Northian grammar

Northian grammar is highly synthetic.

General overview

Ablaut

Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not the meaning of the morpheme in which they are located, that is inherited from Proto-Erani-Eracuran. It affects most classes of words in Northian.

Though ablaut was a regular process closely tied to accent in the reconstructed proto-language, with some authorities proposing a direct correspondence between the accent and the full-grade vowel, by Galic times any precise corresondence had been lost (probably already by the final stage of the proto-language). Moreover, existing formulae have been disrupted by sound change and both general and sporadic analogical replacement. The result that surfaces in Galic Northian is a rich yet unpredictable plethora of alternate morphologies that often confuse even later Hamruvunts, whose theses about correct grammar are sometimes woefully misguided by modern standards.

In nouns, there are four main ablaut patterns that Northian inherited and evolved from its ancestors, in the scholarly discourse termed acrostatic, proterokinetic, amphikinetic, and hysterokinetic. The medieval Northian grammarians astutely observed that the position of the accent in the dative singular predicts the correct set of endings: where it was on the final syllable (oxytone or OX), full-grade endings (e.g. -ṓ, -aí) was used in the oblique cases, and where not on the final syllable (paroxytone or PX), the zero-grade set of endings (e.g. -i) were used. The former situation regularly developed from amphikinetic and hysterokinetic patterns, and the latter from the acrostatic and proterokinetic ones. The OX nouns were characterized by the nearly-universal genitive singular ending -ṓ, while the PX nouns had unpredictable endings there owing to the vagaries of sound change.

The medieval grammarians were not able to distinguish between the proterokinetic and acrostatic ablaut patterns because the latter were quite few and subject to the heaviest erosion in identifiable morphs and thus relegated as "irregularities" to be learned by rote. Surprisingly, Himinastainas observed that such "irregularities" arose mostly in body parts and the commonest objects, so learning them by rote "is imperative". Amphikinetic and hysterokinetic nouns were not distinguished, on the other hand, because they differed principally in the nominative singular, which, on the surface, is largely irregular and must be learned by rote anyway.

Accent		Root	Suffix	Ending	Pre-form	Root	Suffix	Ending	Outcome	Galic
Acrostatic	nom	ó	Ø	Ø	*nókʷ-t-s	ó	Ø	Ø	noxṯ	Paroxytone
	acc				*nókʷ-t-m̥				noxtam
	gen	é	Ø	Ø	*nékʷ-t-s				noxš
Proterokinetic	nom	é	Ø	Ø	*mér-tis	é, Ø	Ø	Ø	mərətiš
	acc				*mér-tim				mərətim
	gen	Ø	é	Ø	*mr̥-téi̯-s	Ø	é	Ø	mərətaiš
Amphikinetic-I	nom	é	ō	Ø	*léy-mō	é	ō	Ø	láimō	Oxytone
	acc	é	o	Ø	*léy-mon-m̥	e	ṓ, ó, Ø	Ø	limṓnąm
	gen	Ø	Ø	é	*li-mn-és	Ø	Ø	ó	limnō
Amphikinetic-II	nom	é	Ø	Ø	*kré-tu-s	Ø	Ø	Ø	xarətuš
	acc	Ø	é	Ø	*kr̥-téw-m̥	Ø	Ø	Ø	xarətā̊
	gen	Ø	Ø	é	*kr̥-tu-és	Ø	Ø	ó	xarəźuuō
Hysterokinetic	nom	Ø	é	Ø	*ph₂-tḗr	Ø	é	Ø	pitō
	acc				*ph₂-tér-m̥				piterəm
	gen	Ø	Ø	é	*ph₂-tr-és	Ø	Ø	ó	fϑrō

In the most summary way, the acrostatic nouns had a persistent accent on the root syllable, while the proterokinetic ones shifted the accent one syllable to the right (namely to the suffix) in the oblique cases. The amphikinetic nouns were of two types, differing only in the nominative singular: one type, the more common, had a lengthened o-grade in the suffix, while the other one had the zero grade there. In both, the root was accented in the nominative singular, and the ending in the oblique cases; the accent of the accusative is disputed. The sources of both the unaccented o-grade and its length are also disputed. The hysterokinetic nouns had an accented suffix in the direct cases and accented ending in the oblique.

In their evolution to Galic Northian, the following changes have occurred. For amphikinetic nouns with an o-grade suffix, the nominative stem extended to the accusative; this must have been a fairly late alteration as the accusative suffix often has the long vowel of the nominative, showing that the long vowel was no longer analyzable as a full grade plus a lengthening element specific to the nominative, i.e. out of place in the accusative. There are also sporadic appearances of a short accusative suffix, which must be interpreted as the result of an earlier layer of levelling.

Amphikinetic nouns with the zero-grade suffix had irregular developments. Where the stem ended in -u or -i, the zero-grade suffix usually spread to accusative; perhaps this occurred under the influence of the proterokinetic, as with them these amphikinetics shared a zero-grade suffix in the nominative, cp. amphikinetic xrétuš "will" and proterokinetic xrétuš "powerful". The vocalized approximant was re-analyzed as a full-grade vowel, wherewith the zero-grade root was introduced, e.g. xarətuš < *kr̥tus. Accusatives ending in -ā̊ must be the outcome of the short suffix introduced from a full-grade nominative plus accusative ending -m, i.e. *-VR-m̥. It is impossible to distinguish the o-grade from the e-grade here, but where there was no o-grade in the paradigm, an original e-grade is assumed, cp. ziiā̊ "deum" from ziiaōš "deus".

Where the stem did not end in an approximant (-r, -s, -m, -n), the development was largely arbitrary, e.g. acc. sing. both more common xmąm (formed from the oblique stem xm- plus acc. ending -am) and (clearly) more archaic xā̊ < *dʰǵʰḗm < dʰǵʰem-m̥.

Proterokinetic nouns had their root syllables levelled nearly completely in favour of the zero grade, unless this produced an impermissible sequence of consonants, but the accent position is usually not altered and often discloses a former full grade. There are sporadic survivals of the full-grade root, but none in the productive suffixes of -ti- and -tu-, and accented zero-grade suffixes are common there, perhaps also under the influence of the hysterokinetics. This produced a morphologically proterokinetic but accentually static pattern that became dominant for these suffixes in later Northian. The hysterokinetic declension survives particularly well in Northian, preserving a distinct full-grade in the accusative and a zero-grade in the oblique cases.

It is notable that, perhaps owing to a lack of ablaut in the root syllable, the hysterokinetic pattern was the most stable and productive (the acrostatic pattern is assumed to be vestigial even in the proto-language). The patterns with root ablaut, namely amphikinetic and proterokinetic, either lost productivity or were levelled to remove ablaut in the root. Many suffixes which have original amphikinetic patterns developed hysterokinetic compounds which later became productive, while the amphikinetic suffix lost productivity. Issinar asserted in 1940 that, taking the root and suffix together as a unit and allowing for the long-grade in the nominative, Northian nouns could have a maximum of two distinct stems; this rule appears to hold in many cases, though not without exception.

Ablaut rules developed differently in many suffix classes. For example, the mn-stems usually had the long suffix original to the nominative intruding the accusative, but the wn-stems often has a zero-grade suffix in the accusative; possibly this is because the combination C-wn- was vocalized as C-un- early, and the -u- there was thought of as an original, full-grade vowel. Additionally, many words show compounds of suffixes, particularly derived feminines in -ī and -ū, and the accentual rules in these words sometimes depends on the character of the root, compulsorily it is verbal, and in other times becomes static on the suffix. Some classes of words apparently had vacillating accent or even no recorded accent, suggesting that these derivations were not common enough to have a widely-recognized pattern even if their meanings can be worked out.

Nominals

Athematic

The following chart recapitulates the ordinary endings of athematic nouns in Galic Northian. Because the ablative is syncretized in the singular with the genitive, with the dative and instrumental in the dual, and the dative in the plural, it is usually not listed separately in grammatical tables for athematic nouns.

Forms are often unpredictable and variable under the influence of ablaut, laryngeals reflexes, analogy, vowel contraction, and compensatory lengthening for illegal consonant clusters in coda position. All endings are subject to modification according to the suffix. OX stands for the oxytone group of patterns, and PPX for the paroxytone and proparoxytone group. Certain neuter nouns do not take plural endings but collective endings with a lengthened stem; these nouns are not formally predictable. Because neuter nouns always have the same nominative and accusative forms, only their nominative endings will be listed, and in grey.

	Athematic endings
	Singular		Dual		Plural	Collective
	OX	PPX	OX	PPX
Nominative	-s, -š, -Ø, -Ø		-ōi, -āḥ, -ōḥ, -īḥ	-a, -ā̊, -ī̆ḥ, -āḥ, -V̄R-Ø, -īḥ	-iš, -āḫ, -ōḫ, -a, -V̄R-Ø	-ō
Vocative	-Ø
Accusative	-m, -ā̆m, -ąm, -əm, -ā̊				-ā̊, -ūš, -ī
Locative	-Ø	-i	-ō	-ū	-hū, -štū	-eC-Ø
Genitive	-ōḫ, -ā̊	-s, -š, -ā̆ṇġ, -ā̊	-ōš, -ə̄uš	-uš, -auš	-õm, -ą̄m
Ablative			-mō	-mō, -ma	-muš
Dative	-ai, -oi	-i
Instrumental	-ōi	-a, -Ø			-(m)βiiōḫ, -βiš, -βīš, -īš

nom sing A general discussion of the athematic declension cannot omit the comment that, while many divergent forms are phonetically conditioned, there too are divergences resulting from divergent proto-forms. In no other place is this statement truer than in the nominative singular.

The marker of the nominative singular has been a tormented subject, in no small part due to the fundamental disagreement on whether the parent language had a nominative-accusative or ergative-absolutive alignment. Languages with the former usually had an unmarked nominative, while the ergative (the case of the agent) often developed from a marked genitive, the absolutive then being unmarked. Animate (= masculine and feminine) nouns may have been in the proto-language sigmatic, that is ending in *-s, or asigmatic, that is without final *-s and taking the zero or long o-grade in the suffix; as root nouns had no suffix, they were thought to have been obligatorily marked by *-s. The source of this long o-grade, in default of *-s, is disputed: some authorities regard it as a vestige of a final *-s dropping after a resonant, but others hold there was no *-s originally and attribute the long vowel to ablaut variation sensitive to the case.

In Northian, final *-s has been suffixed to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistory, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution. We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants.

1. -s is always present and surfaces as -š after *i- and *u- in animate nouns, and its absence in these stems indicates neuter gender, both instance without regard to ablaut pattern.
2. Final *-s was absent in resonant-stems (-m, -n, -r, -l), whose nom. sing. was often signified by lengthened o-grade in OX and PX (though a few nouns have zero-grade). The long final syllable ending in a resonant was then opened, giving rise to -ā̊ and -ō.
3. After obstruents the distribution of *-s is not predictable: bā̊ "wife" and ϑanū "body" were asigmatic, but ą̄mərətās "immortality" certainly had *-s.

In OX resonant stems the lengthened grade is altered prehistorically by the opening of closed long syllables ending in a resonant. In PX and PP resonant stems, e.g. mātar and dā̊, as well as select OX nouns with the "reverse endings", e.g. táɣam, the nominative was also endingless but is affected by the vocalization of the zero-grade suffix, which is sensitive to the length of the preceding syllable. If short, the vocalized suffix will be long, and vice versa.

voc sing The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases. Where the stem had *-s it is dropped, and without *-s the stem is in the full grade or short-vowel grade.

acc sing In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m; as it contained no vowel, it could never bear an original accent. In stems ending in non-resonants, the ending is vocalized as -m̥ > *-am. In auslaut, this ending is often lengthened if the preceding syllable is light to -ām, varying according to the length of the preceding syllable; in sandhi forms, this lengthening does not always occur in front of a disyllabic enclitic. If the ending followed -i, long or short, it becomes -in. If the stem ended in a long vowel, such as with gunā- and ponθō-, the final syllable with -m is opened and becomes -ą̄ as with the nom. sing. Where the stem ended in -m itself, the sequence -m-m̥ was syncopated into the stem and surfaces as a long vowel at the PNN level, but likewise it is opened in Galic as -ā̊.

loc sing The locative generally took the accusative stem and either added final -i or was endingless. For the effects of -i on the preceding vowel, see dat. sing. entry.

gen sing In OX the gen. singular always ended in -ōḫ < PNN *-os; its consistency led grammarians to consider it the feature of the OX declension. Where the stem ended in a open long vowel, the ending can become -ā̊ḫ, but this is merely orthographic—this ending is always disyllabic.

In PX and PP, the ending *-s when attached to the stem surfaces with a motley of forms, and this (compared to OX) irregularity in turn is the feature of the PX declension. In stems ending in a short vowel plus nasal, *-s becomes something like a glottal stop, as in fūvāṇġ < PNN *fiwen-s. Where the stem ended in a liquid, as in abel-, -s survives at the expense of the stem consonant and also causes the vowel to lengthen, here as abēs. In PX forms, final *-s is attached to a zero-grade suffix, as in mātūš < PEE *meh₂tr̥s and nomaṇġ < *Hnomn̥s. Conversely, if the stem ended in -ā or -ē, the result is -ā̊ < *-ās, e.g. jñiϑriiā̊. In s-stems, the ending generally disappears, e.g. māṇġ < *mn̥s-s. The ending is only neatly preserved after -i and -u and their respective allophones.

abl sing For all athematic nouns, the ablative singular was syncretized wtih the genitive singular.

dat sing In OX the dat. sigular ending was *-ei̯. This ending susceptible to colouring by a preceding *h₂-, as well as the influence of -i̯, to become -ai. If the preceding consonant was *u̯- or *h₃-, result was -oi. In PX, the ending was *-i. For all resonant stems, the ending -i caused the preceding vowel to mutate; an original *a became aē, and an accented *é became -ái. For stems ending in -n, the -n sandwiched between i became ñ. In all cases the dat. singular ending following a vowel was a separate syllable.

ins sing The OX ending -ōi̯ for the ins. singular originated as *-eh₁ in the proto-language. This ending is rarely problematic by phonological processes, but it is liable to be replaced in some stems, e.g. endings -ī and -ū in the i- and u-stems respectively, from the PX declension. The PX ending evolved from *-h₁. This ending was preserved only after plosives as -a. Following resonants, the preceding vowel was lengthened. If the preceding vowel was already long, disyllabic -ā̊ was the general outcome.

nom / voc / acc du For animate nouns, the du. ending for all direct cases in OX was generally -ōi̯ < *-ē. After i, the ending became -ā, and after u, -ō. After stems ending in laryngeals, the outcome was -å. In PX, the ending -a is visible after only after plosives, as it had the proto-form of *-h₁. After resonant and vowel stems, the ending was dropped causing the preceding vowel to lengthen, e.g. dorāu̯. After laryngeals, -å could also appear, since the intervening laryngeal caused ending to become vocalized. For all neuter nouns, the ending was -ī.

loc du In OX the dual loc. ending was -ō < *-ou̯. In PX, the ending was -ū, which developed from original *-u lengthened in final position; the ending is only altered after stems ending in -u̯-, where prehistorically the ending dissimilated to *-o and then became -a in an unaccented position.

gen du The proto-form of the dual genitive is usually considered the same as the locative, with added *-s at the end. Thus in OX the ending that surfaced was -ōš for *-ou̯s. In PX, the ending was -uš, which like the locative dissimilated to *-os if there was a preceding u. In this case, the ending was -ōḫ.

abl / dat / ins du These three forms were syncretized in Northian as -mō in OX and -ma in PX.

nom / voc pl The proto-form here was *-es. If this ending followed i, it became -āḫ, or if it followed u, -ōḫ. Otherwise, since this ending was never accented, it became -iš. For neuter nouns, the nom. and acc. ending was from *-h₂, which appears as -a following stops and causes preceding vowels to lengthen if adjacent to one or separated by a resonant.

acc pl This ending was derived from PEE *-n̥s following consonants or *-ns following vowels. *-n̥s generally gave rise by way of PNN *-uns to -ā̆ṇġ and -ā̆ŋhiš, both sensitive to the length of the preceding vowel. -ā̆ŋhiš is an allomorph that probably represents the nom. pl. ending appended to the acc. pl. ending, which had become rather opaque. In the case of *-i-ns, such as with the i-stems, the resulting ending was -īš.

gen pl The ending was consistently -õm, or -ą̄m after vowel stems.

abl / dat pl The ending was consistently -muš.

ins pl The ending was consistently -bi̯āḫ.

Thematic

	Basic ā-stem endings			Basic o-stem endings
	sing	du	pl	sing	du	pl
nom	-āḥ	-ayī	-aŋhā̊	-ōḫ, -õ	-ō, -oịī	-ā̊, -ohiš, -āḥ
voc				-i
acc	-ā̊		-a·ā̊	-õm	-ə̄ṇġ
loc	-ayi	-āvū	-āŋhū	-ōi̯	-ū	-ohū
gen	-ā̊	-āvuš	-a·ą̄̊m	-ōiiō	-ōš	-o·ōm
abl	-a·āṯ	-āmiiā	-āmβiiā̊	-ōṯ	-omiiā	-omβiiā̊
dat	-a·ai̯			-ōi̯
ins	-ā		-āi̯š	-ō		-ōi̯š

nom sg The ā-stems showed the expected ending -ā. M. and f. o-stems have -ōḫ < *-os, which scans short at the end of sentences and other pauses. N. o-stems have -õm.

voc sg The ā-stems have the same form as the nom. M. and f. o-stems have -i < *-e, while n. o-stems have the same form as the nom. In both cases, the accent is always retracted to the first syllable of the word.

acc sg for ā-stems is affected by Stang's law, which appears as -ā̊. The ending for m. and f. o-stems is the same as the n., -õm.

loc sg ā-stems have dysyllabic -ayi; o-stems have monosyllabic -oi.

gen sg ā-stems show -ā̊ for *-eh₂-s; o-stems have the compound suffix -ōiio, for *-osyo.

abl sg in ā-stems is dysyllabic aā̊ṯ; the quantity owes to dissimilation.

dat sg ā-stems

ins sg ā-stems

Verbs

Primary and secondary athematic

The athematic verb endings, like their noun counterparts, are directly attached to the verbal stem without an intervening theme vowel. The primary endings are used for the athematic present, and the secondary endings for the athematic present injunctive, the imperfect, and (with the suffix) the optative, as well as the aorist indicative, injunctive, and optative.

There are two sets of (phonologically conditioned) parallel endings called the long and short endings. The long endings (noted below in grey) arise from a laryngeal between the stem and ending, whose effects are determined by neighbouring sounds. Where it precedes a guttural consonant, it becomes a, a labialized element, u, and elsewhere, i. If it preceded e, the e is coloured according to the laryngeal's identity.

The two sets of endings further vary depending on the position of the accent, since unaccented *e regularly becomes /i/ and unaccented *o > /a/ in most positions. These changes are reflected quite regularly in Galic, but in the Epic language most of the phonetic variants had disappeared.

Primary active, mobile [static]				Primary middle endings, mobile [static]
	sing	du	pl		sing		du		pl
					trans	intrans	trans	intrans	trans	intrans
1p	-aē-mi	-ū-mβóni [vini]	-a-maŋhi [mahi]	1p	-ai		-ū-mβózδa [vazδa]		-a-mβózδa [mazδa]
2p	-i-šti	-i-tāḫ	-i-te [ti]	2p	-i-tai		-ātiδai		-i-zδuuo [zδuua]
3p	-i-ti	-i-tē [tiš]	-éṇti [āti]	3p	-i-tói [tai]	-ó [a]	-ātāyī	-ā	-éṇθro [aθro]	-ṓ

Secondary active endings, mobile [static]				Secondary middle endings, mobile [static]
	sing	du	pl		sing		du		pl
					trans	intrans	trans	intrans	trans	intrans
1p	-ā̆m	-ū-vṓḫ	-a-mṓḫ	1p	-a		-ū-voδa [vaδa]		-a-meδa [miδa]
2p	-i-(s)	-i-tõm	-i-té [ti]	2p	-i-ta		-i-tāδi		-i-zduuō
3p	-i-(t)	-i-tā̊	-enṯ [ā̆ṯ]	3p	-i-to [ta]	-o [a]	-ātā	-ā	-arə / ār

1 sing The primary and secondary active endings differ with the hic et nunc particle *-i in the proro-language, for the singular active. The element m is accepted in mainstream reconstructions of Proto-Erani-Eracuran to signify the first person. As m is a sonant, the ending -i in the primary conjugation can trigger mutation in the preceding syllable in the usual manner. In the secondary conjugation, final -m can vocalize to -ā̆m if following a stop; the final nasal is insensitive to length and can be written long should the Galic meter demand it.

In the middle voice, the ending evolves from *-h₂ey > -ai. This ending is agnostic as to any preceding laryngeal. The secondary middle ending loses the hic et nunc particle, as with the rest of the singular middle.

2 sing In the primary conjugation, the signifying element of the active second singular *s can become h or z depending on the phonetic context. In the secondary is usually dropped after stems ending in a plosive or sonant, but it does regularly appear in the optative where it obligatorily follows a vowel.

The middle ending here is *-th₂ey > -tai. If there is a preceding laryngeal, it appears as -itai.

3 sing This -ti ending is usually retained in the primary conjugation. If the stem ended in a dental, the ending was liable to mutate in several ways. In the secondary, -t can displace preceding stops or be dropped in some contexts.

The middle ending of the third singular depends on the meaning of the word and the stem used, which is peculiar. In root verbs and many stem-classes, a middle verb with intransitive menaing will take the ending -o, and those with transitive meaning, -toi. In other cases, such as the -naō ~ nu- stems, the ending -toi is always used, regardless of meaning. If a laryngeal preceded the ending, it appears as -itoi. Where the ending is not accented, it appears as trans. -itai or intrans. -a.

1 du The primary active ending is from *-wen-i and appears as accented -uuóni and unaccented -uuiñi. If a laryngean preceded the ending, it became *-u-weni, whereupon nasalization induced -u-mβóni.

In the middle, the form -vozδa < *-wesdʰh₂ is found. The long ending was regular -u-vózδa; nasalization did not intervene here as the vowel was originally a back vowel *o.

2 du Here the active ending -tāḫ is for *-th₂es. An epenthentic -s- is sometimes found if the stem ended in a dental to avoid a sequence of two dentals together, and the resulting combination is sometimes resolved to prehistoric *-ss-. But this was not a universal phenomenon, and sometimes the geminate dental either drops or evne surfaces. Such examples are often interpreted by analogical restoration.

-tõm is found in the middle for *-tom.

3 du The active allomorphs -tes ~ -tiš reflect *-tes, in accented and unaccented positions, respectively. For most athematic verbs the accent is mobile, consistently on the ending, so the former will be more common; the latter is seen on verbs with recessive accent like déδitiš and éštiš "you (pl.) give" and "stay". As with all endings which begin with t, it is liable to following another dental.

As in the case of the third singular, the middle ending here is sensitive to the stem-class of the verb and its general meaning. The transitive ending is -tā̊ < *tā́m < *teh₂m, and the intransitive ending is usually -ā. This latter ending is unique in the Erani-Eracuran family and has no known comparanda, and so it is possibly an innovation, though it is also argued to be an unique archaicism. But it is phonologically rather opaque, which hampers restoration of its proto-form.

1 pl In the active one finds -máŋhi < *-mensi. This is usually explained as a concactenation of the 1 pl. suffix *-men plus the (redundant) plural marker *-s, with the hic et nunc particle *-i.

In the middle, the ending -mozθa is encountered, for *-mesdʰh₂.

2 pl Here, much akin to the 3 du., the allomorphs are either -te or -ti. -ti is clearly from *-te and is seen on verbs of recessive accent. However, a deviant form -ta also exists for some verbs, but the origin of -ta is unexplained.

The middle ending -θvo < *-dʰwe is found for the second plural. An -s- may be attached to the beginning of this ending for some verbs, and this augmentation is not restricted to those stems ending in a dental.

3 pl In the third active plural, the ending -enθi is used. This ending is susceptible to laryngeal colouring if the verb stem ended in a laryngeal. Furthermore, this ending is the only one that regularly shows ablaut: where the accent was in the stem, the ending is *-n̥t > -at.

For the third plural middle, there are also endings which change according to the stem-class and meaning of the verb. Verbs with transitive meanings will generally have -nθro, while those with intransitive meanings may have either -ro or -ūš < *-r̥s.

Primary and secondary thematic

The primary and secondary thematic endings include a theme vowel between the stem and the ending-proper, varying between *e ~ o. The thematic endings formally differ in the active singular and third plural from the athematic ones but are transparently the same, with the addition of the theme vowel, in others. It is still a matter of active debate what the contrast between athematic and thematic endings was in the proto-language. The primary and secondary thematic endings are used in present and aorist stems in the same manner as the athematic ones.

Thematic active endings				Thematic middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing	du	pl
1p	-ōḥ	-ouuōḫ [auuōḫ]	-omōḫ [amōḫ]	1p	-aai [aā̊i]	-ouuazδa [auuazδa]	-omazδa [amazδa]
2p	-ai	-etāḫ [itāḫ]	-eti [iti]	2p	-etai [itai]	-etõm [itõm]	-eθō
3p	-eyi [iyi]	-etiš [itiš]	-oṇti	3p	-etai [itai]	-etā̊ [itā̊]	-ō

1 sg The first singular active ending is -ō. The middle ending is -aai for *o-h₂e-i—the ending is disyllabic in Northian.

2 sg The ending for the second active singular is -ai. The middle ending is the same as the athematic one, with the theme vowel /e/ inserted.

3 sg In the third singular one finds the ending -eyi; note that this ending is disyllabic, unlike that of the second singular; ditto for the middle.

1 - 3 du and 1, 2 pl For all these items the thematic forms are the same as the athematic ones, with thematic /e ~ o/ added.

3 pl The endings here are active -o and middle -ō.

Thematic secondary endings, active or middle, are all the same as athematic ones, with thematic vowel inserted in like manner as the primary.

Imperative athematic and thematic

The imperative in Northian does not have opposition between primary and secondary. It is observed that the imperative usually implies immediacy, while the stem has aspectual value regarding the action required. The first person imperative is always defective: a speaker expressing a requirement for oneself would use the future tense. For all dual forms, the imperative is the same as the indicative, there being no sign that these ever had distinct imperative endings in Northian.

Imperative active endings				Imperative middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing		du		pl
					trans	intrans	trans	intrans	trans	intrans
2p	-i-δi	-i-tāḫ	-i-ti	2p	-i-zuua		-ātaθa		-i-duua
3p	-i-tū	-i-tiš	-eṇtū [ātū]	3p	-i-to	-o	-tā	-ātā	-eṇδrō [āθō]	-i-rō

The imperative forms for thematic verbs are as follows:

Imperative active endings				Imperative middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing	du	pl
2p	-Ø	-etāḫ	-eti	2p	-ezuua	-ātaθa	-ezδuuo
3p	-etū [itū]	-etiš [itiš]	-oṇtū [aṇtū]	3p	-eta [ita]	-ā̊tā	-onδrō [anθō]

Perfect

The perfect was an athematic formation, irrespective of the thematicity of the present or aorist stems.

Perfect active endings				Perfect middle endings
	sing	du	pl		sing	du	pl
1p	-a	-u̯o	-me	1p	If the perfect active is transitive, the middle is formed from the perfect subjunctive
2p	-ta	-āta	-é	2p
3p	-i	-ātā	-ṓ	3p

3 sg the ending -i is the unaccented outcome of *-e, which is coloured by any preceding laryngeal and therefore may surface as -a if the stem ended in *-h₂ or *-h₃.

2 pl -e is the accented outcome of *-e, which is also liable to be coloured by laryngeals and may appear as -a or -o with stems ending in *-h₂ or *-h₃, respectively.

Nouns classes

The following chart lists the stems and accent patterns in Galic Northian. A green cell indicates that the stem and accent combination is productive, either in se or through a compound suffix; a yellow cell indicates an attested stem-accent combination; a red cell indicates no or only dubious attestations. The far-left column gives the traditional classification of nouns into oxytone (OX) and paroxytone (PX) by their dative singular forms, which have subsequently been refined into two classes each reflecting the more specific ablaut patterns that have survived into Galic times.

	-C	-t	-m	-n	-r	-s	-i	-u	-ī	-ū	-r/n	-nt
OX-B	About 80 root nouns and suffixed nouns in -k, -l, -ns, -d, etc., fos = "foot", xō = "heart"	A few in -ōs, nepōs "child"	About 20 feminine, in -ō or -am; gīy-ō "winter"	Many, in -ō and -ə̄, often binds m-, n-, s-, t-, etc., θxām-ō "human"	haz-ərə "hand" and personal, feminizing suffix -ez-ərə	A handful in -ā̊, aōšt-ā̊ "dawn"; the perf. act. ptcpl. waiduš "knowing"	Some in -ō and -iš, hak-ō "friend, ally", ouu-iš = "ewe"; neuter var. in -ai, oxθ-ai "finger"	A few dozen in -ōš or -uš, gen-ōš "jaw", xrétuš "will"	Some in -ī, štoīr-ī "heifer"	A handful in -ū, θan-ū "body"	Derived collectives of heteroclitics, in -r ~ n-, long o-grade in nom. > -ā̊	A few in -āṯ, oδāṯ "tooth"
OX-A	No	Productive suffix -tāt-, āmmərə-tās "immortality" and -tūt-, wəš-tūs "moistness"	No	Productive, in -en, uxšt-ā̊ = "ox", and -ṓ, yəuu-ṓ "youth"	Productive through agentive -ter, duhit-ō "daughter"	Productive, comparatives in -iiā̊- maj-iiā̊ "bigger", perf. act. ptcpl. in -uuā̊-, βiβiž-uuā̊ "trusting"	No	No	No	No	No	Productive pres. aor. act. ptcpl. of thematic verbs, in -ās hadáii-ās "sitting"
PX	No	No	No	Productive, neuter var. of OX n-stems, exhibiting same bound suffixes	No	Productive, neuter var. of OX s-stems, in -ō; neβ-ō "cloud", xrat-ō "power"	Productive, animate in -iš, action nouns -tiš, gomβ-iš "a step"; neuter in -i, mor-i "sea"	Productive, animate in -uš, wiš-t-úš "witness"; neuter in -ū, oii-ū "life"	Proliferate suffix deriving feminines in -ī; geniδr-ī "genitrix"	Same as -ī but more common in adjectives, in -ū; hoxr-ū "mother-in-law"	Neuter, in -r ~ n- suffix, ya-ərə "year"; more in -tar, -mərə, -zərə	No
PP	About 30 root and suffixed nouns in obstruent stems	nox-ṯ "night" and haš-ṯ "bed"	No	No	māt-ar "mother", βrāt-ar "brother"	men-ō "mind" (with o-grade of the suffix), kraō-š "gore"	aŋhi "serpent"	Neuter nouns in -ū, gon-ū "knee", wəšt-ū "settlement"	Feminine pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, déδāṯīš "of the giving one"	No	A few, in -r ~ n-, f-ō "shrine"	A few nouns; pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, déδāṯ "giving"

As appears from this schematic, most suffixes are associated with more than one accentual pattern. But even in Galic, the majority of suffixes have only one productive accentual pattern or separate productive patterns associated with masculine-feminine gender and neuter gender (the case of the n-stems and s-stems). Additionally, some suffixes are only productive through petrified compounds, which tended to be hysterokinetic and have invariant stems, such as the comparative in -iiā̊- and perfect active participle in -uuā̊-; otherwise, the s-stems in amphikinetic is non-productive.

Where there are multiple productive accentuation patterns, neuter nouns are almost always identified with the proterokinetic pattern, and masculine-feminine with the hysterokinetic or amphikinetic. The exception is for i-stems and u-stems, wherein proterokinetic accentuation is standard, and particularly productive through the compound with -t.

Adjective classes

Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms. Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.

	-k	-n	-s	-i	-u	-h₂	-r/n	-t	-nt	-ā	-o
OX	mera-xš "soft"	Masculine forms of adjectives with heteroclitic neuters, in -ṓ, fīuuō "fat, fertile"	Productive adjective in -ā̊, humen-ā̊ "well-intended", neut. -ā humen-ā; productive comparative in -iiā̊ -ištṓ, θáñ-iiā̊ "thinner"; productive perf. act. ptcpl. in -uuā̊ -uštṓ, tita-uuā̊ "having made", fem. -uśiiā, neut. -uš	A handful, in -iš, θraišt-iš	A handful, in -uš -uuṓ, meδ-uš "sweet"	máh-iš "big"	Adjective forms of neut. heteroclitics, masc. form in -ō and fem. in invariant -r-ī, faōuu-ərə "fat, fertile"	duš-ṯ "bad"	Productive derivative meaning "rich in, bearing of" in -uuā̊, β-uuā̊ "rich in power", from p- "power"; productive pres. act. ptcpl. of athematic verbs with mobile accent in -ṓs -ā̆tṓ, and of thematic verbs, in -ṓs -óṇδō	Masculine and feminine in -ō, some obligatory feminine in -ā, neuter in -õm
PX	No	No	No	Productive, adjectives in -uš, feminine in -ū or -uuī, neuter -ū, fərət-uš fərət-ūvī fərət-ū "flat"	Productive, adjectives in -iš, feminine in -yī, neuter -i, hámil-iš hámil-ayī hámil-i "similar"	Productive, feminine derivative of u-stem and i-stem adjectives, in -ī -iiā̊	No	No	No
PP	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	Present active participles of athematic verbs with root accent, in -ā̆t, -ā̆s

Adjectives need to agree with the nouns they modify not only in number and case but also in gender, but forms for each gender may not necessarily be distinct from each other. Synchronically, many adjectives have a single form for animate (both masculine and feminine) referents, and a handful have the same forms for all three grammatical genders. Whether an adjective has distinct forms for each gender is lexical, and there is no obvious semantic difference which appears to condition their presence or absence. The usual historical explanation is that the feminine gender was a late grammatical development and did not always correspond to semantics of biological gender, though the mechanisms of the grammaticalization of the feminine gender is uncertain.

For o-stem adjectives with a masculine nom. sing. terminating in -ōḫ, there is always a separate neuter form ending in -õ. Those which have a distinct, obligatory feminine form will have one ending in -ā. Thus these adjectives are called "three-ending" o-stem adjectives. Those without a distinct, obligatory feminine ending terminate in -ōḫ for both masculine and feminine referents. These are "two-ending" o-stem adjectives. It should be noted that feminine forms of o-stems add the -ā directly to the stem, not after the -o theme vowel; this is in contrast to the *-h₂ stems (see below) which is usually added following an existing suffix.

Adjectives terminating in -k, -n, -s, and -t generally do not have distinct forms for masculine and feminine referents, but a handful will have a -ī suffix following the existing suffix to create a distinct feminine form. The netuer form is distinguished from the animate form in one of two manners. It may be by ablaut, taking a short vowel grade when the animate has long grade or a zero grade when the animate has short. Or it may be by the absence of final -s in the nominative, where the animate nom. has -s.

Adjectives in -i and -u often have distinct feminine forms ending in -ī, but there are also adjectives which have just one form for animate refernets or even one form for referents of all genders. Furthermore, there are feminine forms which have a long vowel where the masculine has a short vowel, e.g. fem. nom. sing. -ī and -ū, contra masc. nom. sing. -iš and -uš. The long vowel is conditioned by final *-h₂, which is the same as in *-ih₂ > the usual feminizing suffix -ī.

Adjectives in -nt and -wos, mostly participles, create their feminine forms by adding -ī.

There is also a class of heteroclitic adjectives based on heteroclitic nouns, which are all neuter except hāuuərə "Sun", a feminine term. Those heteroclitic items which have PP inflection take the PX inflection for their primary adjectival forms, which are also neuter and have zero grade in the suffix. The masculine form is produced by adding OX n-stem endings, and the feminine by the -ī suffix to the neuter form. In the feminine, the heteroclitic suffix has full grade and the suffix zero grade in the strong cases, and vice versa in the oblique cases.

It has been noted that adjectives often show a different ablaut pattern compared to nouns derived from the same stems. That is to say, a noun with proparoxytone or paroxytone accent can often respectively form an adjective of similar meaning with a paroxytone or oxytone accent or oxytone accent. The source of this derivation is academically debated but remained visible and productive in Northian.

All Nordic languages have an extant distinction or some vestige of it between strong and weak declensions for the same adjective, where the "strong" represents the adjective's inherited declension and the "weak" its declension as an n-stem. This is not true of Northian, which lacks a weak declension. This would suggest in historical terms that the weak declension developed after the Nordic-Northian split in the Middle Bronze Age, and all the Northian adjectives are thus "strong" in Nordic terms.

Numerals

1 – 4

Cardinal numbers one through four are declinable as athematic adjectives of various declensional patterns, agreeing with the nouns (explicit or implicit) they modify in gender, case, and number. Of course, "one" is only inflected in the singular, "two" in the dual, and "three" and "four" in the plural. Numbers five and above are indeclinable.

	"one"			"two"			"three"			"four"
	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.	m.	n.	f.
nom	hā̊	hõm	hámīḥ	žuuō	duyīḥ	žuuayīḥ	θráiiāḫ	θrī́ḥ	θrižrāḫ	koδuuóriš	kótur	koδuuərəšriš
voc	hõm
acc	hā̊		hámīi̯am				θrī́		θrižrā̊	koδuuórā̊		koδuuərəzrā̊
loc	himi		hmi̯āi	duō		θvāu̯u	θrišū		θrižərəžū	koδuuərəžū		koδuuərəzərəzū
dat	hmei̯			dumā́		θvāma	θrimuš		θrižərəmuš	koδuuərəmuš		koδuuərəzərəmuš
loc	hmōḫ		hmi̯āu̯				θriβi̯ō		θrižərəβi̯ō	koδuuərəβi̯ō		koδuuərəzərəβi̯ō
gen				duōš		θvāu̯uš	θri̯õm		θrišrõm	koturõm		koδuuərəžrõm
ins	hmōi̯		hmi̯å	dumā́		θvāma	θrišūr		θrišra	kotura		koδuuərəzar

"One" is a root noun with a stem ending in -m. As with other stems ending in -m, the accusative preform *sem-m̥ would by regular phonetic change become *sēm, i.e. the same as nominative *sēm, because the PEE ending *-m̥ regularly absorbs the previous resonant, hence also nom. ziiaōš < *dyeu-s but acc. ziiā̊ < *dyēm < *dyew-m̥; in the number, -əm is often but not always restored. In the oblique cases, the stem is in zero grade and appears as hm- < *sm-. The feminine forms are a regular development from the familiar -īḥ suffixation.

"Two" is only declined in the dual number. There are two stems in use: the monosyllabic dvō- and the dysyllabic duo-. It is not certain why the stem scans as two syllables in the neuter forms.

"Three" is a regular PX i-stem noun and is only declined in the plural. Nom. θráiiāḫ shows regular development of *e > a after yod and attraction of the previous front vowel. <ị> is inserted by Runic writers. As with other PX nouns of animate gender, the accusative plural has a zero-grade suffix followed by a zero-grade ending; *tri-ns > θrī́. The feminine forms employ the feminizing infix -sr-, which is always found in the zero grade, and take regular athematic endings. There is also a specific personal form if three women are specifically spoken of, which is θrai̯štar θrižrōḫ < *trey-sr̥, *tri-sr-os.

"Four" behaves like most athematic nouns and also employs the feminizing infix -sr- for its feminine forms. Note however that the ablauting element was the second syllable of the stem -twor-, which in zero grade appears would be PNN *-tur-. Which of the two resonants vocalize depends on the phonetic environment. Where the suffix stands alone the *-w- is vocalized, as in neuter nominative kotur < *kʷetw̥r. But where an obstruent follows the suffix it is the *-r- that becomes syllabic, as in koδuuərəmuš < *kʷetwr̥mus. There was also a singular form koδuuā̊ < *kʷetwōr = Venetian quattuor.

The feminine forms for "four" have the particularly long stem of hoδvərəzərə-, which is for *kʷétwr̥-sr̥- where the ending begins with a consonant. The masculine form for "four" frequently supplants the feminine owing to the sheer length of the etymological stem.

5 and higher

• fəṇka "five"

From PEE *pénkʷe.

• xšuuāxš "six"

From *kswéks, a complete match with Avestan xšuuah.

• haftam 7

From *septm̥.

• oxθō 8

The proto-form of this word is disputed. Northian oxθō can be traced back to both *(H)oktow and *(H)oktoH, with or without an initial laryngeal. Morphologically, it is the dual of óxθō "fingers", in ei-stem.

• nauuam 9
• dekam 10

Pronouns

First person

	sing		du		pl
	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic
nom	áhō		vṓ		vōi̯
acc	ammṓi̯	mi	āŋhō	nō	aŋhmṓi̯	nā̊́ḫ
gen	mémi	moi̯	nō		āŋhér-
dat	máji̯o		nanā́		āŋhméi̯

Second person

	sing		du		pl
	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic	stressed	enclitic
nom	tū́		yṓ		yā̊́ḫ
acc	svō	ti	ūšō	vō	ušmé	vā̊́ḫ
gen	téve	toi̯	wō		yuštr-(I/II)
dat	tévi̯ō	toi̯	wanā́		ušmḗ

Demonstrative

	Singular			Dual			Plural
	Masc.	Neut.	Fem.	Masc.	Neut.	Fem.	Masc.	Neut.	Fem.
Nominative	ha	taṯ	hā	tō	toī	tāī	toy	tā	tāy
Accusative	tõm		tāmam				tṓn		tā́s
Locative	tohme		tesi̯āi̯	tṓu̯			toisu		tēsu
Genitive	tohi̯ō		tezās	tṓmōuš			toiom		tēom
Dative	tohmoi̯		tesi̯åi̯	tṓzmā			toiomus		tēmus
Instrumental	toi̯		toi̯

Indefinite article

The Northian indefinite article, which introduces an indefininte noun phrase, is derived from the PEE root *oiwos, meaning "one". Note that the endings are those of demonstratives.

	aēuuōḫ, "a, an"
	M & F	N
nom	aēuuōḫ	aēuuó
voc
acc	aēuuõm
loc	aēuuōi̯
dat
abl	aēuuōṯ
gen	aēuuōiš
ins	aēuuō

Verbs

Stems

Unlike nouns, verbs may form more than one stem and be still considered the same lexical item. It is thus necessary to discuss the relationship between the various stem-formations as they are attached to the root. The relationship between verb-stems and endings they receive are as follows in the Galic language:

From each root, which is agnostic as to part of speech in the proto-language, can arise multiple stems classified as present, aorist, or perfect, differentiated by their affixes. To these stems are attached endings to constitute the finite verb, which conveys tense/aspect, mood, voice, person, and number.

Tenses attested in Period I Galic are in bold.

		Present stem	Aorist stem	Perfect stem	Root
S + -mi ~ ōḥ		Present indicative
Ø-	S + -m ~ õm	Present injunctive	Aorist injunctive	Perfect injunctive	Injunctive
e-		Imperfect	Aorist	Pluperfect
S + -a				Perfect
S + -iiā ~ ī-	-m	Optative	Aorist optative	Perfect optative	Second optative
S + ōḥ		Present subjunctive	Aorist subjunctive	Perfect subjunctive	First subjunctive
S + -δi		Imperative	Aorist imperative	Perfect imperative	Root imperative
S + -tóṯ		Future imperative		Future perfect imperative	Root future imperative
		Derivatives
S + -sa- + ōḥ				Future perfect	Desiderative
o-reduplication					Intensive
S + -aiia- + ōḥ				Factitive	Causative
		Non-finite forms
S + -nt-		Present active participle	Aorist active participle
S + -uuos-				Perfect active participle
S + -m(i)n-		Present middle participle	Aorist middle participle	Perfect middle participle
S + -ti- / -tu-		Present active infinitive	Aorist active infinitive
S + -un-				Perfect active infinitive
S + -d-oi-		Present middle infinitive	Aorist middle infinitive	Perfect middle infinitive

Athematic present

The shapes of the stem in the Erani-Eracuran parent language decides the resulting forms in Northian:

• VC—these take the short (regular) endings.
• VH—these take the short (regular) endings in the strong forms and long (augmented) endings in the weak forms, with any laryngeal-colouring effects visible on both stem and endings which interface with the stem-final laryngeal.
• VCH—these take the long (augmented) endings, with any laryngeal-colouring effects visible on endings which interface with the stem-final laryngeal.

Aside from the shape of the stem, there are two accentual patterns found in present stems:

• Mobile accent—this pattern is found within all stem-classes and is the most common by far; the accent is on the stem in the singular active and on the ending in all other forms.
• Persistent accent—some root stems take this accent pattern, and the accent is on the stem in all cases; the singular indicative and imperfect active usually has a lengthened vowel, in contrast to the short vowel of all other forms. The injunctive can sometimes have short vowel throughout, but this is completely unpredictable. The 3 pl form, which is sensitive to ablaut, takes the zero grade form.

Present stems

The imperfective system in Galic largely continues the system of reconstructed Proto-Erani-Eracuran. With regard to the historic development of the Northian languages, the imperfective stem is evidently the most productive, followed by the stative and perfective stems in this order. Except for inherited items, all verbs not directly derived from roots could only be imperfective. Imperfective stems could be directly conjugated from the root or with the addition of affixes; as decided by the affix, the athematic or thematic endings may be used. Many athematic stems display ablaut, and in Northian it is customary to give the first person singular active to show the form of the strong stem and the second person plural, for the weak stem.

#	Class	1 sg. / 2 pl.	Function	Examples
1a	root	CéC-mi / CØC-té CéCaē-mi / CØCi-té	Used for inherently imperfective roots. This root type often but not always shows root ablaut, varying between *e ~ Ø. The accent is on the root if it is in full-grade, and on the ending if the root is in zero-grade. These verbs are common in Galic but uncommon in Epic.	es- / s- "to be"
1b		CḗC-mi / CéC-ti	The same as the type above, but with ablaut varying between *ē ~ e. The accent persists on the root.	ēs- / es- "to sit, stay"
2a	root	CéC-ōḥ / CéC-iti	Used for inherently imperfective roots. The root consistently shows full grade and is accented.	βer-i- "to transport"
2b		CØC-ṓḥ / CØC-éti	Used for inherently imperfective roots. The root consistently shows zero grade, and the theme vowel is accented.	tuδ-é- "to push"
3	reduplicated	Ci-CéC-mi / Ci-CØC-té Ce-CéC-mi / Ce-CØC-té	Creates imperfective stems from eventive roots. The reduplicated syllable varies between *e ~ i, with no apparent difference in meaning. The root syllable generally undergoes ablaut, with e-grade in strong forms and zero-grade in weak forms. Roots which end in a laryngeal have a characteristic long vowel in the strong form and a schwa in weak, which merges with the ending if it begins with a vowel.	de-δō- / de-δ(i)- "to give" hi-štā- / hi-št(i)- "to stand (something) up"
4	né ~ n-	CØ-né-C-mi / CØ-nØ-C-té	Creates imperfective stems from perfective roots. The affix *ne ~ n is inserted between the vowel and final consonant of the root. The root is always in the zero-grade, while the infix undergoes ablaut.	li-ne-k- / la-ṇ-x "to leave (behind)"
5	nā́ / nṓ ~ ni-	CØ-nā́-mi / CØ-ni-té CØ-nṓ-mi / CØ-ni-té	This class originates from the same process as class IV, but due to sound changes the surface forms are different. In strong forms, the combination *-ne-h₂- becomes -nā-, while in weak forms the *-n-h₂- generally causes the preceding vowel (in zero grade) to lengthen. If the root ends in *-h₃, the strong form has -nō-, but such roots are rare. The final -i in the weak forms of this root is the "laryngeal i" and colours neighbouring e ; this is the situation in the 3rd act. pl., where the ending was *-enti.	kri-nā- / kri-n(i)- "to buy" gā-nō- / gā-n(i)- "to know"
6	naō ~ nu-	CØ-naō-mi / CØ-nu-té	This class also originates from the same process as class IV. Preceding another vowel, naō- is written as nauu-. In weak forms, the suffix *-n-u̯- can become -nuu- preceding another vowel, e.g. xarənuuóṇti "they make", or -āuu- following a non-resonant. This class of verbs typically (but not universally) drop the suffix to form the non-indicative voices, thus xarōṇti "they may make" xariiāṯ "would that they make", etc.	xarə-naō- / xarə-nu- "to make"
7	reduplicated	Cí-CØC-ōḥ / Cí-CØC-iti	Like the athematic verbs in class III, these are imperfective verbs formed from eventive roots, but with thematic endings. The root syllable is in zero-grade. The accent is consistently on the reduplication syllable.	pí-p-i- "to drink" hí-zd-i- "to sit (something) down"
8a	ii-	CéC-ii-ōḥ / CéC-ii-ati	This very prolific suffix creates imperfective stems from perfective roots. They characteristically had a full-grade and consistently-accented root. As a rule, present stems in class 8a corresponded with an aorist stem in class 1 (root aorist), and so in the Epic language verbs in this class drop the -ii- to form the first subjunctive in the present.	špač-ii-e- "to observe, spectate"
8b		CØC-ii-ṓḥ / CØC-ii-áti	Similar to the above, but this type had a zero-grade root and consistently accented endings. Further, members of thsi class were often deponent, i.e. lacking an active voice. Where an active voice is found, there is usually no contrast in meaning to the middle.	worj-ii-e- "to rotate"
9	sk-	CØC-šk-ṓḥ / CéC-šk-éti	Creates imperfective stems from perfective roots.	gā-šk-e- "to walk, pace"
10	s-	CéC-s-ōḥ / CéC-s-iti	Only a few examples are known from this class.	lax-š-e- "to protect"
11	ḗ-	CØC-ḗ-ōḥ / CØC-ḗ-yiti	Verbs in this class mostly express states of being, derived mainly from adjectives. The suffix ended in a laryngeal, so in Galic verbs in this class have disyllabic endings that are orthographically merged.	ruβ-ḗ-e- "to blush"
12	áii-	CóC-aii-ōḥ / CØC-áii-ati	Stems of this class have root syllables in the o-grade.	hoδ-aii-e- "to sit, calm"
13a	s-	CéC-s-ōḥ / CéC-s-eti Ce-CéC-s-ōḥ / Ce-CéC-s-iti	This formation has two functions. When applied to present and aorist stems, desiderative verbs are created, but when applied to perfect stems, a meaning somewhat similar to future perfect is created.
13b		Cí-CØC-s-ōḥ / Cí-CØC-s-iti	The same as above, except with i-reduplication of the initial syllable, which stands in the zero grade.
14	sii-	CØC-sii-ōḥ / CØC-sii-ati	Creates future stems from present and aorist stems. The shape of this stem depends on that of the root: if the root ended in a vowel, the suffix will change to -hiia-, and the vowel preceding will obligatorily become a.
15	aii-	CVC-aii-ṓḥ / CVC-aii-áti	Creates verbs from o-stem (2nd declension) nouns.
16	āii-	CVC-āii-ṓḥ / CVC-āii-áti	Creates verbs from ā-stem (1st declension) nouns.

Language changes

It has been well noted that the change from the Galic to Epic language was a gradual but non-linear process that most likely occurred between 1200 and 600 BCE.

In terms of morphology, the Epic language outright lost very little of the richness of the Galic language and, additionally, continued to reflect faithfully the grammatical peculiarities occasioned by ablaut. The main difference, though, was in the productivity of various formations. Like other Erani-Eracuran languages, most athematic derivational strategies became vestigial

See also

• Northian language