	áh-ūm	ā́h-ą̄m	és-īma	—	—
2 sg	ḗ-si	ā̊s	es	ḗs-ei̯i	-i̯āu̯	ez-θī́	és-šθoi̯	ḗs-šθo	és-šθo	ḗs-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	és-švō	és-θitoṯ
3 sg	ḗs-ti	ā̊s-ṯ	es-ṯ	-ei̯	-i̯āṯ	es-tū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo	-θoṯ
1 du	áh-víñi	āh-vo	áh-vó	ā́h-ou̯iñi	és-īvo	—	áh-vozθa	ā́h-voθa	áh-voθa	áh-ou̯ozθa	-īvoθa	—	—
2 du	és-tāḫ	ēs-tõm	és-tõm	ḗs-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	ḗs-ētaθai	-ītaθa	-ātaθa	-θoṯ
3 du	-tés	-tą̄m	-tą̄m	-etiš	-ītąm	-tiš	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	-ātā	-θoṯ
1 pl	áh-míñi	āh-mo	áh-mo	ā́h-omiñi	-īmō	—	-mózθa	-meθa	-meθa	ā́h-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	és-ti	ēs-ti	és-te	ḗs-eti	-īte	ḗs-ti	és-šθve	ḗs-šθve	és-šθve	ḗs-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve	-θoṯ
3 pl	áh-āṯ	ēs-eṯ	háṯ	ā́h-onθi	-ii̯āṯ	és-enθu	áh-unθroi̯	ā́h-unθro	áh-unθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo	-unθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

Root with long endings

ánaēmi, ānité, "to breath". Owing to the effects of an interconsonantal laryngeal, some roots were synchronically analyzed as taking a set of endings augmented with a vowel between the stem and ending proper, though historically the augmentation is part of the stem and not of the ending. These endings are analogous with the ṣet roots in the Tennite language, while those taking the short (normal) endings are analoogus to aṇit roots. Since there is an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal on the stem-ending border, any ending which begins with *e (bolded) is liable to be coloured by this laryngeal; in the example below the laryngeal is *h₁ and so does not colour the ending. This colouring effect may be seen as the analogue to the ending augmentation where the laryngeal is not preserved between consonants.

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	án-aēmi	aán-ą̄m	án-ą̄m	án-ō	ān-i̯ą̄m	—	ān-ūm	au̯un-ūm	ān-ūm	án-ą̄m	ān-īma	—	—
2 sg	án-iši	-iš	-iš	-ei̯i	-i̯āu̯	āniθī́	-išθoi̯	-išθo	-išθo	-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	ān-išvō	ān-iθitoṯ
3 sg	-iti	-it	-it	-ei̯	-i̯āṯ	-itū́	-itoi̯	-ito	-ito	-étoi̯	-īto	-ito	-itoṯ
1 du	ān-ivíñi	au̯un-ivo	ān-ivó	-ou̯iñi	-īu̯o	—	-ivózθa	-ivóθa	-ivóθa	-ou̯ozθa	-īvóθa	—	—
2 du	-itāḫ	-itõm	-itõm	-étāḫ	-ītõm	-itāḫ	-ētiθai̯i	-ētiθa	-ētaθa	-ētaθai	-ii̯itaθa	-ētaθa	-itoṯ
3 du	-ités	-itą̄m	-itą̄m	-étiš	-ītąm	-ités	-ētāi̯i	-ētā	-ētā	-ētāi̯i	-ii̯itā	-ētā	-itoṯ
1 pl	-amíñi	-amo	-amo	-omiñi	-īmō	—	-amózθa	-ameθa	-ameθa	-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	-ité	-ite	-ite	-éti	-īte	án-iti	-išθve	-išθve	-nušθve	-ésθve	-īšθve	-iθve	-itoṯ
3 pl	ān-énθi	-éṯ	ān-éṯ	-ónθi	-ii̯āṯ	ān-énθu	-énθroi̯	-ónθro	-ónθro	-ónθroi̯	-ii̯unθro	-ii̯unθo	-inθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

Of a similar construction are those verbs whose historic stems terminated in *-h₂ and *-h₃, giving rise to a and o respectively, in all the bolded positions.

Root with long ending and persistent accent

While there is no obvious reason why such a combination cannot exist, there are no known roots which take both long endings and a persistent accent.

Vowel-final stems

faēmi, fité, "to protect, apologize, propitiate (middle)". In partial distinction to the situation above, stems which had a laryngeal in final position result in a lengthened vowel in the singular active. For paēmi this vowel is ā, but as in other cases the vowel becomes ē or ō. In the active optative, the initial consonant is a phonetic combination of *py-. This word is cognate to Nordic fehu "flock", via the sense a flock is animals protected by the shepherd.

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	f-aḗmi	émβā̊	f-ā̊	fa-ō	β-iiā̊	—	f-ā́m	ep-ā́m	p-ā́m	p-ą̄m	p-īma	—	—
2 sg	-ā́hi	émβā̊	-ā̊	-ayi	-iiā̊	β-θī́	-išθoi̯	-išθo	-išθo	-ásθoi̯	-īšθo	p-išvō	p-iθitoṯ
3 sg	-ā́ti	émβā-t	-āt	-ai	-iiāṯ	-itū́	-itoi̯	-ito	-ito	-átoi̯	-īto	-ito	-itoṯ
1 du	-ūvíñi	ep-ūvó	-ūvó	-ouuiñi	f-ūvo	—	-ivózθa	-ivóθa	-ivóθa	-ou̯ozθa	-īvóθa	—	—
2 du	-itāḫ	-itõm	-itõm	-átāḫ	-ītõm	-itāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	-ātaθai	-ii̯itaθa	-ātaθa	-itoṯ
3 du	-itḗ	-itā̊	-itā̊	-átiš	-ītā̊	-itḗ	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ātāi̯i	-ii̯itā	-ātā	-itoṯ
1 pl	-amíñi	-amo	-amo	-omiñi	-īmō	—	-amózθa	-ameθa	-ameθa	-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	-ité	-ité	-ité	-áti	-īté	fā́-ti	-išθvé	-išθvé	-išθvé	-ásθve	-īšθve	-iθve	-itoṯ
3 pl	-ánδi	-áṯ	-ánṯ	-ónδi	-iyaṯ	f-inθū́	-ánθroi̯	-ónθro	-ónθro	-ónθroi̯	-ii̯unθro	-ii̯unθo	-inθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

naṓ ~ nu

xšnaōmi, xšnuθvé, "to sharpen". Present stems which vary with a nu suffix (néu̯ in strong forms) are treated as a special class as the endings are liable to become muddled with the stem-final consonant. Fundamentally, these verbs are still of the VC type and all have mobile accent. Syllabification rules in Northian requires the u in the weak form of the suffix to become a consonant in the presence of a following vowel, which in turn causes the n before it to mutate to ŋ. This ŋ may itself be syllabified in response to the want of a preceding vowel, as Northian prohibits four consecutive consonants in anlaut.

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	xš-naṓ-mi	a-xš-nā̊		xš-náuu-ō	xš-nu-iiā̊		hš-nūm	ekš-nūm	hš-nūm	hš-neu̯ą̄m	hš-āŋvīma	—	—
2 sg	xš-náu-šti	-naṓ-š		-náuu-oyi	-nu-iiā̊	xš-naṓ	-nušθoi̯	-nušθo	-nušθo	-neu̯esθoi̯	-āŋvīšθo	hš-nušvō	hš-nuθitoṯ
3 sg	xš-naṓ-ti	-naṓ-ṯ		-náuu-oi	-nu-iiāṯ	-nu-tū	-nutoi̯	-nuto	-nuto	-neu̯etoi̯	-āŋvīto	-nuto	-nutoṯ
1 du	xš-nu-voíñi	a-xš-nu-vo		-náuu-ouuiñi	-nuu-īuuo		-nuu̯ózθa	-nuu̯óθa	-nuu̯eθa	-neu̯ou̯ozθa	-āŋvīu̯óθa	—	—
2 du	xš-nu-tāḫ	-nu-tõm		-náuu-itāḫ	-nuu-ītõm	-nu-tāḫ	-āŋvātiθai̯i	-āŋvātaθa	-āŋvātaθa	-neu̯ātaθai	-āŋvītaθa	-āŋvātaθa	-nutoṯ
3 du	xš-nu-tḗ	-nu-tā̊		-náuu-itiš	-nuu-ītąm	-nu-tḗ	-āŋvātāi̯i	-āŋvātā	-āŋvātā	-neu̯ātāi̯i	-āŋvītā	-āŋvātā	-nutoṯ
1 pl	xš-nu-míñi	-nu-mo		-náuu-omiñi	-nuu-īmō		-numózθa	-numeθa	-numeθa	-neu̯omozθa	-āŋvīmeθa	—	—
2 pl	xš-nu-té	-nu-té		-náuu-iti	-nuu-īte	-nu-te	-nušθve	-nušθve	-nušθve	-neu̯esθve	-āŋvīšθve	-nuθve	-nutoṯ
3 pl	xš-uu-onδi	a-xš-nuu-óṇṯ		-náuu-oṇδi	-nuu-īṯ	-nuu-ātū	-āŋvónθroi̯	-āŋvónθro	-āŋvónθro	-neu̯onθroi̯	-āŋvīnθro	-āŋvunθo	-nunθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

Aorist

Aorist stems

The aorist or perfective (not to be confused with "perfect") stems belong to a relic class in Epic Northian, but they are productive in the Galic language. When used in the indicative and imperative, there are four formations as follows. But when used outside of them, and particularly in the injunctive and optative moods, aorists in s- are often "conjugated from the root", that is behave like root aorists. Roots which have this behaviour are called "split aorists" and are associated with a contrasting ablaut pattern, with only the third plural exhibiting a weak grade.

#	Class	1 sg. / 2 pl.	Function	Examples
1	root	CéC-am / CØC-té	Contains roots that are inherently perfective. Most perfective verbs in the parent language appear to have been of this type, and Galic Northian has inherited about 100 lexical items inflected this way. The root syllable typically shows ablaut between *e ~ Ø. Many suffixed imperfective stems are derived from a root perfective stem.	dō- / d(i)- "to give" xraō- / xru- "to hear"
2	root	CØC-õm / CØC-té	Contains roots that are inherently perfective. This type appears to have been rare.	luδ- "to listen"
3	reduplicated	Cé-CØC-õm / Cé-CØC-iti	This pattern is known from only one root, though it is widely-attested in other Erani-Eracuran languages.	waō-š- "to say"
4	s-	CḗC-s-(m) / CéC-š-ti	The s- suffix creates perfective stems from roots which were inherently imperfective; notably, the ablauting root syllable contrasts the long vowel in the strong forms and the short in the weak.	daix-s- "to show"

Root aorists

esedām, esdté

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ā́h-mi	esed-am	áh-am	ā́h-ō	áh-i̯ą̄m	—	áh-ūm	ā́h-ūm	áh-ūm	ā́h-ą̄m	és-īma	—	—
2 sg	ḗ-si	ā̊s	es	ḗs-ei̯i	-i̯āu̯	ez-θī́	és-šθoi̯	ḗs-šθo	és-šθo	ḗs-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	és-švō	és-θitoṯ
3 sg	ḗs-ti	ā̊s-ṯ	es-ṯ	-ei̯	-i̯āṯ	es-tū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo	-θoṯ
1 du	áh-víñi	est-vo	áh-vó	ā́h-ou̯iñi	és-īvo	—	áh-vozθa	ā́h-voθa	áh-voθa	áh-ou̯ozθa	-īvoθa	—	—
2 du	és-tāḫ	ēs-tõm	és-tõm	ḗs-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	ḗs-ētaθai	-ītaθa	-ātaθa	-θoṯ
3 du	-tés	-tą̄m	-tą̄m	-etiš	-ītąm	-tiš	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	-ātā	-θoṯ
1 pl	áh-míñi	est-mo	áh-mo	ā́h-omiñi	-īmō	—	-mózθa	-meθa	-meθa	ā́h-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	és-ti	ēs-ti	és-te	ḗs-eti	-īte	ḗs-ti	és-šθve	ḗs-šθve	és-šθve	ḗs-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve	-θoṯ
3 pl	áh-āṯ	ēs-eṯ	háṯ	ā́h-onθi	-ii̯āṯ	és-enθu	áh-unθroi̯	ā́h-unθro	áh-unθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo	-unθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

Split aorists

dēkšam, esdté

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ā́h-mi	esed-am	áh-am	ā́h-ō	áh-i̯ą̄m	—	áh-ūm	ā́h-ūm	áh-ūm	ā́h-ą̄m	és-īma	—	—
2 sg	ḗ-si	ā̊s	es	ḗs-ei̯i	-i̯āu̯	ez-θī́	és-šθoi̯	ḗs-šθo	és-šθo	ḗs-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	és-švō	és-θitoṯ
3 sg	ḗs-ti	ā̊s-ṯ	es-ṯ	-ei̯	-i̯āṯ	es-tū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo	-θoṯ
1 du	áh-víñi	est-vo	áh-vó	ā́h-ou̯iñi	és-īvo	—	áh-vozθa	ā́h-voθa	áh-voθa	áh-ou̯ozθa	-īvoθa	—	—
2 du	és-tāḫ	ēs-tõm	és-tõm	ḗs-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	ḗs-ētaθai	-ītaθa	-ātaθa	-θoṯ
3 du	-tés	-tą̄m	-tą̄m	-etiš	-ītąm	-tiš	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	-ātā	-θoṯ
1 pl	áh-míñi	est-mo	áh-mo	ā́h-omiñi	-īmō	—	-mózθa	-meθa	-meθa	ā́h-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	és-ti	ēs-ti	és-te	ḗs-eti	-īte	ḗs-ti	és-šθve	ḗs-šθve	és-šθve	ḗs-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve	-θoṯ
3 pl	áh-āṯ	ēs-eṯ	háṯ	ā́h-onθi	-ii̯āṯ	és-enθu	áh-unθroi̯	ā́h-unθro	áh-unθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo	-unθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

Thematic endings

dēkšam, esdté

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ā́h-mi	esed-am	áh-am	ā́h-ō	áh-i̯ą̄m	—	áh-ūm	ā́h-ūm	áh-ūm	ā́h-ą̄m	és-īma	—	—
2 sg	ḗ-si	ā̊s	es	ḗs-ei̯i	-i̯āu̯	ez-θī́	és-šθoi̯	ḗs-šθo	és-šθo	ḗs-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	és-švō	és-θitoṯ
3 sg	ḗs-ti	ā̊s-ṯ	es-ṯ	-ei̯	-i̯āṯ	es-tū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo	-θoṯ
1 du	áh-víñi	est-vo	áh-vó	ā́h-ou̯iñi	és-īvo	—	áh-vozθa	ā́h-voθa	áh-voθa	áh-ou̯ozθa	-īvoθa	—	—
2 du	és-tāḫ	ēs-tõm	és-tõm	ḗs-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	ḗs-ētaθai	-ītaθa	-ātaθa	-θoṯ
3 du	-tés	-tą̄m	-tą̄m	-etiš	-ītąm	-tiš	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	-ātā	-θoṯ
1 pl	áh-míñi	est-mo	áh-mo	ā́h-omiñi	-īmō	—	-mózθa	-meθa	-meθa	ā́h-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	és-ti	ēs-ti	és-te	ḗs-eti	-īte	ḗs-ti	és-šθve	ḗs-šθve	és-šθve	ḗs-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve	-θoṯ
3 pl	áh-āṯ	ēs-eṯ	háṯ	ā́h-onθi	-ii̯āṯ	és-enθu	áh-unθroi̯	ā́h-unθro	áh-unθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo	-unθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

Perfect

Perfect stems

The features of the perfect stem in the proto-language were reduplication and the o-vocalism in the perfect indicative. This is true of Northian as well. In the Epic language, the o-vocalism has spread into the subjunctive, but in Galic the subjunctive has the inherited e-vocalism.

#	Class	1 sg. / 2 pl.	Function	Examples
1	root	CóC-a / CØC-é	This type is known from only one verb, namely u̯oi̯d- "to know". The weak stem is u̯id-. Accent is on the root syllable for strong forms, and endings for weak forms.	u̯oi̯d- / u̯id- "to know"
2	reduplicated	Ce-CóC-a / Ce-CØC-é	Creates stative stems from perfective and imperfective roots. An extra syllable is prefixed, consisting of the consonant immediately preceding the next vowel and the vowel *e. Due to phonetic change, this vowel can appear as o following a labialized consonant or become more obscure if a lost consonant such as a laryngeal is reduplicated, cf. ā̊ha "I am desiccated" < PEE *h₂e-h₂oh₂s-h₂e. The strong forms have characteristic accented o-grade in the root syllable and zero-grade there in the weak forms with accented endings.	ve-voi̯d- / ve-vid- "to believe" ko-kor- / ko-kr- "to be working" ā̊s- / ā̊s- "to be desiccated"
3	long-vowel	Ce-CṓC-a / Ce-CóC-i	This type may have developed in Northian on the pattern of the sigmatic aorist as it has no like cognates in other branches of the language. It contrasts a long vowel in the strong forms and a short vowel in the weak, and the vowel is often, but not always, the o that is characteristic of the perfect.

Reduplicated

titóna, titné "to be growing, to increase". Perfect stems in Northian are regularly formed by reduplication of the first consonant with the vowel *e, attached to the root in o-grade in the active singular and in zero grade in the active dual and plural and the entire middle. The endings are a special set of perfect endings.

Aside from the perfect indicative or "perfect tense" in paedagogical works, various other forms are made from the perfect stem. With the exception of the perfect imperative, which is attested about as much as the indicative, other formations are considerably rarer for the reason that they may be Northian innovations rather than inherited features of the prehistoric parent language. The pluperfect (or descriptively the perfect preterite) and perfect injunctive are formed from the indicative stem, with the same ablaut behaviour, with secondary endings. The subjunctive is formed from the reduplicated stem with root in invariant e-grade, and the optative from the same stem with root in invariant zero grade.

Not all perfect stems are capable of displaying all these formations. Especially, perfect verbs with stative meaning usually do not form pluperfects or any middle forms, but they do form subjunctives and optatives. When a pluperfect meaning is required, they have a periphrastic formation of the perfect active participle with the imperfect forms of the verb es "to be". Yet it is difficult to formulate absolute rules about this matter, since the Galic corpus is of limited size, and there may have existed unattested formations in the language of its composition.

	active					middle
	ind	plpf / inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	plpf / inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	titón-a	e-titón-ąm	titén-ō	titn-iiā̊		p-ā́m	ep-ā́m	p-ā́m	p-ą̄m
2 sg	-θa	e-titṓṇ-ġ	titéin-i	-iiā̊	titā-δī́	-išθoi̯	-išθo	-ásθoi̯	-īšθo
3 sg	-i	e-titóṇ-ṯ	titén-ai	-iiāṯ	-tū́	-itoi̯	-ito	-átoi̯	-īto	-ito
1 du	titn-uuo	e-titn-uuo	-auuiñi	-ūvo		-ivózθa	-ivóθa	-ou̯ozθa	-īvóθa
2 du	titā-tā	e-titā-tõm	-itāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātaθa	-ātaθai	-ii̯itaθa	-ātaθa
3 du	-tṓ	-tā̊	-itiš	-ītā̊	-tḗ	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātāi̯i	-ii̯itā	-ātā
1 pl	tita-mé	e-tita-mo	-omiñi	-īmo		-amózθa	-ameθa	-omozθa	-īmeθa
2 pl	titn-é	e-titā-θé	-iti	-īté	tétā-ti	-išθvé	-išθvé	-ásθve	-īšθve	-iθve
3 pl	-ṓ	e-titn-áṇṯ	-ō	-iiāṯ	titn-atū	-ánθroi̯	-ónθro	-ónθroi̯	-ii̯unθro	-ii̯unθo
inf titnuuéni, pf act ptcpl titnuuā̊, titnuštṓ; titnuuṓḫ; titnuuohī, titnuźiiā̊						inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl titaminō (I/II)

Root

woida, widé "to know" is the only member of the perfect conjugation that, as a condition with good history, does not have reduplication. There are other perfect stems which do not have reduplication in Northian but do in other branch of the language; these are usually regarded as Northian innovations on the pattern of woida. It has the peculiarity of forming a full-grade root in the 3 pl, which also puts the ending in zero grade -ūš. It is as yet not known whether this feature is inherited, as it has been argued to be introduced from the root aorist injunctive, which in this form also shows full grade in the root.

	active					middle
	ind	plpf / inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	plpf / inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	woid-a	auuoid-am	teten-ō	tetn-i̯ą̄m		p-ā́m	ep-ā́m	p-ą̄m	p-īma
2 sg	wōiš-ta	auuōi-š	-esi	-i̯āu̯	tetun-θī́	-išθoi̯	-išθo	-ásθoi̯	-īšθo	p-išvō
3 sg	woid-i	auuōi-št	-eti	-i̯āṯ	-tū́	-itoi̯	-ito	-átoi̯	-īto	-ito
1 du	wīž-uuó	auuiž-uua	-ou̯iñi	-īvo		-ivózθa	-ivóθa	-ou̯ozθa	-īvóθa
2 du	wīš-tā	auuiš-tõm	-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātaθa	-ātaθai	-ii̯itaθa	-ātaθa
3 du	-tṓ	-tā̊	-itą̄m	-ītąm	-tés	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātāi̯i	-ii̯itā	-ātā
1 pl	wīž-mé	auuiž-mó	-omiñi	-īmō		-amózθa	-ameθa	-omozθa	-īmeθa
2 pl	vid-é	auuiš-té	-áti	-īté	-ti	-išθvé	-išθvé	-ásθve	-īšθve	-iθve
3 pl	woid-ūš	auuiž-iiáṯ	-ónθi	-ii̯āṯ	tétn-unθu	-ánθroi̯	-ónθro	-ónθroi̯	-ii̯unθro	-ii̯unθo
pf act inf wižuuéni, pf act ptcpl wáiduš, widuštōḫ; wáidū; wáiduštī, widuśiiā̊						pf mid inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl menanōḫ (I/II)

The other perfect verbs that fail to show reduplication are:

• u̯ṓi̯a, vii̯á "to fear"
• mṓna, mné "to recall"

It has been noted that most verbs which fail to reduplicate are verbs of internal states or emotions.

Thematic conjugation

Present

βaiδō "I trust". Cognate to Shalumite "to bide". Points of interest are:

1. In the Galic material, the effects of the stem-final laryngeal are reflected quite regularly, such that the 2 and 3 sg., 2 and 3 du., and 2 pl. endings, which commence with the colouring-susceptible vowel *e, may be coloured to *a and *o, and the latter in unaccented positions becomes a. This is seen in the comparatively common verb apúpitō "fly away", whose 2 du. form is apúpitatāḫ and not *apúpititāḫ. In later materials, the laryngeal-less endings (which would be identical to those for stems ending in *h₁-) became standard.
2. In the active subjunctive, the subjunctive modal suffix prehistorically merges with the thematic endings and result in long vowels; in unaccented positions these evolved differently than short vowels, to wit *ē > ā, while *ō remains unchanged.
3. In the active optative, the diphthong scans short in the 1 du. and 3 pl., the cause of which is still uncertain.
4. Due to phonetic change, the middle forms of the 2 and 3 sg. are not distinct, as both 2 sg. *eth₂ei and 3 sg. *etoi > -itai.
5. In the middle subjunctive, the 2 and 3 du. endings lack the final -i of the primary endings and are thus identical to secondary endings; this phenomenon is widespread enough to be ruled out as a scribal error and is usually thought to reflect original variation in the conjugation system as the subjunctive is already specified by a modal morpheme and cannot be mistaken by a different set of endings. The optative, however, is always found with secondary endings.

	act					mid
	ind	impf / inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf / inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	βaiδ-ō	e-baiδ-õm	βaiδ-ō	βaiδ-ā̊		βaiδ-aā̊i	e-baiδ-aā̊	βaiδ-ōai	βaiδ-aiia
2 sg	-iyi	-iš	-āyi	-aīš	βaiδi	-itai	-ita	-ātai	-aita
3 sg	-ai	-iṯ	-āi	-aīṯ	βaiδitū	-itai	-ita	-ātai	-aita
1 du	-auuiñi	-auua	-ə̄uuiñi	-aiuua		-auuazδa	-auuida	-ə̄uuazδa	-aiuuida
2 du	-itāḫ	-itõm	-ātāḫ	-aītõm	βaiδitāḫ	-itāδāi	-itāδā	-ātāδā	-aitāδā
3 du	-itiš	-itā̊	-ātiš	-aītā̊	βaiδitiš	-itāyi	-itā	-ātā	-aitā
1 pl	-amiñi	-ama	-ōmiñi	-aīma		-amazδa	-amida	-ōmazδa	-aimida
2 pl	-iti	-iti	-āti	-aīti	βaiδiti	-idūvi	-idūvi	-ādūvi	-aidūvi
3 pl	-ō	-anṯ	-ōnδi	-aiiāṯ	βaiδanδū	-aṇtrai	-aṇtra	-ōṇtrai	-aiiāθra
fut imp βaiδitaṯ, βaiδanδaṯ act inf βaiδitiš, βaiδituš, act ptcpl βaiδā̊s, βaiδanδōḫ; βaiδaṯ; βaiδanδī, βaiδanδiiā̊, mid inf βaiδōi, mid ptcpl βaiδominōḫ (I/II)

Aorist

		Indicative	Injunctive	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Future imp.
1 sg.		ekorum	korum	korō	kāri̯ām	—	—
2 sg.		ekōr	kōr	korei	kāri̯ās	kor	kortoṯ
3 sg.		ekord	kord	korei̯	kāri̯āt	kārto	kārtoṯ
1 du.		ekurōs	kārōs	korou̯ō	korīu̯ō	—	—
2 du.		ekurtõ	kārtõ	koretas	korītõ	kārtas	kārtoṯ
3 du.		ekurtąm	kārtą̄m	koretíš	krītąm	kārtíš	kārtoṯ
1 pl.		ekurmō	kārmō	koromõ	korīmō	—	—
2 pl.		ekurte	kārte	korete	korīte	kārte	kārtoṯ
3 pl.		ekurenṯ	kārenṯ	koronθi	koriānṯ	kārenθo	kārunθoṯ
inf kāršiš, kāršuš, ptcpl korå, kronθō; korāṯ, kronθō; korunθī, krāŋθi̯ās

	Indicative	Imperfect	Injunctive	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Future imp.
1 sg.		ekurma	kārma	korōm	krīma	—	—
2 sg.		ekursθo	kārsθo	koresθoi̯	krīšθo	kārhvō	kārtoṯ
3 sg.		ekurto	kārto	koretoi̯	krīto	kārto	kārtoṯ
1 du.		ekurreθa	kārreθa	korou̯osθa	krīu̯eθa	—	—
2 du.		ekurātaθa	kārātaθa	korātaθai	krītaθa	kārātaθa	kārtoṯ
3 du.		ekurātā	kārātā	korātāi̯i	krītā	kārātā	kārtoṯ
1 pl.		ekurmeθa	kārmeθa	koromosθa	krīmeθa	—	—
2 pl.		ekuršθve	kāršθve	koresθve	krīšθve	kārθve	kārtoṯ
3 pl.		ekurenθro	kārenθro	koronθroi̯	krīnθro	kārunθo	kārunθoṯ
inf kārθi̯ō, kārθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kārūmnō, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnõ, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnā, kārūmnās

Perfect

	Indicative	Pluperfect	Injunctive	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Future imp.
1 sg.	kokora	ekokorum	kokorum	kokorō	kokuri̯ām	—	—
2 sg.	kokošta	ekokōr	kokōr	kokorehi	kokuri̯ās	kokurθi	kokuštoṯ
3 sg.	kokoré	ekokošṯ	kokošṯ	kokoreti	kokuri̯āt	kokušto	kokuštoṯ
1 du.	kokurrō	ekokurre	kokurre	kokorou̯ō	kokrīu̯ō	—	—
2 du.	kokuré	ekokuštõ	kokuštõ	kokoretas	kokrītõ	kokuštas	kokuštoṯ
3 du.	kokrē	ekokuštą̄m	kokuštą̄m	kokoretiš	kokrītąm	kokuštes	kokuštoṯ
1 pl.	kokurmé	ekokušme	kokušme	kokoromō	kokrīmō	—	—
2 pl.	kokré	ekokušte	kokušte	kokorete	kokrīte	kokušte	kokuštoṯ
3 pl.	kokrār	ekokurent	kokurent	kokoronθi	kokrīenṯ	kokorunθo	kokorunθoṯ
inf kokuršiš, kokoršuš, ptcpl kokrå, kokrušiš; kokrōṯ, kokrušiš; kokrušī, kokruši̯ās

	Indicative	Pluperfect	Injunctive	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Future imp.
1 sg.	kokurma	ekokurma	kokurma	kokorō	kokrīma	—	—
2 sg.	kokursθo	ekokursθo	kokursθo	kokoresθoi̯	kokrīšθo	kokurhvō	kokuštoṯ
3 sg.	kokušto	ekokušto	kokušto	kokoretoi̯	kokrīto	kokušto	kokuštoṯ
1 du.	kokurreθa	ekokurreθa	kokurreθa	kokorou̯osθa	kokrīu̯eθa	—	—
2 du.	kokurātaθa	ekokurātaθa	kokurātaθa	kokorātaθai	kokrītaθa	kokrātaθa	kokuštoṯ
3 du.	kokurātā	ekokurātā	kokurātā	kokorātāi̯i	kokrītā	kokrātā	kokuštoṯ
1 pl.	kokurmeθa	ekokurmeθa	kokurmeθa	kokoromosθa	kokrīmeθa	—	—
2 pl.	kokuršθve	ekokuršθve	kokuršθve	kokoresθve	kokrīšθve	kokurθve	kokuštoṯ
3 pl.	kokrenθro	ekokrenθro	kokrenθro	kokoronθroi̯	kokrīnθro	kokrunθo	kokrunθoṯ
inf kokurθi̯ō, kokurθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl kokrūmnō, kokrūmnōi̯o; kokrūmnõ, kokrūmnōi̯o; kokrūmnā, kokrūmnās

See also

• Northian language