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{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Manchuria
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Manjugurun
|native_name = Манҗу Гуңхего<br />{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ}}{{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ}}<br />满洲共和国<br />Маньчжурская Республика<br />만주 공화국<br />満州共和国<br />Манжуурын Бүгд Найрамдах Улс
|native_name = Манҗу Гурун
|common_name = Manchuria
|common_name = Manjugurun
|image_flag = Flag of Manchukuo.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Manchukuo.svg
|image_coat = File:A symbol of Manchu.svg
|image_coat = File:Jakvn_gvsa.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = Manchu State.png
|image_map = Manchu State.png  
|map_width = 239px
|map_caption = location of Manchuria in '''green'''
|map_caption = location of Manchuria in '''green'''
|national_motto =
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = {{unbulleted list |[[National Anthem of Manchukuo|Манжу Гурун-и Учун]]<br />{{transl|mnc|''Manju Gurun-i Ucun''}}<br />{{small|''National anthem of Manchuria''}}}}<br /><center>[[File:Mongolian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.ogg]]</center>
|national_anthem = {{unbulleted list |[[National Anthem of Manchukuo|Манжу Гурун-и Учун]]<br />{{transl|mnc|''Manju Gurun-i Ucun''}}<br />{{small|''National anthem of Manchuria''}}}}<br /><center>[[File:Manchukuo National Anthem 1933.mid]]</center>
|official_languages = [[Manchu language|Manchu]] (official and national), [[Mandarin]], [[Russian]], [[Korean]], [[Japanese]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|official_languages = [[Manchu language|Manchu]] (official and national), [[Kyowa-go]], [[Mandarin]], [[Russian]], [[Korean]], [[Japanese]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|languages_type = [[Official script]]s
|languages_type = [[Official script]]s
|languages = [[Xibe language|Manchu Cyrillic]]<br />[[Manchu script]]
|languages = {{W|Xibe language|Manchu Cyrillic}}<br />{{W|Manchu script}}
|ethnic_groups =
|ethnic_groups =
  {{unbulleted list
  {{unbulleted list
   | 41% [[Manchus]]
   | 44% {{W|Manchus}}
   | 46% [[Chinese]]
   | 38% {{W|Chinese|Nikan}}
   |  6% [[Koreans]]
   |  9% {{W|Koreans}}
   |  2% [[Mongols]]
   |  3% {{W|Mongols}}
   |1.7% [[Japanese]]
   | 2% {{W|Russians}}
   | 1% [[Russians]]
   |1.7% {{W|Japanese}}
   |1.3% [[others]]
   |2.3% {{W|others}}
  }}
  }}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|demonym = {{hlist |[[Manchu]] |Manchurian{{Ref label|b|b}} }}
|demonym = {{hlist |{{W|Manchu|Manju}} {{Ref label|b|b}} }}
|capital = [[Changchun]]{{Ref label|a|a}}
|capital = {{W|Changchun|Cacungga}}
|coordinates = {{coord|43|15|N|125|19|E|scale:20000000_source:GNS|display=title}}
|largest_city = {{W|Mukden}}
|largest_city = [[Mukden]]
|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|parliamentary]]}} [[state]]
|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|parliamentary]]}} [[state]]
|leader_title1 = [[Supreme Leader]]
|leader_title1 = [[President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Jin Yuzhang|Aisin Gioro Yujang]]
|leader_name1 = [[Bai Chunli|Baigiya Dorolon]]
|leader_title2 = [[President]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Bai Chunli]]
|leader_name2 = [[:zh:齐续春|Citela Sucun]]
|leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Mongolia|Prime Minister]]
|legislature = [[National Assembly]]
|leader_name3 = [[Dog|Sumuru Angguri]]
|legislature = [[State Great Khural|Legislative Assembly]]
|area_rank = 18th
|area_rank = 18th
|area_km2 = 1,260,000
|area_km2 = 1,260,000
|area_sq_mi = <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|area_sq_mi = <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|percent_water = 5.4
|percent_water = 5.4
|population_estimate =3,081,677
|population_estimate =121,163,770
|population_estimate_year = 2016
|population_estimate_year = 2017
|population_estimate_rank = 134th
|population_estimate_rank = 134th
|population_density_km2 = 1.97
|population_density_km2 = 96.1
|population_density_sq_mi = 5.10
|population_density_sq_mi = 248.9
|population_density_rank = 238th
|population_density_rank = 67th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2015
|GDP_PPP_year = 2019
|GDP_PPP = $36.6&nbsp;billion
|GDP_PPP = $4.50 trillion
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11,024
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $37,084
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $12.5&nbsp;billion
|GDP_nominal = $4.06 trillion
|GDP_nominal_year = 2015
|GDP_nominal_year = 2019
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,353
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $33,493
|Gini_year = 2011
|Gini_year = 2013
|Gini_change =  <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|Gini_change =  <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|Gini = 36.5 <!-- number only -->
|Gini = 36.5 <!-- number only -->
|Gini_rank =
|Gini_rank =
|HDI_year = 2014
|HDI_year = 2015
|HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|HDI = 0.727 <!-- number only, between 0 and 1 -->
|HDI = 0.765 <!-- number only, between 0 and 1 -->
|HDI_ref =
|HDI_ref =
|HDI_rank = 90th
|HDI_rank =  
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Mongolia|Formation]]
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Manchuria|Formation]]
|established_event1 = [[Jurchen Empire]]
|established_event1 = [[Jurchen Empire]]
|established_date1 = formed 1115
|established_date1 = formed 1115
Line 70: Line 68:
|established_event3 = [[Manchukuo]]
|established_event3 = [[Manchukuo]]
|established_date3 = 1932
|established_date3 = 1932
|established_event4 = [[Mongolian People's Republic|Manchurian People's Republic]] was established
|established_event4 = [[Mongolian People's Republic|Manju People's Republic]] was established
|established_date4 = February 1, 1946
|established_date4 = February 1, 1946
|established_event5 = Sorghum Revolution
|established_event5 = Sorghum Revolution
|established_date5 = October 3, 1990
|established_date5 = October 3, 1990
|established_event6 = [[Constitution of Mongolia|Current Constitution]]
|established_event6 = Current Constitution
|established_date6 = February 1, 1991
|established_date6 = March 1, 1991
|currency = [[Manchukuo yuan|Jiha]]
|currency = [[Manchukuo yuan|Muheren]]
|currency_code = MNJ
|currency_code = MNM
|time_zone = <!-- [[Asia/Seoul||KST]] (Manchurian Standard Time) -->
|time_zone = <!-- [[Asia/Seoul||KST]] (Manju Standard Time) -->
|utc_offset = +9
|utc_offset = +9
|time_zone_DST =
|time_zone_DST =
Line 87: Line 85:
|iso3166code = MN
|iso3166code = MN
|cctld = [[.mn|.mj]], [[.мон|.ман]]
|cctld = [[.mn|.mj]], [[.мон|.ман]]
|footnote_a = {{Note|a}} Also spelled "Cangcon" and called "Ice Hoton".
}}
}}


'''Manchuria''' {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mongolia.ogg|m|æ|ŋ|ˈ|t|ʃ|u:|r|i|ə}} (Manju Gurun in Manchu; Манҗу Гурун in Manchu Cyrillic) is a sovereign state in [[East Asia]]. It borders [[Russia]] to the north, [[Mongolia]] to the west, [[China]] to the southwest, and [[Korea]] in the southeast. Its capital is [[Changchun]], and its former capital [[Mukden]] is the largest city. Its population of 121,204,300 is one of the largest on earth.{{UN_Population|ref}}


While Manchuria was dominated by Korean and Chinese dynasties, they were mostly dominated by [[Tungusic]] peoples such as the [[Jurchens]]. The region was the center of the [[Jin Dynasty]] from 1125 to 1234, when it was conquered by the [[Mongol Empire]] and its [[Yuan Dynasty]]. Southern Manchuria fell under Ming rule, but the northern parts remained outside Chinese control. The Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain [[Nurhaci]] later took over the Jurchen tribes in the 1600s, culminating in the [[Qing Dynasty]] founded by [[Hong Taiji]] in 1636, and later conquering China by 1644. Intrigues by Russia led to the loss of Outer Manchuria by 1860, with Manchuria coming under Russian influence by the late 19th century. The southern part was also later influenced by Japan by the early 1900s. By 1911, the Qing Dynasty fell and Manchuria went to a sway of Chinese warlords such as [[Zhang Xueliang]]. <ref name=":0"/> and is considered the homeland of several groups besides the Manchus, including the [[Koreans]] and [[Chinese]]. <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ancient State of Puyŏ in Northeast Asia: Archaeology and Historical Memory|last=Byington|first=Mark E.|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|year=2016|isbn=978-0-674-73719-8|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London|pages=11, 13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6NPMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia|last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash|date=2016-08-05|publisher=Springer|isbn=9788132228004|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=u7-SCzkMZgAC&pg=PA81 |title=Haan (han, Han) of Minjung Theology and Han (han, Han) of Han Philosophy: In the Paradigm of Process Philisophy and Metaphysics of Relatedness|last=Son|first=Chang-Hee|date=2000|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780761818601|language=en}}</ref>Japan's influence increased by 1932, later establishing [[Manchukuo]] as a satellite state, with the last emperor of Qing and China, [[Pu Yi]] being installed as a puppet leader. Popular resistance against Japanese rule intensified, and by the end of World War II, a pro-Communist parallel government took over most parts of Manchuria, co-operating with coup-plotters in [[Xinjing]] and the Soviet and Mongolian invaders. A plebiscite held in October 1945 confirmed the independence of the new People's Republic of Manchuria.
Manjugurun is an independent state located in East Asia. It is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by Mongolia, on the southwest by China, and on the southeast by Korea. Cacungga is the capital, and Mukden, the former capital, is the largest city. It has one of the world's largest populations, with 121,204,300 people. Manjugurun is a country formed by numerous ethnic groups such as the {{W|Xianbei|Sarpi}}, the Khitans, and the Jurchen which became the Manchus. After invading China in the 1600s, it established the Qing Dynasty until 1911. It fell under Japanese domination in 1932 and a puppet state was established there. After the Second World War, it became a Soviet satellite and after the fall of communism in 1991, it adopted representative democracy amid a tumultous end to the 20th century.
 
An intensive [[Desinicization]] program was enacted, imposing the Manchu language on the majority Chinese population with limited success<ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|pp=206–207}}</ref>, and the country provided support during the [[Korean War]] through the joint Chinese-Manchurian [[People's Volunteer Army]]. During the 1960s, disagreements with Mao Zedong and Zhao Shangzhi over the latter's refusal to join the People's Republic were cited as a reason for the [[Sino-Soviet Split]]. In response for Chinese nuclear tests, Manchuria developed its own nuclear weapons, which it maintains to this day. After the fall of communism in 1991, Manchuria reformed its economy from a socialist economy to a mixed-market economy.
 
Although having the 15th largest economy in the world, the country has a lower GDP per capita compared to neighbors, compounded with government controversies. The government is only successful in privatizing smaller businesses, with the larger businesses remaining state-owned or owned by former government officials. It maintains amicable relations with most of its neighboring countries, and is a member of the United Nations, the G-25, the World Trade Organization, the Shanghai Co-Operation Organization, the World Bank, the Asian International Investment Bank, and the Asian Development Bank.
 
==Etymology==
 
The word Manchuria comes from the word ''Manju'', decreed by Hong Taiji in 1636 to replace Jurchen, which was seen as derogatory. It may have come from the Buddhist deity Manjusri, or from a compound word meaning 'strong arrow'.
 
The current English name of Manchuria is rooted in controversy. It was first used by Japanese and Western geographers during the 18th and 19th centuries. <ref>E.g. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dJo8AAAAIAAJ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 11–12], 1867, p. 162</ref> The Manchus reportedly have no native name for the land, except to refer to the territory as the Three Eastern Provinces (Dergi Ilan Goro).<ref name=bob/><ref name=giles/><ref>{{harvnb |Giles|1912|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCqMneCHMJ4C&pg=PA8 8]}}.</ref><ref name=japanese1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=159}}.</ref><ref name=japanese2>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=167}}.</ref>  Also, the Qing Dynasty consistently refer to their territory as merely China. It was during and after World War II that the word Manchuria gained currency, and was accepted as the normal English name of the country.
 
A few Western academics suggested renaming the English name of the country due to its associations with imperialism; the Chief Executive of Manchuria replied in 2013 interview with BBC: "This is telling a person that he needs to change his name because it was offensive, even if for that person it is harmless. It is bullying, pure and simple." <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25411700|title=Seven decades of bitterness|date=2014-02-13|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-02-11|language=en-GB}}</ref>
 
{{Chinese
|pic = |piccap=Manchuria
|s = {{linktext|满洲}}
|t = {{linktext|滿洲}}
|p = Mǎnzhōu
|w= Man-chou
|mi = {{IPAc-cmn|m|an|3|.|zh|ou|1}}
|j = Mun<sup>5</sup>-zau<sup>1</sup>
|wuu = Moe<sup>上</sup>-tseu<sup>平</sup>
|mnc = ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
|mnc_rom = Manju
|rus = Маньчжурия
|rusr = Man'chzhuriya
|kanji = {{linktext|満州}}
|romaji = Manshū
|order = st
|c=|ci=|altname=|hangul=만주|rr=Manju}}


==History==
==History==
{{main article|History of Manchuria}}
===Prehistoric and ancient eras===


===Early History===
Several ethnic groups, including the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens, inhabited today's Manjugurun in ancient times. Several Chinese dynasties ruled over parts of Manjugurun at various times throughout the history of the Manjus, usually along the coasts. The Chinese also established tributary relationships with the tribes.


Ancient Manchuria had been home for several ethnic groups such as the [[Evenki]], the [[Nanai]], the [[Ulchs]], the [[Khitans]], and the [[Jurchens]]. During various points in Manchu history, several Chinese dynasties controlled portions of Manchuria, usually in the coasts, and the Chinese also set up tributary relations with the tribes. The Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, [[Gojoseon]], and [[Buyeo also controlled parts of Manchuria. Finnish scientist [[Juha Janhunen]] also claimed that the Korean kingdoms might have substantial Tungusic-speak]]ing minorities and even have an Tungusic elite. <ref>The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.</ref>
Manjus was also ruled by the Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo. The Korean kingdoms may feature sizable Tungusic-speaking minorities and perhaps a Tungusic aristocracy, according to Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen. The ancestors of the Jurchens were made to serve as tributaries when the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manjugurun created the Liao empire, which included Northern China and Manjugurun, between the tenth and eleventh centuries.  


Within the 10th to 11th century, the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria forged a state called the [[Liao]], controlling Northern China and Manchuria, forcing the ancestors of the Jurchens into tributary status. The Khitan empire were the first state to control the entire modern region of Manchuria. <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=Ruins+of+Identity:+Ethnogenesis+in+the+Japanese+Islands+control+all+of+manchuria&source=bl&ots=SyoHDbdv9i&sig=SK2vY6jSgM-GMEEaaYew3imVkSs&hl=mn&sa=X&ei=gE3TVKrjHMnmoATuvoHIBQ&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands By Mark Hudson]</ref><ref>Ledyard, 1983, 323</ref>
By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, a tributary people of the Khitans, had revolted against Liao rule and been replaced by the Jin Dynasty. The Jurchen were able to capture territory in northern China thanks to numerous campaigns against the Song. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty eventually conquered the Jurchens. Manjugurun, along with Northern Korea, was known as Liaoyang during Mongolian rule. Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula in 1375, but his forces were defeated and surrendered. The Nurgan Regional Military Commission was established by Ming Emperor Yongle to consolidate control of the Manju lands.


[[File:Yuan dynasty and Manchuria.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] [[provinces of the Yuan Empire|province]] of [[Liaoyang]] (Liyoo-a); the province included northern [[Korea]]]]
Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens, led by Nurhaci, began to consolidate their control of the region in the 1580s. They had to deal with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, who was eventually killed in 1640 and his remaining troops incorporated into the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organisation. During this time, Chinese cultural influence permeated the Manjurian region.
[[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|250px|The Manchu [[Manchuria under Qing rule|Qing dynasty]] circa 1820. Manchuria is the homeland of the [[Jurchens]] and later [[Manchus]].]]


===Medieval History===
===Qing era===




[[File:Ussuriysk-Stone-Tortoise-S-3542.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A 12th-century [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen]] stone tortoise in today's [[Ussuriysk]]]]
===early 20th century===


By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, one of the tributary peoples of the Khitans rebelled against Liao rule and replaced them with the Jin Dynasty. Numerous [[Jurchen_campaigns_against_the_Song_dynasty|campaigns against the Song Chinese]] enabled the Jurchen to capture territory in northern China. The Jurchens were then conquered in turn by the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty. During Mongolian rule, Manchuria was named as Liaoyang along with Northern Korea.<ref>Patricia Ann Berger – Empire of emptiness: [[Buddhist]] art and political authority in Qing China, p.25</ref>In 1375, [[Naghachu]], a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula, but the [[Ming campaign against the Uriankhai|Ming defeated his forces]] and surrendered. The Ming Emperor [[Yongle]] consolidated control of the Manchurian lands, creating the [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref>
In 1903, Russia established the Viceroyalty of the Far East in Port Arthur, and the Russian government considered the project of securing Manjugurun as " Zheltorossiya", the basis of which was to be the Kwantung Region established in 1899 in the right-of-way of the CER, and the formation of a new Cossack army and settlement by Russian colonists.


Chafing from Ming control, the [[Jianzhou Jurchens]] under [[Nurhaci]] started to consolidate their control of the region starting in the 1580s. They had to contend with the [[Evenki]]-[[Daur]] alliance led by [[Bombogor]], finally killing him in 1640 and incorporating his remaining troops to the [[Eight Banners]], a new Jurchen military organization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref> During this period, Chinese cultural influence seeped through the Manchurian region and various ethnic groups living there.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 214.</ref>
Japan's claims to Manchuria and Korea and the refusal of the Russian Empire to withdraw Russian troops from Manchuria and Korea in violation of the allied treaty led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which was fought in southern Manchuria up to Mukden.


In 1634, Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchens into Manchus, citing the former name as now derogatory.
According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Liaodong Peninsula with the Kwantung region and the Chinese Eastern to Port Arthur went to Japan. Between 1905 and 1925, Japan further strengthened its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic levers like the South Manchurian Railway.


[[File:A Tartar Huntsmen on His Horse.jpg|thumb|left|A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk]]
In 1910-1911, the last major outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in Manjugurun.


In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels. Ming general [[Wu Sangui]] called the Manchu leadership to assist in seizing Beijing. Using the opportunity of the chaos, the Manchus overthrew the nascent Shun Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. It was estimated that twenty-five million people died as a result of the conquest. <ref>{{cite news |title=5 Of The 10 Deadliest Wars Began In China |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/bloodiest-conflicts-in-chinese-history-2014-10 |work=Business Insider |date=6 October 2014}}</ref>
After the Xinhai Revolution and the collapse of the Qing Empire from 1912 to 1932, the territory of Manchuria was controlled by the Fengtian clique, a northeastern grouping of Chinese warlords. By the end of the 1920s, the Chinese government of the Kuomintang established formal control over this territory. In 1929, the Chinese Nationalists attempted to seize the CER, but were defeated by Soviet troops. In 1929-1931, in some areas of eastern Manjugurun, inhabited by Koreans, established an anarchist territory called Korean People's Association until defeated by Chinese and Japanese authorities.
 
===Qing Empire===
 
An outbreak of bubonic plague occured in Manchuria in 1910-11, killing about 50,000 to 60,000 people in Harbin alone. <ref>''"[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter]"''. Yu-lin Wu (1995). [[World Scientific]]. p.68. {{ISBN|981-02-2287-4}}</ref> While the plague was contained, the high number of deaths forced Chinese and Manchurian officials to initiate stricter health measures, and shortly after the overthrow of the Qing, the North Manchurian Plague Office was established to combat outbreaks.
 
===Fengtian Era===
 
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, [[Zhang Zuolin]] took over the administration of the Manchurian lands. In 1920, he then set reforms that enabled Manchuria, then known as the Three Eastern Provinces, to be relatively unscathed by the chaos of the warlord era in China. Although Manchuria remained officially a part of China, it was effectively isolated from China and protected by Zhang's {{W|Fengtian Army}}, and its naval and air forces are considered advanced compared to the other Chinese states. He tolerated the Japanese presence in Manchuria but is said to be losing patience at their control of Kwantung and the South Manchurian railroad.
 
Zhang Zuolin was later killed in the [[Huanggutun Incident]] on 2 June 1928, allegedly on the orders of the Kwantung Army due to the latter perceiving him as a traitor. [[Zhang Xueliang]] took his place, then allied himself with the advancing Kuomintang to prevent conquest.
 
A month after the reunification with the KMT, Zhang attempted to establish control over the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] causing a [[Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)|armed skirmish]] with the Soviet Union. Zhang was now the ''de facto'' dictator of Manchuria, although he remained officially loyal to the Kuomintang supporting the nationalist government in the [[Central Plains War]]. However Chinese-Japanese relations were quickly deteriorating with Japan trying to exert more influence in Manchuria.


===Manchukuo===
===Manchukuo===


In 1931, the Japanese forces in Manchuria seized the country from the Chinese, creating a satellite state called [[Manchukuo]] a year later. The Japanese installed [[Pu Yi]] as a figurehead leader while real power is in the hands of the Japanese advisers. Several anti-Japanese Manchurian commanders such as [[Tong Linge]] (Tunggiya Linge) joined Kuomintang forces in China, with several of them being killed in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|title=基督徒将军佟麟阁：抗战殉国的第一位高级将领|last=李|first=世峥|date=1 September 2010|website=中国民族报|access-date=4 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524080749/http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|archive-date=24 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://kknews.cc/zh-my/history/5axe29k.html |title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领 |date=27 May 2017 |website=每日头条 |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领|date=27 May 2017|website=每日头条|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004216/http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|archive-date=24 May 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Manchuria was used as a buffer state between Japan and the Soviet Union as both countries clashed twice in 1938 and 1939. <ref>{{cite book|last1=Coox|first1=Alvin D.|title=Nomonhan : Japan against Russia, 1939 |date=1990 |publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0804718356|page=841|edition=1st}}</ref> It was said that Japanese control of the resources in Manchuria enabled it to execute the [[Attack of Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] bombing and initate a conquest of [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[Western Pacific]]. <ref>Edward Behr, ''The Last Emperor'', 1987, p. 202</ref>
===Communist era===
 
Several anti-Japanse Manchu leaders like [[Zhao Shangzhi]], [[:zh:陈翰章|Chen Hanzhang]], and [[Yang Jingyu]] fled to the Soviet Union and Mongolia and established a government in exile. A rift between Zhao Shangzhi and the Yanan leadership was only temporarily healed and Zhao decided to separate and rename his Northeast Anti-Japanese Army into the Manchurian People's Army and finally advocate a separate Manchurian communist state to "defend itself from Kuomintang" machination. A large number of former Northeast Anti-Japanese Army soldiers are of ethnic Manchu descent and Zhao who was mixed Chinese and Manchu wanted an "ethnic revival" of the Manchus and thus ordered Manchu-language education.
 
A coup by secretly communist Manchukuo officers during the Soviet-Japanese War in August 1, 1945 had taxed the already stretched Kwantung Army declared the establishment of the Manchu Republic, led by Zhang Xueming, Zhang Xueliang's brother, who secretly fled from Mainland China, and used the flag of the Fengtian Clique. However, in September 1, 1945, he had to cede power to Zhao Shangzhi, who secretly promised that Manchuria would never be sold out to either Chiang or Mao, in exchange of Xueming returning to China. Pu Yi escaped to Japan, but was captured by the Americans and made witness to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. He was imprisoned by the Soviet Union until released to live his exile to Japan.{{sfn|Behr|1987|p=285}} The majority of the Japanese settlers were either deported back to Japan or were kept as "hostages" by Zhao Shangzhi to elicit Japanese goodwill. Many of them only were able to return in the 1960s. <ref>Paul K. Maruyama, ''Escape from Manchuria'' (iUniverse, 2009) {{ISBN|978-1-4502-0581-8}} (hard cover), 9781450205795 (paperback), based on the earlier books in Japanese by K. Maruyama (1970) and M. Musashi (2000) and other sources</ref>
 
===Manchu People's Republic===
 
[[File:Zhao Shangzhi.jpg|thumb|Zhao Shangzhi, early Manchurian People's Republic leader.]]
 
During the final days of [[World War II]], the Soviet Army in the Far East attacked Manchuria and together with the [[Mongolian People's Army]] and the Manchurian People's Army, and occupied the former state of Manchukuo. It was said that the Chinese refusal to hand over [[Inner Mongolia]] to the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] spurred the Mongolian dictator Choibalsan to declare that the former Manchukuo should be handed over to Zhao's government in exile. Chiang Kai-shek replied that both Mongolia and Manchuria should remain under Chinese control, which angered Zhao. Tensions flared, the Nationalist and Communist Chinese were prohibited by the MPA and Mongolian forces from occupying the former Manchukuo. .<ref name="Borisov">Borisov, O. (1977). ''The Soviet Union and the Manchurian Revolutionary Base (1945–1949)''. Moscow, Progress Publishers.</ref>With the former Manchukuo Army soldiers being integrated to the Manchurian People's Army, Manchuria declared independence in February 1, 1946.
 
[[File:Otkrytie pamyatnika bortsam s kominternom.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops in Harbin, 1946]]
 
In exchange of recognizing independence, the main [[Chinese Communist Party]] forced Manchuria to accept Guan Xiangying, an ethnic Manchurian, as President, as well as Gao Gang as Chinese ambassador, in exchange of independence. However, Guan died in 1947, and Gao Gang had at point had eased himself with the main Manchu leadership headed by Zhao Shangzhi and Zhou Baozhong as figurehead President.
 
During the Korean War, Manchuria entered the war on the side of North Korea along with the People's Republic. A "People's Support Army" was sent by Manchuria alongside China's "People's Volunteer Army". Zhao reluctantly entered the war to both secure his southern border and to prevent China from occupying it as a pretext for inaction. 83,400 Manchurians were killed in action among 300,000 Manchurian soldiers who fought in the "War to Aid Korea and Resist America."
 
However, the high cost of the war had angered many Manchurian officials, and Zhao Shangzhi once considered resignation; he was retained at the request of the communist party. Yang Jingyu and Zhou Baozhong were removed for disagreeing with Zhao about the conduct of the war; Zhao formally became president in 1956. They both left for China, never returning to Manchuria again. Zhou Baozhong later became governor of Yunnan, while Yang Jingyu went back to Yenan province, quietly dying in 1965.
 
Zhao initiated the so-called "Sahaliyan Ula Protocol" in 1960, as a response to China and claiming that North Korea betrayed his country's trust. It aims to usurp China's place as the leading Asian communist power by using internal reform within party and government, publicly allying with the Soviet Union but at the same time maintaining its independence, and with prime minister Sheng Shicai, broadened their relations with the West. Thousands of pro-unification PRC Manchurians were jailed or executed. Zhao while publicly reforming the internal structure of the government, remained powerful. Unlike his neighbors, however, Zhao remained comparatively "moderate" to Mao and Kim Il-Sung.
 
In 1956, Manchuria started a nuclear program, intended at first for peaceful purposes. However, the government believed that Manchuria would also need to use the nuclear program to create atomic weapons. Soviet documents revealed that the rationale is to prevent both American and Chinese aggression. Seeing Manchuria as too big for the Soviet Union to be brought into heel, Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] tacitly allowed Manchuria to develop its own nuclear weapon, who is suffering with the fallout from Mao Zedong during the [[Sino-Soviet Split]]. Soviet scientists helped Manchurian scientists in the development of nuclear weapons, detonating it in 1972 with widespread condemnation. This encouraged the USSR to tacitly allow most Warsaw Pact countries with the specific exception of East Germany to develop their own arsenal; [[East Germany]] later procured their own arsenal and was inherited and kept by the present unified government of Germany.
 
In 1970, Zhao Shangzhi died, replaced by Chen Hanzhang as President and Tong Zhishan, Zhao's preferred successor, as General Secretary. Tong had to inherit the worsening border clashes within China due to the Cultural Revolution; already, Zhao was denounced in China for his failure to incorporate Manchuria to the PRC. Red Guards trying to infiltrate Manchuria were "killed on the spot". Soviet forces in Tiyeliyan and the Chinese-Manchurian border also engaged in [[Sino-Soviet Border Conflict | border clashes]]. <ref name="Phoenix">Wang, Zhen 王楨. Huángpái dàfàngsòng 皇牌大放送, "Duóbǎo bīngyuán——ZhōngSū Zhēnbǎo dǎo chōngtú 45 zhōunián jì" 奪寶冰原——中蘇珍寶島衝突45周年記 [Fighting for the treasure on icefield—Sino-Soviet Zhenbao Island conflict 45th anniversary]. Aired 5 April 2014 on Phoenix Television. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtzIuc5FIMk</ref>
 
Manchuria was denied by the Republic of China from admission into the United Nations due to its claims, even though it acquiesced in its admission of Mongolia in 1961. .<ref name="unveto">{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| publisher=聯合國| script-title=zh:因常任理事国投反对票而未获通过的决议草案或修正案各段| language=Chinese| url-status=live| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323133412/http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| archivedate=March 23, 2014| df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="bbcveto">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|title=The veto and how to use it|work=BBC News Online|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726080318/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|archivedate=July 26, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="gpveto">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|title=Changing Pattern in the Use of Veto in the Security Council|publisher=Global Policy Forum|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508103405/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|archivedate=May 8, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> (see [[China and the United Nations]])
In 1971, the People's Republic in an overture to improve Manchuria-China relations, approved of Manchuria's entry to the United Nations.
 
Tong Zhishan, a naval officer during the Manchukuo Army era and the first admiral of the Manchurian People's Navy, personally supervised the growth of the armed forces, and had a shipbuilding program commenced, concentrating on destroyers and coastal defense ships. He also liberalized Tiyeliyan, which was already under a "special regime" and certain western products were allowed.
 
===Modern Manchuria===
 
After the fall of Communist regime in Manchuria, the government in Changchun feared that either China or North Korea will attempt to overthrow their government by force, as Chinese people who fled the [[Tiananmen Square]] protests in 1989 were allowed refuge by the Manchurian government. Also, North Korean defectors crossed into Manchuria, angering the new North Korean leader, Kim Jong-il. The shelling of a Manchurian border village near the Yalu River proved to be the spark of the [[Second Korean War]], which ended in the destruction of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and nearly started a second war with the Republic of Korea. Only Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]]'s threats and China's military build-up prevented any attempted Manchurian annexation of North Korea, which was widely condemned by many Manchurian citizens. A peace agreement was signed by the warring parties, including Manchuria, re-uniting the Korean nation. <ref>Kwak, Tae-Hwan; Joo, Seung-Ho (2003). ''The Korean peace process and the four powers''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3653-3}}.</ref><ref>DeRouen, Karl; Heo, Uk (2005). ''Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies''.ABC-CLIO.</ref>. However, Manchuria has to allocate 35% of its exports to the Republic of Korea as a form of war reparations within ten years starting from 1997, as mandated by a Korean-Manchurian treaty.
 
==Government and Politics==
 
Manchuria is officially a unitary semi-presidential state with a unicameral legislature. However, it can be said that Manchuria is technically both a republic and a monarchy; the constitution officially recognizes the chief of the Aisin Gioro family "as part of Manchuria's intangible heritage and a symbol of the state and the unity of the people." While he is commonly called Emperor, and is enthroned as such, his official title is [[Emperor|Toose de Jafambi]](Sovereign Leader) by the government. Even then, he is still referred to as the Emperor, and has similar role as his Japanese counterpart.
 
The President (Beliihitiyande) is the head of state of the country; he is elected by the populace for a five-year term renewable only once in a re-election. He appoints the Prime Minister (Dorgi Yamun I Da) who heads the cabinet and the Legislative Assembly; he must be the leader of the party that receives the most votes in the house.
 
The Constitution of Manchuria serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which established clear separation of powers. However, for the most part of its history Manchuria was under autocratic rule. From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a Communist single-party state that ended in 1990 following the Sorghum Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a liberal democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria are still prominent and active in politics.
 
==Foreign Relations==
 
Manchuria's foreign affairs is conducted by its [[Foreign Ministry]]. Its key foreign policy is to retain its relative military power among other Asian nations, especially that along with China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, possess nuclear weapons in the Eastern Asia region. It pursues an independent foreign policy but has been notably close to Russia since 1945. However, Manchuria also pursued warmer relations with Western countries particularly the United States.
 
Manchuria is a member of several organisations such as the [[United Nations]], [[G-20]], [[WTO]], [[APEC]], [[IMF]], [[WBG]], [[ADB]], [[East Asia Summit]], [[ACD]], [[PEMSEA]], [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[Group of 15]], and the [[Group of 24]].
 
During the Cold War, it traditionally supported the Soviet Union until its demise in 1991. During the Manchukuo era, the Soviets opened consulates in Harbin. After the war, the Soviet Union upgraded their full relations with the new Manchurian communist government. Manchuria continues its relations with Russia amicably, and is viewed as Manchuria's traditional ally, and a special relationship with Russia emerged. <ref>[http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp Генеральное консульство СССР в Харбине] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318211826/http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp |date=18 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>[[Igor Ivanov|Ivanov, Igor]] (2002). ''Outline of the History of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia''. In Russian. OLMA Media Group, p. 219</ref><ref>[http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm Chronology of China in the 1940s] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023023540/http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm |date=23 October 2014}}. [[Osaka University]] School of Law. Retrieved 29 December 2017.</ref><ref>K. A. Karayeva. [http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf МАНЬЧЖОУ ГО (1931–1945): «МАРИОНЕТОЧНОЕ» ГОСУДАРСТВО В СИСТЕМЕ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ НА ДАЛЬНЕМ ВОСТОКЕ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903140739/http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf |date=3 September 2014}}. [[Ural Federal University]] archives.</ref> Manchuria has a neutral position on the Crimea problem, insisting that all problems should be solved by peaceful means if possible. Manchuria has amicable relations with all the other post-Soviet republics, especially [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uyghuristan]].
 
Manchuria also has traditionally warm relations with [[India]], as Manchuria provided material for India's [[India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Nuclear_weapons|nuclear weapons program]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mea.gov.in/mystart.php?id=50049826 |title=Sorry for the inconvenience. |publisher= |accessdate=21 February 2015}}</ref>
 
As Mongolia second-largest trading partner, Manchuria enjoy excellent relations with its western neighbor. There are issues being tackled including emigration of Mongols to Manchuria.<ref name="mfat">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en |title=LIST OF STATES WITH DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |accessdate=26 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722215952/http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en|archivedate=22 July 2011}}</ref
 
Manchuria's relations with the West increased considerably. There is steady immigration to the United States, but as these emigrants tend to be Chinese-speaking Manchurians, until recently they are considered as Chinese.
 
It was with its immediate neighbors that Manchuria has difficulty in maintaining good relations. Mao's acceptance of Manchurian independence was said by him to have been made with "great reluctance." Even though Manchuria and China fought on the same side with North Korea during the Korean War, China tried and failed to use the war as leverage to re-incorporate Manchuria. During the Sino-Soviet Split and the Cultural Revolution, Manchuria had to fend off border incursions by China with Soviet help. Only after the Sino-Vietnamese War and China's market reforms did Manchuria-Chinese relations improve, and even then, the Second Korean Conflict and the fall of the communist regime in Pyongyang was "never forgotten" by Beijing and Manchuria's role with it was used as a sticking point.
 
Manchurian-Korean relations are friendly despite the Second Korean War. Sticking points include the necessity of sending reparations to Korea and claims by Manchurian historians that Korea deliberatedly whitewashed the history of [[Goguryeo]] to erase the Manchurian origin of the kingdom, causing protests and counter-protests from both sides.<ref>[http://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/texts/Gries2005KoguryoEAIQ.pdf 02Gries.pmd<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="news.naver.com">Donga Monthly. http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=037&aid=0000006961</ref>
 
While Manchurian-Japanese relations are now better than before, their background was also complex. Manchurian citizens occasionally request compensation from Japan, in which Japan said it already made apologies. Many Japanese politicians also criticized the treatment of Japanese prisoners of war after World War II; the execution of Shiro Ishii by Zhao Shangzhi personally being photographed to have shot Ishii through the head was seen by the Japanese ultra-nationalists as the moment "Zhao killing Manchuria"; Manchuria insisted that Ishii was the Japanese Josef Mengele with documents from the former Unit 731 in Harbin to advance their evidences. However, the Manchurian government apologized to Japan for its role in anti-Japanese pogroms and mass-rapes after the Soviet invasion and hoped it can be used as leverage to Japan. Nevertheless, Japanese-Manchurian relations are cordial and compared in the past, now done in an equal basis; anime and manga are regularly being shown in Manchuria with a large fandom in Manchuria itself, and Manchurian light novels and visual novels recently provide material for new Japanese animated series. Many Japanese people retire to Manchuria and younger Manchurians emigrate to Japan. Manchuria's embassy in Japan was still the one used by the former Manchukuo regime.
 
==Military==
 
{{Main|Manchukuo Imperial Army}}
 
[[File:Su-27SM3 flight, Celebration of the 100th anniversary of Russian Air Force.jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian Su-27.]]
 
[[File:North_Korea_Victory_Day_122_(9465927866).jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian tanks in a military parade.]]
 
The Manchurian Armed Forces are one of the largest in East Asia barring China and Korea.
 
The Armed Forces is composed an army, navy, air force, and a guard corps. The MAF has the second largest army in East Asia in active forces (1,228,300), though its paramilitary forces (9,320,000) when added make it the largest military force in the world. <ref>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2010 |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies |authorlink=International Institute for Strategic Studies |editor-last=Hackett |editor-first=James |date=3 February 2010 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=[[London]] |isbn=978-1-85743-557-3 |ref=IISS2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217230331/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archivedate=17 February 2007 |title=Army personnel (per capita) by country |accessdate=1 August 2007 |year=2007 |work=NationMaster}}</ref> Manchuria has the largest special force and submarine force in the world. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=288–293}}
 
The President of Manchuria is the commander-in-chief of the MAF, which answers to the [[Ministry of Defence]]. The Chief of Staff of the Manchurian Armed Forces is a professional soldier with a four-star rank. The military's influence in civilian life had been shaped by its role by throwing its support behind the protesters in the 1991 anti-communist revolution. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=247}}
 
The predecessor to the MAF, the [[Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army|Manchurian People's Army]], primarily received military equipment from the Soviet Union. The MAF's foreign weaponry are largely Soviet or Eastern Bloc in design if not in manufacture, and many of the weaponry made in Manchuria are of East Bloc heritage as well. Recently Manchuria has started purchasing weaponry and equipment from Germany, Japan, and Israel. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |title=Worls militaries: K |publisher=soldiering.ru |accessdate=23 May 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006112837/http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |archivedate=6 October 2014 }}</ref>
 
Manchuria possesses nuclear weapons. <ref name="economist-armied" /><ref>{{cite book|url=http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|title=The Korean Military Balance|author=Anthony H. Cordesman|date=21 July 2011|publisher=Center for Strategic & International Studies|isbn=978-0-89206-632-2|page=156|quote=The DPRK has [[Nuclear weapon design|implosion fission]] weapons.|accessdate=28 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011185007/http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The nuclear weapons program were built in the 1960s as an anti-Chinese deterrent, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was rumored that the Soviets actually sold some of their newer weapons to Manchuria in exchange not to sell Manchurian weapons to countries Russia disapproved of. Manchuria refused to sign both the [[Nuclear Proliferation Treaty]] and the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]], claiming that these treaties favor the Western countries. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=260}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |title=New Threat from N.Korea's 'Asymmetrical' Warfare |publisher=The Chosun Ilbo (English Edition) |work=English.chosun.com |date=29 April 2010 |accessdate=13 December 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224190403/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |archivedate=24 December 2010 }}</ref>


[[conscription|Patriotic Civil Service]] is the term called for conscription; all males at the age of 18 are considered recruits; people who had disabilities are granted honorary ranks but are only allowed to participate in civil relations. Refusal to serve is considered a capital punishment during early communist times which meant automatic death penalty; this was reduced and concentious objectors are sentenced to hard labor camps, which were still criticized. After the fall of the Communist system, conscientious objection is no longer punished; "equivalent civilian work" or heavier taxation were used instead.
===Modern Era===


==Geography==
Manjugurun was struck by the {{W|Covid-19 Pandemic}}, and was criticized for strict lockdowns. However, the Manjurian government also criticized the Chinese government for failing to stop the spread of the virus.


{{main|Manchuria#Geography_and_climate}}
==Geography==


The territory within Manchuria lies within the northern part of the [[North China craton]], which is an area of [[Precambrian]] rocks over 100 million hectares. Manchuria is traditionally divided into three geographic regions: the Hingan mountains, the Manchurian plain, and the [[Changbai Mountains|Golmin Shanggiyan Mountain]] region. The Hinggan mountains are a Jurassic mountain range<ref>Bogatikov, Oleg Alekseevich (2000); ''Magmatism and Geodynamics: Terrestrial Magmatism throughout the Earth's History''; pp. 150–151. {{ISBN|90-5699-168-X}}</ref>, stemming from a collision between the North China craton and the Siberian craton.
The climate of Manjugurun spans the mid-temperate zone and the cold-temperate zone from south to north. There are four distinct seasons, with hot weather in summer and cool weather in winter. Precipitation drops from 1000mm down to below 300mm annually as you go northwestward across this humid area, semi-humid area, arid region, and high forest coverage rate region. This contributes to agricultural development (due to prolonged melting time on ice) as well as forestry ( due to storage capacity of trees).


Manchuria was never glaciated during the Quartenary period, but the fertile soils of the lower-lying areas indicate movements from the western mountains in Asia such as the Himalayas and the Tien Shan mountains, and also the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts.<ref>Kropotkin, Prince P.; "Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia"; in '''Popular Science''', May 1904; pp. 68–69</ref>
==Government==


In the middle between the Hinggan Range and the Golmin Sanggiyan Mountains is the Manchurian plain, also known as the Dongbei plain in Chinese or the Sungari-Liyoo Plain, with the [[Sungari]], [[Nen River|Non]], and [[Liao River|Liyoo]] Rivers running through the plain. Here is the area where widespread cultivation takes place. Majority of the soybean, millet, wheat, and rice are being planted in this region. The area is connected to the North China plain to the south-west.
Manjugurun is a unitary semi-presidential republic. Manchuria is classified as partially free by the non-governmental organisation Freedom House.
 
The President (Beile) is the country's recognised head of state; he is elected by the people for a five-year term that can be renewed only once in a re-election. He chooses the Prime Minister (Ejen) who is the head cabinet minister. The President's personal residence is the so-called "Joogiya's Mansion," the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era.
===Climate===
 
Manchuria's climate provided contrasts, with very Arctic-like winters and hot, tropical summers. The position of Manchuria between the Eurasian landmass and the Pacific Ocean contribute to this climactic situation. Due to being in the border region of Eurasia and the Pacific, the climate triggers monsoonal wind reversal.
 
The dominant climate type according the Koppen scheme is the hot-summer dry continental, especially in the plain. In the far north, dry-winter subarctic climate prevails, and in the west, pockets of cold semiarid climate persist.
 
Temperatures during the winter are usually cold due to the [[Siberian High]], ranging from -5 °C (23°F) to -30°C (-22°F), depending on latitude, which is considered colder when further north. The Siberian winds are relatively dry, however, and the snow is rarely heavy. Thus Manchuria, despite being colder than North America, never glaciated due to the strong westerly winds from western Eurasia.
 
In contrast, during summer, moist, southwestern winds bring thunderstorms, usually bringing 400 to 1150 mm of rain depending on the area; the area around the east receives more rain.
 
==Administative Divisions==
 
Manchuria is organized into provinces (golo, голо), subdivided into leagues (culgan, чулган), banners (guusa, гөса) and towns (sumu, суму), with certain cities such as the capital Cangcon, Halbin, Mukden, and Tiyeliyan having provincial status.
[[File:Map of Manchukuo divisions zh-hans.svg|thumb|Administrative divisions of Manchuria]]
<br />
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;" align="center"
|-
! #
! Name
! Administrative<br />Seat
! Manchu
! Population
! Area<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
!
|-
|1
|Huleigiolo
|Hailar
|Hулеигиоло
ᡭᡠᠯᡝᡳᡤᡳᠣᠯᠣ
|3,126,463
|9,890.62
|
|-
|2
|Sahaliyan Ula
|Aigun
|Сахалиян Ула <br />ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ
|2,623,541
|10,414.94
|
|-
|3
|Liyoo Ning
|Išangga Gašan
|Лиёо Нин<br />ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᠨ᠋ᡳᠩ
|3,044,641
|19,698.00
|
|-
|4
|Halhuun Ula
|Erdemu de Aliha
|Халхун Ула<br />ᡭᠠᠯᡥᡡᠨ ᡡᠯᠠ
|1,819,339
|10,354.99
|
|-
|5
|Girin
|Girin Ula
|Гирин ᡤᡳᡵᡳᠨ
|8,106,171
|12,860.00
|
|-
|6
|Hinggan
|Jerim
|Хинган ᡥᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ
|1,858,768
|4,743.24
|
|- bgcolor="#00FFFF"
|7
|Yeonbyeon
|Yongil
|Янбиян ᠶᠠᠨᠪᡳᠠᠨ
|2,271,600
|43,509
|
|- bgcolor="#98FB98"
|8
|Tiyeliyan
|Tiyeliyan
|Тиелиян ᡨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ
|1,392,493
|6,690,432
|
|- bgcolor="#00B60F"
|9
|Niyengniyeltu
|Cangcon
|Ниыенгниыелту
ᠨᡳᠶᡝᠩᠨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡨᡠ
|6,690,432
|12,573.85
|
|-
|10
|Nemeri Ula
|Cicigar
|Немери Ула
ᠨᡝᠮᡝᡵᡳ ᡠᠯᠠ<br />
|2,444,697
|67,034
|
|-
|11
|Acan Ula
|Giyamusi
|Ачан Ула<br />ᠴᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ
|1,709,538
|8,420.00
|
|- bgcolor="#98FB98"
|12
|Mukden
|Mukden
|Мукден<br />ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ
|2,138,090
|11,272.00
|
|-
|13
|Liyoo Dergi
|Hetu Ala
|Лиёо Дерги
ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᡩᡝᡵᡤᡳ
|2,717,732
|12,979.69
|
|- bgcolor="#98FB98"
|14
|Halbin
|Halbin
|Халбин<br />ᡥᠠᠯᠪᡳᠨ
|3,386,325
|14,382.34
|
|-
|}


==Economy==
==Economy==


Manchuria has a economy that is measured to be the 15th largest in the world by 2018, at US$989 billion. Manchuria has been one of the strongest in the Asia-Pacific region despite not reaching the levels of the Asian Tigers. The service industry is smaller compared to the other East Asian countries. It was surmised that Manchuria developed first at the start of the Cold War and stagnated at the end of the Cold War. <ref>{{cite news |last1=Luo |first1=Weiteng |title=Unlocking the paradox of nation's 'eldest son' |url=https://www.chinadailyhk.com/articles/254/3/20/1577416086129.html |accessdate=February 27, 2020 |agency=China Daily |date=December 27, 2019}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |title=Edit/Review Countries |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=14 September 2006 |accessdate=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209145442/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |archive-date=9 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Agriculture==
 
During the Qing period, Manchuria was one of the most industrialized parts of the Chinese Empire, and its coal deposits made it a highly-urbanized country. During the Manchukuo era until 1945, Manchuria was considered more industrialized than China and even Japan; Japanese investment has expanded Manchukuo industries.<ref>{{cite news|title =The Unquiet Past Seven decades on from the defeat of Japan, memories of war still divide East Asia|newspaper =The Economist|date =12 August 2015|url =https://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|accessdate =9 September 2015|url-status =live|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20150906053333/http://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|archivedate =6 September 2015|df =dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=zh-hans |url=http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |title=东北1945年工业规模亚洲第一 |publisher=深圳新闻网 |date=July 7, 2009 |accessdate=July 28, 2011  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020150957/http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |archivedate=2011-10-20 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |title=The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective |author=Prasenjit Duara |accessdate=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616115234/http://japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |archive-date=16 June 2010 |url-status=live  }}</ref> Indeed, China refers to Manchuria as the "Eldest Son" of industrialized communist countries in Asia. After the fall of communism, Manchuria struggled to keep its industry as it stagnated, prompting the government to diversify its economic structure. <ref>{{cite news |last1=Chan |first1=Elaine |title=China’s Northeastern rust belt was once ‘eldest son’, now struggling as runt of the litter |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3008778/chinas-northeastern-rust-belt-was-once-eldest-son-now |accessdate=June 5, 2019 |work=China Economy |agency=South China Morning Post |date=June 5, 2019}}</ref>
 
Attempts to deregulate the economy during the 1990s faltered due to heavy resistance from newly-legalized trade unions, and hampered by the Korean crisis in the 1990s. Indeed, in 1991, Manchuria's GDP shrunk in 1993 to the level it achieved in 1976, and considered a "national scandal", and the Korean conflict excabarated it. President Tiyan Fengsan of the People's Party then installed mixed-economic policies and an economic system system more similar to Japan during the 1950s. Instead of privatization of state-owned companies, Tiyan encouraged businessmen to set up their own businesses. It was said that the failure of Manchurian privatization policies actually cushioned the economy from the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis as well as the 2008 Global Financial Crisis. Manchuria managed to keep the majority of its labor-intensive manufacturing from being transferred to the neighboring PRC, despite the so-called "Korean Tribute", keeping unemployment at bay, although pay was low compared to Korea. There are calls for the government to abandon central planning altogether as it is a remnant of communist and Manchukuo era policies. <ref name="Caixin92415">{{cite news |author = Li Yongfeng |title = Central Planning Got the Northeast in Trouble – and Won't Save It |url = http://english.caixin.com/2015-09-24/100856216.html |accessdate = 24 September 2015 |work=Caixin |date = 24 September 2015}}</ref>
 
Manchuria's economy still remains industrial, with steel, automotive, rail, aircraft, and shipbuilding industry predominating. Manchuria also has coal and petroleum industry and has several petroleum refinery facilities. The appliance industry has also been booming since the 2010s, and Manchuria's software production has been ramped up since 2005.
 
Despite decline of agriculture due to industrialization, it remains important. Fishing is important on the coasts and rivers, while farming is dominant in the south with corn, wheat, soya, and sorghum commonly cultivated there. Animal husbandry is also common, with cattle, pigs, horses, and sheep being raised.
 
===Agriculture===
 
Agriculture still plays a vital role in the Manchurian economy. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Nai-Ruenn |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/1152906|title=Agricultural Productivity in a Newly Settled Region: The Case of Manchuria |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |date=October 1972 |volume=1 |issue=21 |pages=87-95 |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref> In the northern cold regions, corn, wheat, sorghum, flax, potatoes and sunflowers are grown. In fact, Manchuria is the chief source for US soybean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freese |first1=Roseanne |title=This is Northeast China |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref>  In the east, rice is grown especially in Yanbiyan, whereas in the south, corn, sorghum, cotton, and soybeans are cultivated. The south is also where Manchuria's fruit industry dominate. Herding is also common, with pigs, cows, and horses predominating; the dairy industry also supplies all of Manchuria's yearly needs. Sheep farming is common in Baicheng.
 
Manchuria's agriculture has undergone a shift after 1990. Prior to 1990, all farming are done within collective farms confiscated from the Manchukuo puppet government and Japanese companies, with 50 families inhabiting a farm called [[collective farm|Concentrated Agricultural Farm]]. The collective farms have moderate to high production rates but needed subsidies for technology. In 1990 collective farms remain but as their subsidies were cut off, many failed and shuttered. Conversion to co-operative farms alleviated the situation. Private plots, de-facto recognized by 1971, were legalized by 1990.
 
===Currency===
 
The currency is known as the Jiha, divided into 100 Menggun.
 
===Industry===
 
Manchuria's industry has developed considerably, mainly producing light and heavy industrial products. In the 2000s after the Korean crisis, Manchuria tried to attract foreign investment, including those of Korea, China, and Japan and there was a boom in manufacturing. The growth was undone as many opted to go to China to build factories instead. Russian and East European industries took up the bulk of foreign investment. However, it is still a major production base for heavy industry. Many companies have origins in the Manchukuo era and nationalized by communists; the saying that "Manchuria X Corporation" owns everything in Manchuria is still evident, as these state-owned industries control 45 percent of the economy.
 
In 2012, President Liyoo Siaobo initated the Revitalize Manchuria program to address the economic situation in the country. While it saw moderate success, Liyoo's untimely death and political infighting hampered its implementation. In addition, the old communist bureaucracy was still largely in charge of Manchuria's economy, prompting government leaders to encourage private enterpeneurships without government spurring.
 
 
There are three industrial zones in Manchuria: Mukden-Tiyeliyan Industrial Zone, Cangcon-Girin Industrial Zone, and Halbin-Sartu Industrial Zone. Two major urban agglomerations have been formed: the central and southern Liaoning urban agglomeration and the Hachang urban agglomeration. The main industrial cities are [[Mukden]], [[Dalian|Tiyeliyan]] ,[[Anshan|Engemer Alin]], [[Benxi|Bensi]], [[Fushun|Fusi Hecen]], Girin, Cangcon, and Halbin.
 
===Transportation===
 
[[File:Manchukuo Railmap en.png|thumb|Manchurian railways by 1945.]]
 
===Energy===
 
The slim majority of Manchuria's energy resources are being based on fossil fuels; they have been replaced by nuclear energy and hydroelectric energy. Coal is being steadily replaced due to being used as shale oil for export. Manchuria also shies from using petroleum as fuel for power plants, preferring it to be used as fuel for vehicles and petrochemicals instead. Renewable energy like solar and wind power had been limited due to lack of funds and overabundance of energy supply.
 
==Demographics==
 
===Languages===
 
The official language is the Manchu language, which came to mean both the Tungusic [[Manchu]]-[[Sibe]] language and the [[Mandarin Chinese]] spoken in Manchuria. While the majority of the population of Manchuria are proficient in Chinese or "Guanhua" as it was called (65%), most of the native-speakers of Manchu (28%) are ethnically Manchurians or Sibe people; the rest speak it as a second language and is the lingua franca of the government and the military. The near-exclusive use of Manchu in the military and the government, mandated in the communist era, which employed universal conscription was cited as a reason in the Manchu-language revival. Manchu-Sibe as it was called is written in the Cyrillic script introduced in 1949, although the older vertical traditional Manchu script is being slowly introduced. It was said that the communist government deliberately revived the Manchu language to differentiate itself from China and to reduce illiteracy among the population.
 
Other languages are Korean, spoken in [[Yeonbyeon]], Japanese in Tiyeliyan and isolated southern communities, Mongolian, Orochon, and Daur in the west, and Russian in the border areas and in Halbin.
 
===Fertility Rate===
 
Manchuria has the lowest fertility rate in the world. <ref>{{cite news |title=Northeast China has the world’s lowest fertility rate |url=https://asiatimes.com/2018/07/northeast-china-has-the-worlds-lowest-fertility-rate/ |accessdate=February 25, 2020 |date=July 25, 2018}}</ref> It was estimated that in 2015, Manchuria's fertility rate was 0.55 percent, even lower than Japan, which already have a low fertility rate.
 
==Society and Culture==
 
===Education===
 
Manchuria inherited from Manchukuo and Communist times an efficient educational system. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawkins |first1=Everett D. |title=Education in Manchuria |journal=Far Eastern Survey |date=March 12, 1947 |volume=Vol. 16 |issue=No. 5 |pages=52-54 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3021748 |accessdate=February 24, 2020}}</ref> Manchuria's government had established numerous universities and schools. City universities tend to be of better quality than provincial schools, a problem acknowledged by the government. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |title=Educational themes and methods |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |accessdate=23 June 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121212124233/lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |archivedate=12 December 2012 }}</ref>
 
Manchuria's education system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Facilities are either maintained by both private and public schools under the Ministry of Education. The ministry also sets a National Curriculum that provides guidelines for teachers; it is always regularly updated.
 
All education is compulsory in primary and secondary. Subsidies remain for these schools; most tertiary school subsidies ceased after the fall of the communist regime.
 
Manchurian schools usually conduct school festivals, a trait inherited from the Manchukuo and communist eras. <ref name="Japan Focus">[http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 Japan Focus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051026150022/http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 |date=26 October 2005 }</ref>
 
Like its fellow East Asian countries, Manchuria's education system has been criticized to pressures given to its students and also due to being behind its neighbors, even China's.
 
===Culture===
 
===Sport===
 
Manchuria's national sports are said to be ice hockey, football, basketball, and the indigenously developed sport of Pearlball.
 
==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
 
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*Tao, Jing-shen, ''The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China''. University of Washington Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-295-95514-7}}.
*KISHI Toshihiko, MATSUSHIGE Mitsuhiro and MATSUMURA Fuminori eds, 20 Seiki Manshu Rekishi Jiten [Encyclopedia of 20th Century Manchuria History], Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2012, {{ISBN|978-4642014694}}
*{{cite book|title=Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717 – 1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao|first=Shuhui|last=Wu|volume=Volume 2 of Tunguso Sibirica|edition=reprint|year=1995|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=3447037563|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, Volume 2|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Wolff|editor2-first=John W.|editor2-last=Steinberg|volume=Volume 2 of The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective|year=2007|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004154162|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xlg0lM8f9Y4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
*{{cite journal | jstor = 20062627 | doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |url= http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archivedate = 25 March 2014 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |title= Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century| journal = Modern China |last1= Zhao|first1=Gang |volume= 32 | pages = 3–30 |number=  1 |date= January 2006|publisher= Sage Publications|accessdate=}}
{{refend}}
 
==Further Reading==


{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
==Industry==
*Toshihiko Kishi, Mitsuhiro MATSUSHIGE and MATSUMURA Fuminori MATSUMURA, eds, 20 Seiki Manshu Rekishi Jiten [Encyclopedia of 20th Century Manchuria History], Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2012, {{ISBN|978-4642014694}}
*[[Toshihiko Kishi]]. "Manchuria's Visual Media Empire (Manshukoku no Visual Media): Posters, Pictorial Post Cards, Postal Stamps", Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 10 June 2010. {{ISBN|978-4-642-08036-1}}
*[[Reginald Fleming Johnston]]. "[[Twilight in the Forbidden City]]". Soul Care Publishing, 18 March 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-9680459-5-4}}.
*Fleming, Peter, Travel's in Tartary: One's Company and News from Tartary: 1941 (Part one: Manchukuo)
*Smith, Lloyd (January 1940). Everybodys Complete Encyclopedia. [[Whitman Publishing|Whitman Publishing Company]]. Racine, Wisconsin. p.&nbsp;462
*Clauss, Errol MacGregor. "The Roosevelt Administration and Manchukuo, 1933–1941", ''Historian'' (1970), 32#4 pp 595–611.
*Duara, Prasenjit. ''Sovereignty and Authenticity: Manchukuo and the East Asian Modern'' (2004)
*Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies". ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59.3 (2003): 603–646.
*Power, Brian. ''Puppet Emperor: The Life of Pu Yi, Last Emperor of China'' (1988)
*Yamamuro, Shin'ichi. ''Manchuria under Japanese Dominion'' (U. of Pennsylvania Press, 2006)
**Review in ''The Journal of Japanese Studies'' 34.1 (2007) 109–114 [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v034/34.1han.html online]
*Mitter, Rana. ''The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance, and Collaboration in Modern China'' (2000)
{{div col end}}

Latest revision as of 01:23, 18 December 2022

Republic of Manjugurun
Манҗу Гурун
Flag of Manjugurun
Flag
Emblem of Manjugurun
Emblem
Anthem: 

File:Manchukuo National Anthem 1933.mid
location of Manchuria in green
location of Manchuria in green
CapitalCacungga
Largest cityMukden
Official languagesManchu (official and national), Kyowa-go, Mandarin, Russian, Korean, Japanese, Mongolian
Official scriptsManchu Cyrillic
Manchu script
Ethnic groups
(2010)
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary state
• President
Baigiya Dorolon
Citela Sucun
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
formed 1115
formed 1636
• Manchukuo
1932
• Manju People's Republic was established
February 1, 1946
• Sorghum Revolution
October 3, 1990
• Current Constitution
March 1, 1991
Area
• Total
1,260,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi) (18th)
• Water (%)
5.4
Population
• 2017 estimate
121,163,770 (134th)
• Density
96.1/km2 (248.9/sq mi) (67th)
GDP (PPP)2019 estimate
• Total
$4.50 trillion
• Per capita
$37,084
GDP (nominal)2019 estimate
• Total
$4.06 trillion
• Per capita
$33,493
Gini (2013)36.5
medium
HDI (2015)Increase 0.765
high
CurrencyMuheren (MNM)
Time zoneUTC+9
Date formatyyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+976
ISO 3166 codeMN
Internet TLD.mj, .ман


Manjugurun is an independent state located in East Asia. It is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by Mongolia, on the southwest by China, and on the southeast by Korea. Cacungga is the capital, and Mukden, the former capital, is the largest city. It has one of the world's largest populations, with 121,204,300 people. Manjugurun is a country formed by numerous ethnic groups such as the Sarpi, the Khitans, and the Jurchen which became the Manchus. After invading China in the 1600s, it established the Qing Dynasty until 1911. It fell under Japanese domination in 1932 and a puppet state was established there. After the Second World War, it became a Soviet satellite and after the fall of communism in 1991, it adopted representative democracy amid a tumultous end to the 20th century.

History

Prehistoric and ancient eras

Several ethnic groups, including the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens, inhabited today's Manjugurun in ancient times. Several Chinese dynasties ruled over parts of Manjugurun at various times throughout the history of the Manjus, usually along the coasts. The Chinese also established tributary relationships with the tribes.

Manjus was also ruled by the Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo. The Korean kingdoms may feature sizable Tungusic-speaking minorities and perhaps a Tungusic aristocracy, according to Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen. The ancestors of the Jurchens were made to serve as tributaries when the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manjugurun created the Liao empire, which included Northern China and Manjugurun, between the tenth and eleventh centuries.

By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, a tributary people of the Khitans, had revolted against Liao rule and been replaced by the Jin Dynasty. The Jurchen were able to capture territory in northern China thanks to numerous campaigns against the Song. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty eventually conquered the Jurchens. Manjugurun, along with Northern Korea, was known as Liaoyang during Mongolian rule. Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula in 1375, but his forces were defeated and surrendered. The Nurgan Regional Military Commission was established by Ming Emperor Yongle to consolidate control of the Manju lands.

Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens, led by Nurhaci, began to consolidate their control of the region in the 1580s. They had to deal with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, who was eventually killed in 1640 and his remaining troops incorporated into the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organisation. During this time, Chinese cultural influence permeated the Manjurian region.

Qing era

early 20th century

In 1903, Russia established the Viceroyalty of the Far East in Port Arthur, and the Russian government considered the project of securing Manjugurun as " Zheltorossiya", the basis of which was to be the Kwantung Region established in 1899 in the right-of-way of the CER, and the formation of a new Cossack army and settlement by Russian colonists.

Japan's claims to Manchuria and Korea and the refusal of the Russian Empire to withdraw Russian troops from Manchuria and Korea in violation of the allied treaty led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which was fought in southern Manchuria up to Mukden.

According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Liaodong Peninsula with the Kwantung region and the Chinese Eastern to Port Arthur went to Japan. Between 1905 and 1925, Japan further strengthened its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic levers like the South Manchurian Railway.

In 1910-1911, the last major outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in Manjugurun.

After the Xinhai Revolution and the collapse of the Qing Empire from 1912 to 1932, the territory of Manchuria was controlled by the Fengtian clique, a northeastern grouping of Chinese warlords. By the end of the 1920s, the Chinese government of the Kuomintang established formal control over this territory. In 1929, the Chinese Nationalists attempted to seize the CER, but were defeated by Soviet troops. In 1929-1931, in some areas of eastern Manjugurun, inhabited by Koreans, established an anarchist territory called Korean People's Association until defeated by Chinese and Japanese authorities.

Manchukuo

Communist era

Modern Era

Manjugurun was struck by the Covid-19 Pandemic, and was criticized for strict lockdowns. However, the Manjurian government also criticized the Chinese government for failing to stop the spread of the virus.

Geography

The climate of Manjugurun spans the mid-temperate zone and the cold-temperate zone from south to north. There are four distinct seasons, with hot weather in summer and cool weather in winter. Precipitation drops from 1000mm down to below 300mm annually as you go northwestward across this humid area, semi-humid area, arid region, and high forest coverage rate region. This contributes to agricultural development (due to prolonged melting time on ice) as well as forestry ( due to storage capacity of trees).

Government

Manjugurun is a unitary semi-presidential republic. Manchuria is classified as partially free by the non-governmental organisation Freedom House. The President (Beile) is the country's recognised head of state; he is elected by the people for a five-year term that can be renewed only once in a re-election. He chooses the Prime Minister (Ejen) who is the head cabinet minister. The President's personal residence is the so-called "Joogiya's Mansion," the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era.

Economy

Agriculture

Industry

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