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{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = State of Manchuria
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Manjugurun
|native_name = Манҗу Гурун<br />{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠨᠵᡠ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡬᡠᡵᡠᠨ}}<br />满洲国<br />Государство Маньчжурия<br />만주국<br />マンシュウコク<br />манж улс<br />{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠨᠵ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠯᠤᠰ}}
|native_name = Манҗу Гурун
|common_name = Manchuria
|common_name = Manjugurun
|image_flag = Flag of Manchukuo.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Manchukuo.svg
|image_coat = File:Jakvn_gvsa.svg
|image_coat = File:Jakvn_gvsa.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = Manchu State.png
|image_map = Manchu State.png  
|map_width = 239px
|map_caption = location of Manchuria in '''green'''
|map_caption = location of Manchuria in '''green'''
|national_motto =
|national_motto =
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|official_languages = [[Manchu language|Manchu]] (official and national), [[Kyowa-go]], [[Mandarin]], [[Russian]], [[Korean]], [[Japanese]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|official_languages = [[Manchu language|Manchu]] (official and national), [[Kyowa-go]], [[Mandarin]], [[Russian]], [[Korean]], [[Japanese]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|languages_type = [[Official script]]s
|languages_type = [[Official script]]s
|languages = [[Xibe language|Manchu Cyrillic]]<br />[[Manchu script]]
|languages = {{W|Xibe language|Manchu Cyrillic}}<br />{{W|Manchu script}}
|ethnic_groups =
|ethnic_groups =
  {{unbulleted list
  {{unbulleted list
   | 44% [[Manchus]]
   | 44% {{W|Manchus}}
   | 38% [[Chinese|Nikan]]
   | 38% {{W|Chinese|Nikan}}
   |  9% [[Koreans]]
   |  9% {{W|Koreans}}
   |  3% [[Mongols]]
   |  3% {{W|Mongols}}
   |  2% [[Russians]]
   |  2% {{W|Russians}}
   |1.7% [[Japanese]]
   |1.7% {{W|Japanese}}
   |2.3% [[others]]
   |2.3% {{W|others}}
  }}
  }}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|demonym = {{hlist |[[Manchu]] |Manchurian{{Ref label|b|b}} }}
|demonym = {{hlist |{{W|Manchu|Manju}} {{Ref label|b|b}} }}
|capital = [[Changchun|Cacungga]]{{Ref label|a|a}}
|capital = {{W|Changchun|Cacungga}}
|coordinates = {{coord|43|15|N|125|19|E|scale:20000000_source:GNS|display=title}}
|largest_city = {{W|Mukden}}
|largest_city = [[Mukden]]
|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|parliamentary]]}} [[state]]
|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|parliamentary]]}} [[state]]
|leader_title1 = [[President]]
|leader_title1 = [[President]]
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|established_event3 = [[Manchukuo]]
|established_event3 = [[Manchukuo]]
|established_date3 = 1932
|established_date3 = 1932
|established_event4 = [[Mongolian People's Republic|Manchurian People's Republic]] was established
|established_event4 = [[Mongolian People's Republic|Manju People's Republic]] was established
|established_date4 = February 1, 1946
|established_date4 = February 1, 1946
|established_event5 = Sorghum Revolution
|established_event5 = Sorghum Revolution
|established_date5 = October 3, 1990
|established_date5 = October 3, 1990
|established_event6 = [[Constitution of Mongolia|Current Constitution]]
|established_event6 = Current Constitution
|established_date6 = March 1, 1991
|established_date6 = March 1, 1991
|currency = [[Manchukuo yuan|Muheren]]
|currency = [[Manchukuo yuan|Muheren]]
|currency_code = MNM
|currency_code = MNM
|time_zone = <!-- [[Asia/Seoul||KST]] (Manchurian Standard Time) -->
|time_zone = <!-- [[Asia/Seoul||KST]] (Manju Standard Time) -->
|utc_offset = +9
|utc_offset = +9
|time_zone_DST =
|time_zone_DST =
Line 85: Line 85:
|iso3166code = MN
|iso3166code = MN
|cctld = [[.mn|.mj]], [[.мон|.ман]]
|cctld = [[.mn|.mj]], [[.мон|.ман]]
|footnote_a = {{Note|a}} Also called "Niyengnyeltu" and "Ice Hoton".
}}
}}


'''Manchuria''' {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mongolia.ogg|m|æ|ŋ|ˈ|t|ʃ|u:|r|i|ə}} ({{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠨᠵᡠ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡬᡠᡵᡠᠨ}} "Manju Gurun" in Manchu; Манҗу Гурун in Manchu Cyrillic) is a sovereign state in [[East Asia]]. It borders [[Russia]] to the north, [[Mongolia]] to the west, [[China]] to the southwest, and [[Korea]] in the southeast. Its capital is [[Changchun|Cacungga]], and its former capital [[Mukden]] is the largest city. Its population of 121,204,300 is one of the largest on earth.{{UN_Population|ref}}


While Manchuria was dominated by Korean and Chinese dynasties, they were mostly dominated by [[Tungusic]] peoples such as the [[Jurchens]]. The region was the center of the [[Jin Dynasty]] from 1125 to 1234, when it was conquered by the [[Mongol Empire]] and its [[Yuan Dynasty]]. Southern Manchuria fell under Ming rule, but the northern parts remained outside Chinese control. The Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain [[Nurhaci]] later took over the Jurchen tribes in the 1600s, culminating in the [[Qing Dynasty]] founded by [[Hong Taiji]] in 1636, and later conquering China by 1644. Intrigues by Russia led to the loss of Outer Manchuria by 1860, with Manchuria coming under Russian influence by the late 19th century. The southern part was also later influenced by Japan by the early 1900s. By 1911, the Qing Dynasty fell and Manchuria went to a sway of Chinese warlords such as [[Zhang Xueliang]].<ref name=GSE>[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Fengtien+Clique Fengtien Clique]; ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'', 3rd Edition (1970-1979).</ref> and is considered the homeland of several groups besides the Manchus, including the [[Koreans]] and [[Chinese]]. <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ancient State of Puyŏ in Northeast Asia: Archaeology and Historical Memory|last=Byington|first=Mark E.|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|year=2016|isbn=978-0-674-73719-8|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London|pages=11, 13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6NPMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia|last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash|date=2016-08-05|publisher=Springer|isbn=9788132228004|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=u7-SCzkMZgAC&pg=PA81 |title=Haan (han, Han) of Minjung Theology and Han (han, Han) of Han Philosophy: In the Paradigm of Process Philisophy and Metaphysics of Relatedness|last=Son|first=Chang-Hee|date=2000|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780761818601|language=en}}</ref>Japan's influence increased by 1932, later establishing [[Manchukuo]] as a state allied with Japan, with the last emperor of Qing and China, [[Pu Yi]] being installed as leader. Hostility by anti-Japanese forces in Manchuria intensified, and by the end of World War II, a pro-Communist parallel government took over most parts of Manchuria, co-operating with coup-plotters in [[Xinjing]] and the Soviet and Mongolian invaders. A plebiscite held in October 1945 confirmed the independence of the new People's Republic of Manchuria.
Manjugurun is an independent state located in East Asia. It is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by Mongolia, on the southwest by China, and on the southeast by Korea. Cacungga is the capital, and Mukden, the former capital, is the largest city. It has one of the world's largest populations, with 121,204,300 people. Manjugurun is a country formed by numerous ethnic groups such as the {{W|Xianbei|Sarpi}}, the Khitans, and the Jurchen which became the Manchus. After invading China in the 1600s, it established the Qing Dynasty until 1911. It fell under Japanese domination in 1932 and a puppet state was established there. After the Second World War, it became a Soviet satellite and after the fall of communism in 1991, it adopted representative democracy amid a tumultous end to the 20th century.
 
An intensive [[Desinicization]] program was enacted, imposing the Manchu language on the majority Chinese population with some degree of success<ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|pp=206–207}}</ref>, and the country provided support during the [[Korean War]]. During the 1960s, disagreements with Mao Zedong and Joogiya Kemune Mudin over the latter's refusal to join the People's Republic were cited as a reason for the [[Sino-Soviet Split]].{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=XV}} In response for Chinese nuclear tests, Manchuria developed its own nuclear weapons, which it maintains to this day. After the fall of communism in 1991, Manchuria reformed its economy from a socialist economy to a mixed-market economy.
 
Although having the 15th largest economy in the world, the country has a lower GDP per capita compared to neighbors, compounded with government controversies. The economy is bolstered by new conglomerates that expanded after the fall of communism in Manchuria, propelling its rather high growth. It maintains amicable relations with most of its neighboring countries, and is a member of the United Nations, the G-25, the World Trade Organization, the Shanghai Co-Operation Organization, the World Bank, the Asian International Investment Bank, and the Asian Development Bank.
 
==Etymology==
 
The word Manchuria comes from the word ''Manju'', decreed by Hung Tayiji in 1636 to replace Jurchen, which was seen as derogatory<ref name="Wilkinson2000">{{cite book|author=Endymion Porter Wilkinson|title=Chinese History: A Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA728#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2000|publisher=Harvard Univ Asia Center|isbn=978-0-674-00249-4|page=728}}</ref>.<ref>{{harvnb|Agui|1988|p=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |script-title=zh:《满洲名称之种种推测》 |last1=Feng |first1=Jiasheng (冯家升) |journal=《东方杂志》 [Dongfang Magazine] |volume=30 |issue=17 |trans-title=Many Kinds of Conjecture of the Name "Manju"}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |script-title=zh:《满洲名称考述》 |last1=Teng |first1=Shaojian (滕绍箴) |journal=《民族研究》 [Ethnicities Research] |date=April 1996 |pages=70–77 |trans-title=Textual Research of the Name "Manju"}}</ref><ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217747?seq=2 Norman 2003], p. 484.</ref>. It may have come from the Buddhist deity Manjusri, or from a compound word of "Man" was from the word "mangga" ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ}}) which means strong and "ju" ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠵᡠ}}); this is interpreted to mean "intrepid arrow".<ref>{{cite journal |script-title=zh:《族称Manju词源探析》|trans-title=The Research of Ethnic Name "Manju"'s Origin |journal=《满语研究》 [Manchu Language Research] |year=2009 |issue=1}}<!--original citation: 《族称Manju词源探析》，长山，刊载于《满语研究》2009年第01期 (Changshan (2009), ''The Research of Ethnic Name "Manju"'s Origin'', Manchu Language Research, the 1st edition)--></ref>
 
The current English name of Manchuria is rooted in controversy. It was first used by Japanese and Western geographers during the 18th and 19th centuries. <ref>E.g. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dJo8AAAAIAAJ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 11–12], 1867, p. 162</ref> The Manchus reportedly refer to the territory as the Three Eastern Provinces (Dergi Ilan Goro).<ref name=bob/><ref name=giles/><ref>{{harvnb |Giles|1912|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCqMneCHMJ4C&pg=PA8 8]}}.</ref><ref name=japanese1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=159}}.</ref><ref name=japanese2>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=167}}.</ref>  Also, the Qing Dynasty consistently refer to their territory as merely China. It was during and after World War II that the word Manchuria gained currency, and was accepted as the normal English name of the country. Current Manchurian histography refers to Qing as "Manchuria-China", and also refer to the Yuan Dynasty as "Mongolia-China".
 
A few Western academics suggested renaming the English name of the country due to its associations with imperialism; President Lin Boljon replied in 2013 interview with BBC: "This is telling a person that he needs to change his name because it was offensive, even if for that person it is harmless. It is bullying, pure and simple." <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25411700|title=Seven decades of bitterness|date=2014-02-13|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-02-11|language=en-GB}}</ref>
 
{{Infobox Chinese |title = Names of Manchuria
|pic = |piccap=Manchuria
|mnc = ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ|
|mnc_a = Манҗу
|mnc_rom = Manju
|s = {{linktext|满洲}}
|t = {{linktext|滿洲}}
|p = Mǎnzhōu
|w= Man-chou
|mi = {{IPAc-cmn|m|an|3|.|zh|ou|1}}
|j = Mun<sup>5</sup>-zau<sup>1</sup>
|wuu = Moe<sup>上</sup>-tseu<sup>平</sup>
|rus = Маньчжурия
|rusr = Man'chzhuriya
|kanji = {{linktext|満州}}
|romaji = Manshū
|order = st
|c=|ci=|altname=|hangul=만주|rr=Manju}}


==History==
==History==
{{main article|History of Manchuria}}
===Prehistoric and ancient eras===
 
===Early History===
 
Ancient Manchuria had been home for several ethnic groups such as the [[Evenki]], the [[Nanai]], the [[Ulchs]], the [[Khitans]], and the [[Jurchens]]. During various points in Manchu history, several Chinese dynasties controlled portions of Manchuria, usually in the coasts, and the Chinese also set up tributary relations with the tribes. The Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, [[Gojoseon]], and [[Buyeo]] also controlled parts of Manchuria. Finnish scientist [[Juha Janhunen]] also claimed that the Korean kingdoms might have substantial Tungusic-speaking minorities and even have an Tungusic elite. <ref>The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.</ref>
 
Within the 10th to 11th century, the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria forged a state called the [[Liao]], controlling Northern China and Manchuria, forcing the ancestors of the Jurchens into tributary status. The Khitan empire were the first state to control the entire modern region of Manchuria.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=Ruins+of+Identity:+Ethnogenesis+in+the+Japanese+Islands+control+all+of+manchuria&source=bl&ots=SyoHDbdv9i&sig=SK2vY6jSgM-GMEEaaYew3imVkSs&hl=mn&sa=X&ei=gE3TVKrjHMnmoATuvoHIBQ&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands By Mark Hudson]</ref><ref>Ledyard, 1983, 323</ref>
 
[[File:Yuan dynasty and Manchuria.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] [[provinces of the Yuan Empire|province]] of [[Liaoyang]] (Liyoo-a); the province included northern [[Korea]]]]
[[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|250px|The Manchu [[Manchuria under Qing rule|Qing dynasty]] circa 1820. Manchuria is the homeland of the [[Jurchens]] and later [[Manchus]].]]
 
===Medieval History===
 
 
[[File:Ussuriysk-Stone-Tortoise-S-3542.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A 12th-century [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen]] stone tortoise in today's [[Ussuriysk]]]]
 
By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, one of the tributary peoples of the Khitans rebelled against Liao rule and replaced them with the Jin Dynasty. Numerous [[Jurchen_campaigns_against_the_Song_dynasty|campaigns against the Song Chinese]] enabled the Jurchen to capture territory in northern China. The Jurchens were then conquered in turn by the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty. During Mongolian rule, Manchuria was named as Liaoyang along with Northern Korea.<ref>Patricia Ann Berger – Empire of emptiness: [[Buddhist]] art and political authority in Qing China, p.25</ref>In 1375, [[Naghachu]], a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula, but the [[Ming campaign against the Uriankhai|Ming defeated his forces]] and surrendered. The Ming Emperor [[Yongle]] consolidated control of the Manchurian lands, creating the [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref>
 
Chafing from Ming control, the [[Jianzhou Jurchens]] under [[Nurhaci]] started to consolidate their control of the region starting in the 1580s. They had to contend with the [[Evenki]]-[[Daur]] alliance led by [[Bombogor]], finally killing him in 1640 and incorporating his remaining troops to the [[Eight Banners]], a new Jurchen military organization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref> During this period, Chinese cultural influence seeped through the Manchurian region and various ethnic groups living there.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 214.</ref>
 
In 1634, Hung Tayiji renamed the Jurchens into Manchus, citing the former name as now derogatory.
 
[[File:A Tartar Huntsmen on His Horse.jpg|thumb|left|A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk]]


In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels. Ming general [[Wu Sangui]] called the Manchu leadership to assist in seizing Beijing. Using the opportunity of the chaos, the Manchus overthrew the nascent Shun Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. It was estimated that twenty-five million people died as a result of the conquest.<ref>{{cite news |title=5 Of The 10 Deadliest Wars Began In China |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/bloodiest-conflicts-in-chinese-history-2014-10 |work=Business Insider |date=6 October 2014}}</ref>
Several ethnic groups, including the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens, inhabited today's Manjugurun in ancient times. Several Chinese dynasties ruled over parts of Manjugurun at various times throughout the history of the Manjus, usually along the coasts. The Chinese also established tributary relationships with the tribes.


===Qing Empire===
Manjus was also ruled by the Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo. The Korean kingdoms may feature sizable Tungusic-speaking minorities and perhaps a Tungusic aristocracy, according to Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen. The ancestors of the Jurchens were made to serve as tributaries when the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manjugurun created the Liao empire, which included Northern China and Manjugurun, between the tenth and eleventh centuries.


[[file:清_佚名_《清太祖天命皇帝朝服像》.jpg|thumb|120px|Nurhaci, founder of the Manchu nation and the Qing Dynasty]]
By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, a tributary people of the Khitans, had revolted against Liao rule and been replaced by the Jin Dynasty. The Jurchen were able to capture territory in northern China thanks to numerous campaigns against the Song. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty eventually conquered the Jurchens. Manjugurun, along with Northern Korea, was known as Liaoyang during Mongolian rule. Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula in 1375, but his forces were defeated and surrendered. The Nurgan Regional Military Commission was established by Ming Emperor Yongle to consolidate control of the Manju lands.


After the Manchus conquered China, they built the [[Willow Palisade]] to control Chinese emigration to the ethnic Manchurian lands.<ref>Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46.</ref> Only ethnic Manchurians and Chinese bannermen are allowed to settle in Giring and Sahaliyan Ula.  
Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens, led by Nurhaci, began to consolidate their control of the region in the 1580s. They had to deal with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, who was eventually killed in 1640 and his remaining troops incorporated into the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organisation. During this time, Chinese cultural influence permeated the Manjurian region.


During their reign over China, the Manchurians called their state "Dulimbai Gurun" and considered their state to be China.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=iT7tUsrhM4bhyQH_04HYBg&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Hauer 2007], p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-0PtUoKZEKWgyAH8oIHgBQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCTge#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Dvořák 1895], p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=m0PtUtv-OIOTyQHX8YCwAQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Wu 1995], p. 102.</ref> Their definition of China also included Manchuria, Tibet, and Mongolia as a whole, and the "Chinese language" also refered to Manchu and Mongolian. The Treaty of Nerchinsk stated that the Manchurian lands are considered part of China. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006], pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</ref>
===Qing era===


During the Kangxi and Qianlong eras, Manchurian-ruled China was said to have experienced a golden age. However, many scholars dispute the idea, claiming that literary censorship and political supremacy of the Eight Banners actually hindered its promise.<ref>{{Cite book |author = 刘小萌 |title = 《清代八旗子弟》 |page = 第206页 |publisher = 辽宁民族出版社 |year = 2008年}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author = 周敏（鲁东大学历史与社会学院） |title = 《首崇满洲——清朝的民族本位思想》 |journal =《沧桑》 |year = 2008年 |issue = 2008年第05期}}</ref>


As the centuries passed by, Han Chinese both legally and illegally settled to Manchuria, as Manchu banner landlords wanted Chinese labor and pay rent for their land to grow grain. 500,000 hectares of land were cultivated by Han Chinese by the end of the eighteenth century and about 203,583 hectares of Banner-owned lands were inhabited by Han, about 80% in estimate. <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141&lpg=PA141&dq=sedentary+farming+manchu&source=bl&ots=1Ji7L_j2V1&sig=uQGL-sSQn1a2b1y1e5qTYLMMjq8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBmoVChMItoTTucbPxgIVSVseCh3WWgJY#v=onepage&q=sedentary%20farming%20manchu&f=false Richards 2003], p. 141.</ref><ref>{{citation|first =John F.|last = Richards|title=The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23075-0|page=141}}</ref> Many of these Chinese settlers were from North China and were introduced to settle on the Liyoo river to restore the land to cultivation. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=2 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 504.</ref> Farmlands were also created by illegal Chinese settlers along with tenants. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=3 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 505.</ref> Although the Qing Emperor Hungli/[[Qianlong]] repeated issued edicts against Chinese settlement in Manchuria, he later tolerated them as many of the Chinese settlers were suffering from drought. <ref>{{cite journal |last =Reardon-Anderson  |first = James |authorlink = |title =Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia During the Qing Dynasty |journal =Environmental History |volume =5 |issue = 4 |pages =503–509 |date =2000 |language = |jstor = 3985584 |doi = 10.2307/3985584 |ref= harv}}</ref> .<ref>[http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf Scharping 1998], p. 18.</ref> Chinese settlers even claimed land even from the Imperial estates. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=5 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 507.</ref> To increase the revenue, the Daoguang Emperor even allowed sale of Banner land to Chinese settlers.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=7 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 509.</ref> Sinicization was accelerated that eighty percent of the population were Chinese.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=7 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 509.</ref>
===early 20th century===


Penetration of Russian influence increased in the early 19th century. After the humiliating loss of the [[Opium Wars]], the Qing were forced to cede eastern parts of Manchuria to Russia in 1857 to 1860 during the Peking Convention. However, Russian-Qing disputes failed to end, as Russia in 1868 tried to expel Chinese prospectors around Vladivostok. Attempts by Russia to occupy Askold Island, supposedly ceded but remained occupied by Chinese, only bore fruit in 1892 when they finally managed to retake the island.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lomanov|2005|pp=89–90}}{{blockquote|Probably the first clash between the Russians and Chinese occurred in 1868. It was called the Manza War, ''Manzovskaia voina''. "Manzy" was the Russian name for the Chinese population in those years. In 1868, the local Russian government decided to close down goldfields near Vladivostok, in the Gulf of Peter the Great, where 1,000 Chinese were employed. The Chinese decided that they did not want to go back, and resisted. The first clash occurred when the Chinese were removed from Askold Island, in the Gulf of Peter the Great. They organized themselves and raided three Russian villages and two military posts. For the first time, this attempt to drive the Chinese out was unsuccessful.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://englishrussia.com/2011/01/25/an-abandoned-island-in-the-sea-of-japan/ |title = An Abandoned Island in the Sea of Japan|date = 2011-01-25}}</ref>
In 1903, Russia established the Viceroyalty of the Far East in Port Arthur, and the Russian government considered the project of securing Manjugurun as " Zheltorossiya", the basis of which was to be the Kwantung Region established in 1899 in the right-of-way of the CER, and the formation of a new Cossack army and settlement by Russian colonists.


In the 1860s, the Qing were beset by weakened economic power, and half-hearted reforms such as the Self-Strengthening Movement failed to address the decline. Foreign companies such as the [[Swire Group]] and [[Jardines]] of the United Kingdom, based in Hong Kong, set up offices in Manchurian cities for trade purposes. From its opening in 1865 to 1891, Manchuria exported soybeans, soybean oil, wild silk, and ginseng. It imported in turn opium, cotton, and consumer goods. Girin Machinery Bureau, constructed in 1882, was the first factory built in Manchuria. It went on to become a machine shop during Japanese rule for Mantetsu rule and a coinage during the communist era.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=东北近代工业的先驱 ――吴大澂与吉林机器制造局|url=http://www.ccda.gov.cn/ccda/ccda/article.asp?secid=102&infoid=1812|accessdate=2019-10-18|author=|date=2006-05-18|format=|work=吉林日报|publisher=长春市档案馆|language=}}</ref>
Japan's claims to Manchuria and Korea and the refusal of the Russian Empire to withdraw Russian troops from Manchuria and Korea in violation of the allied treaty led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which was fought in southern Manchuria up to Mukden.


In 1896, Tsarist Russia obtained the privilege of building a railway in Manchuria through the "Sino-Russian Treaty", and in 1898 obtained a lease in Port Arthur (now Tiyeliyan). During this period Japan also gradually strengthened its expansion to Manchuria. In 1904, the [[Russo-Japanese War]] broke out and Russia was defeated and forced cede its sphere of influence to Japan. Since then, Japan, Russia and China have all accelerated the development of Manchuria. In 1907, the Qing court converted the Manchurian territories into full provinces. Japan established the [[South Manchuria Railway Company]] in 1906 to implement a colonial strategy in Manchuria and encouraged Korean immigration. In 1909, Japan gave back to China Yeonbyeon in exchange for concessions. <ref>https://www.economist.com/special-report/2007/03/31/history-wars</ref>
According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Liaodong Peninsula with the Kwantung region and the Chinese Eastern to Port Arthur went to Japan. Between 1905 and 1925, Japan further strengthened its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic levers like the South Manchurian Railway.


An outbreak of bubonic plague occured in Manchuria in 1910-11, killing about 50,000 to 60,000 people in Harbin alone. <ref>''"[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter]"''. Yu-lin Wu (1995). [[World Scientific]]. p.68. {{ISBN|981-02-2287-4}}</ref> While the plague was contained, the high number of deaths forced Chinese and Manchurian officials to initiate stricter health measures, and shortly after the overthrow of the Qing, the North Manchurian Plague Office was established to combat outbreaks.
In 1910-1911, the last major outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in Manjugurun.


By 1900, the Qing Empire is in collapse due to the [[Boxer Rebellion]] and numerous failed uprisings such as the [[Taiping Rebellion]]. Many ethnic Manchurians supported the Boxer Uprising;<ref>[https://archive.org/details/orphanwarriorsth00cros_0/page/174 Crossley 1990], p. 174.</ref>, [[Ronglu]] and [[Yixian|Yisiyan]] were prominent Manchu commanders on the side of the Qing during the uprising.<ref name="Woo 2002">{{cite book|last=Woo|first=X.L.|year=2002|title=Empress Dowager Cixi: China's Last Dynasty and the Long Reign of a Formidable Concubine|publisher=Algora Publishing|location=U.S.|isbn=0875861660}}</ref> A failed reform by Emperor [[Guangxu|Dzai tiyan]] (Guangxu in Chinese) in 1898 was seen by conservatives led [[Cixi|Yehenala Shinjen]] (Cixi) as usurpation of power and put end to such reforms. However, the Boxer Rebellion forced Shinjen to adopt reforms herself.<ref>Douglas Reynolds, ''China, 1898–1912: The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993). {{ISBN|0-674-11660-7}} passim.</ref>Although even more far-reaching than Dzai Tiyan's reforms, they were too little too late for the dynasty. Dzai Tiyan died in November 14, and Shinjen the next day, and reports suggest that the latter or [[Yuan Shikai]] poisoned the Emperor out of spite.<ref name="mu">{{cite web |last=Mu |first=Eric |url=https://www.danwei.org/front_page_of_the_day/kindergarden.php |title=Reformist Emperor Guangxu was Poisoned, Study Confirms |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702112941/http://www.danwei.org/front_page_of_the_day/kindergarden.php |archive-date=2 July 2017 |website=Danwei |date=3 November 2008 |access-date=13 February 2013}}</ref> The last Emperor of Qing, [[Puyi|Pu I]] (Pu Yi), was installed, with [[Zaifeng|Dzai feng]] (Zaifeng) as regent as the new monarch was only two. In April 1911, Dzai Feng created a new cabinet staffed by members of the Imperial family, angering both conservative and reformist officials alike for such usurpation of royal power.<ref>Chien-nung Li, Jiannong Li, Ssŭ-yü Têng, "The political history of China, 1840–1928", p234</ref>
After the Xinhai Revolution and the collapse of the Qing Empire from 1912 to 1932, the territory of Manchuria was controlled by the Fengtian clique, a northeastern grouping of Chinese warlords. By the end of the 1920s, the Chinese government of the Kuomintang established formal control over this territory. In 1929, the Chinese Nationalists attempted to seize the CER, but were defeated by Soviet troops. In 1929-1931, in some areas of eastern Manjugurun, inhabited by Koreans, established an anarchist territory called Korean People's Association until defeated by Chinese and Japanese authorities.
 
===Republic of China Era===
 
In October 10, 1911, an uprising called the [[Wuchang Uprising]] swept toards China. [[Yuan Shikai]], trying to salvage the situation, eventually caused the abdication of Puyi in February 1912 and the proclamation of the Chinese Republic. However, there were still attempts to re-instate the Qing, like the [[Manchu restoration]] in 1917 led by Qing loyalist [[Zhang Xun (Qing loyalist)|Zhang Xun]], which was dispersed by the Republican Chinese troops.
 
Meanwhile in Manchuria, several attempts at Manchurian independence<ref>Zhao Zhongfu, “Xinhai geming qianhou de dongsansheng,” ''Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History'', Academia Sinica, Vol. 11 (Jul, 1982), 117.</ref> were defeated by [[Zhang Zuolin]] on behalf of [[Zhao Erxun]], forming a "Manchurian People's Peacekeeping Council", and was rewarded as Deputy Minister of Defense in the Republic of China.<ref>Bonavia 63-64</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Newton |first1=Michael |title=Famous Assassinations in World History: An Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |date=2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1610692861 |page=653 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4-dAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA653}}</ref>
 
===Warlord Era===
 
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, [[Zhang Zuolin]] took over the administration of the Manchurian lands. In 1920, he then set reforms that enabled Manchuria, then known as the Three Eastern Provinces, to be relatively unscathed by the chaos of the warlord era in China. Though there were proposals for Zhang Zuolin to seize Outer Mongolia from the communists, this never materialized.<ref name="LattimoreNachukdorji">{{cite book|author1=Owen Lattimore|author2=Sh Nachukdorji|title=Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=28wUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171&dq=bogda+khan&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CDIQ6AEwBGoVChMIsb6ako2PyQIVi7YeCh2g0Q_E#v=onepage&q=bogda%20khan&f=false|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=171–|id=GGKEY:4D2GY636WK5}}</ref> Although Manchuria remained officially a part of China, it was effectively isolated from China and protected by Zhang's {{W|Fengtian Army}}, and its naval and air forces are considered advanced compared to the other Chinese states. He tolerated the Japanese presence in Manchuria but is said to be losing patience at their control of Kwantung and the South Manchurian railroad.
 
Zhang Zuolin was later killed in the [[Huanggutun Incident]] on 2 June 1928, allegedly on the orders of the Kwantung Army due to the latter perceiving him as a traitor. [[Zhang Xueliang]] took his place, then allied himself with the advancing Kuomintang to prevent conquest.
 
A month after the reunification with the KMT, Zhang attempted to establish control over the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] causing a [[Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)|armed skirmish]] with the Soviet Union. Zhang was now the ''de facto'' dictator of Manchuria, although he remained officially loyal to the Kuomintang supporting the nationalist government in the [[Central Plains War]]. However Chinese-Japanese relations were quickly deteriorating with Japan trying to exert more influence in Manchuria.


===Manchukuo===
===Manchukuo===


[[File:Kangde Emperor of Manchukuo.JPG|thumb|Emperor Puyi, also known as Kangde.]]
===Communist era===
 
In 1931, the Japanese forces in Manchuria seized the country from the Chinese, creating a satellite state called [[Manchukuo]] a year later. The Japanese installed [[Pu Yi]] as leader, while effective leadeship is in the hands of the Japanese advisers. Several anti-Japanese Manchurian commanders such as [[Tong Linge]] (Tunggiya Linge) joined Kuomintang forces in China, with several of them being killed in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|title=基督徒将军佟麟阁：抗战殉国的第一位高级将领|last=李|first=世峥|date=1 September 2010|website=中国民族报|access-date=4 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524080749/http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|archive-date=24 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://kknews.cc/zh-my/history/5axe29k.html |title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领 |date=27 May 2017 |website=每日头条 |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领|date=27 May 2017|website=每日头条|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004216/http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|archive-date=24 May 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Manchuria was used as a buffer state between Japan and the Soviet Union as both countries clashed twice in 1938 and 1939. <ref>{{cite book|last1=Coox|first1=Alvin D.|title=Nomonhan : Japan against Russia, 1939 |date=1990 |publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0804718356|page=841|edition=1st}}</ref> It was said that Japanese control of the resources in Manchuria enabled it to execute the [[Attack of Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] bombing and initate a conquest of [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[Western Pacific]]. <ref>Edward Behr, ''The Last Emperor'', 1987, p. 202</ref>
 
Several anti-Japanse Manchu leaders like [[Zhao Shangzhi|Joogiya Kemune Mudin]], [[:zh:陈翰章|Foimo Meyen]], and [[Yang Jingyu|Yanggiya Ordo]] fled to the Soviet Union and Mongolia and established a government in exile. A rift between Joogiya Kemunemudin and the Yanan leadership was only temporarily healed and Joogiya decided to separate and rename his Northeast Anti-Japanese Army into the Manchurian People's Army and finally advocate a separate Manchurian communist state to "defend itself from Kuomintang" machination.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=东北抗联：绝地战歌|last=|first=|publisher=中共党史出版社|year=2012|isbn=9787509815670|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref>A large number of former Northeast Anti-Japanese Army soldiers are of ethnic Manchu descent and Joogiya who was mixed Chinese and Manchu and after a brief trip to Qapqal Country in the former Xinjiang province wanted an "ethnic revival" of the Manchus and thus ordered Manchu-language education.<ref>{{Cite book|title=东北抗日联军史|last=|first=|publisher=解放军出版社|year=2014|isbn=7506567180|location=|pages=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=东北抗日联军抗战纪实|last=|first=|publisher=人民出版社|year=2005|isbn=9787010050393|location=|pages=}}</ref>
 
A coup by secretly communist Manchukuo officers during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria declared the establishment of the Manchu Republic. This was led by Zhang Xueming, Zhang Xueliang's brother, who secretly fled from Mainland China, and used the flag of the Fengtian Clique. However, in September 1, 1945, he had to cede power to Joogiya Kemune Mudin, who secretly promised that Manchuria would never be sold out to either Chiang or Mao, in exchange of Xueming returning to China. The Kwantung Army, already battered by the atomic bombing of Japan, surrendered in droves. <ref name=Butow1954>[[Robert Butow]], ''Japan's Decision to Surrender'', Stanford University Press, 1954 {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0460-1}}.</ref><ref name=Frank2001>[[Richard B. Frank]], ''Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire'', Penguin, 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-14-100146-3}}.</ref><ref name=Maddox2007>[[Robert James Maddox]], ''Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism'', University of Missouri Press, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-8262-1732-5}}.</ref><ref name=Hasegawa2006>[http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/hasegawa.htm Tsuyoshi Hasegawa], ''Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan'', Belknap Press, 2006 {{ISBN|0-674-01693-9}}.</ref>Pu Yi escaped to Japan, but was captured by the Americans and made witness to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. He was imprisoned by the Soviet Union until released to live his exile to Japan.{{sfn|Behr|1987|p=285}} The majority of the Japanese settlers were either deported back to Japan or were kept as "hostages" by Joogiya Kemune Mudin to elicit Japanese goodwill. Many of them only were able to return in the 1960s. <ref>Paul K. Maruyama, ''Escape from Manchuria'' (iUniverse, 2009) {{ISBN|978-1-4502-0581-8}} (hard cover), 9781450205795 (paperback), based on the earlier books in Japanese by K. Maruyama (1970) and M. Musashi (2000) and other sources</ref>
 
===Manchu People's Republic===
 
{{main|Manjugurun People's Republic|l1=Manchu People's Republic}}
 
[[File:Zhao Shangzhi.jpg|thumb|Joogiya Kemune Mudin, early Manchurian People's Republic leader.]]
 
During the final days of [[World War II]], the Soviet Army in the Far East attacked Manchuria and together with the [[Mongolian People's Army]] and the Manchurian People's Army, and occupied the former state of Manchukuo. It was said that the Chinese refusal to hand over [[Inner Mongolia]] to the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] spurred the Mongolian dictator Choibalsan to declare that the former Manchukuo should be handed over to Joogiya's government in exile. Chiang Kai-shek replied that both Mongolia and Manchuria should remain under Chinese control, which angered Joogiya. Tensions flared, the Nationalist and Communist Chinese were prohibited by the MPA and Mongolian forces from occupying the former Manchukuo. .<ref name="Borisov">Borisov, O. (1977). ''The Soviet Union and the Manchurian Revolutionary Base (1945–1949)''. Moscow, Progress Publishers.</ref>With the former Manchukuo Army soldiers being integrated to the Manchurian People's Army, Manchuria declared independence in February 1, 1946.
 
[[File:Otkrytie pamyatnika bortsam s kominternom.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops in Harbin, 1946]]
 
In exchange of recognizing independence, the main [[Chinese Communist Party]] forced Manchuria to accept Guwalgiya Acabun, an ethnic Manchurian, as President, as well as Gao Gang as Chinese ambassador, in exchange of independence. However, Guwalgiya died in 1947, and Gao Gang had at point had eased himself with the main Manchu leadership headed by Joogiya Kemune Mudin and [[Zhou Baozhong|Jo Dulimba]] as figurehead President.
 
During the Korean War, Joogiya aided the Korean communist Kim Il-Sung, going as far as sending troops.<ref>{{cite book| last = Cumings| first = Bruce| authorlink = Bruce Cumings| title = Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History| publisher = WW Norton & Company| year = 1997| isbn = 978-0-393-31681-0| pages = [https://archive.org/details/koreasplaceinsun00bruc/page/297 297–298]| url = https://archive.org/details/koreasplaceinsun00bruc/page/297}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last = Jager| first = Sheila Miyoshi| authorlink = Sheila Miyoshi Jager| title = Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea| year = 2013| publisher = Profile Books| location = London| isbn = 978-1-84668-067-0| pages = 237–242}}</ref>
 
However, the high cost of the war and the failure of the invasion due to UN intervention had created strains between every sector of the Manchurian leadership, and Joogiya once considered resignation; he was retained at the request of the communist party. Yang Ordo and Jo Dulimba were removed for disagreeing with Joogiya about the conduct of the war; Joogiya formally became president in 1956. They both left for China, never returning to Manchuria again. Jo Dulimba reverted to his former name of Zhou Baozhong, later became governor of Yunnan, while Yang Ordo went back to Yenan province, re-uniting with his family there and dying in 1965.<ref name="欧阳青">{{cite book |author=欧阳青 |title=《大授衔：1955共和国将帅授衔档案》|year=2011 |publisher=长城出版社 |location=北京市西城区甘家口三里河路40号 |pages=94|isbn=978-7-5483-0058-8 |language = zh-hans}}</ref><ref name="中国国防报1">{{cite web |title=杨靖宇将军儿女曾不知杨靖宇是自己父亲 |author=中国国防报 |url=http://war.163.com/07/0130/12/36393P3800011MSF.html |publisher=中国国防报, 网易新闻 (转载网站) |language=zh-cn |date=January 30, 2007 |accessdate=January 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202125331/http://war.163.com/07/0130/12/36393P3800011MSF.html |archive-date=February 2, 2017}} (这则新闻把马尚德的妻子的名错写成了“郭凤”。网上另有一则题为《杨靖宇后代被找到 儿女坚决不要"特殊待遇"》的新闻与这则新闻的内容是一样的。)</ref>。
 
[[File:China 10th Anniversary Parade in Shenyang.jpg|thumb|left|Military parade in Mukden,1959. Note that the writing was still in Chinese; Manchu became the exclusive language used in military parades after 1963.]]
 
Joogiya initiated the so-called "[[Mutual Assured Destruction|Sahaliyan Ula Protocol]]" in 1960, as a response to China's more aggressive stances. It aims to usurp China's place as the leading Asian communist power by using internal reform within party and government, publicly allying with the Soviet Union but at the same time maintaining its independence, and with prime minister [[Sheng Shicai|Mukdenigiya Jalan Teni]], broadened their relations with the West. Thousands of pro-unification PRC Manchurians were jailed or executed.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=XXXII, 46}}  Joogiya while publicly reforming the internal structure of the government, remained powerful. Unlike his neighbors, however, Joogiya remained comparatively "moderate".{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=192}}
 
In 1956, Manchuria started a nuclear program, intended at first for peaceful purposes. However, the government believed that Manchuria would require to utilize the nuclear program to create its nuclear arsenal. Soviet documents revealed that the rationale is to prevent both American and Chinese aggression. Seeing Manchuria as too big for the Soviet Union to be brought into heel, Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] tacitly allowed Manchuria to develop its own nuclear weapons, who is suffering with the fallout from Mao Zedong during the [[Sino-Soviet Split]].<ref name="World History 2000. p.&nbsp;769">''Chambers Dictionary of World History'', B.P.Lenman, T. Anderson, Editors, Chambers: Edinburgh. 2000. p. 769.</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=198}}
 
In 1970, Joogiya died, replaced by Foimo Meyen as President and Sakda Niyenggeri (Li Chunrun), Joogiya's preferred successor, as General Secretary. Sakda had to inherit the worsening border clashes within China due to the Cultural Revolution; already, Joogiya was denounced in China for his failure to incorporate Manchuria to the PRC. Red Guards trying to infiltrate Manchuria were "killed on the spot". Soviet forces in Tiyeliyan and the Chinese-Manchurian border also engaged in [[Sino-Soviet Border Conflict | border clashes]]. <ref name="Phoenix">Wang, Zhen 王楨. Huángpái dàfàngsòng 皇牌大放送, "Duóbǎo bīngyuán——ZhōngSū Zhēnbǎo dǎo chōngtú 45 zhōunián jì" 奪寶冰原——中蘇珍寶島衝突45周年記 [Fighting for the treasure on icefield—Sino-Soviet Zhenbao Island conflict 45th anniversary]. Aired 5 April 2014 on Phoenix Television. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtzIuc5FIMk</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=197–198}}
 
Of all the Soviet satellite states, Manchuria was one of the few that actually requested for Soviet and Eastern Bloc immigrants to upset the balance of the still-Chinese majority population. About 1 million immigrants from the Eastern Bloc emigrated to Manchuria, while simultaneously encouraged Han Chinese emigration to the PRC in exchange of ethnic Manchurians by the PRC until the emigration stopped in 1961 due to fears that ethnic Chinese will emigrate back to Manchuria. Perhaps due to the massive territorial losses incurred, the nuclear weapons program, activated in 1972 was to serve as a method to not to be sidelined in the Sino-Soviet split.<ref name=Sino-SovietSplit>Chung, Chin O. ''Cagungga Between Peking and Moscow: Manchuria's Involvement in the Sino-Soviet Dispute, 1958–1975''. University of Alabama, 1978, p. 45.</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=200}}
 
Manchuria was denied by the Republic of China from admission into the United Nations due to its claims, even though it acquiesced in its admission of Mongolia in 1961.<ref name="unveto">{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| publisher=聯合國| script-title=zh:因常任理事国投反对票而未获通过的决议草案或修正案各段| language=Chinese| url-status=live| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323133412/http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| archivedate=March 23, 2014| df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="bbcveto">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|title=The veto and how to use it|work=BBC News Online|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726080318/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|archivedate=July 26, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="gpveto">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|title=Changing Pattern in the Use of Veto in the Security Council|publisher=Global Policy Forum|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508103405/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|archivedate=May 8, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> (see [[China and the United Nations]]){{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=203}}
In 1971, the People's Republic in an overture to improve Manchuria-China relations, approved of Manchuria's entry to the United Nations.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=203}}
 
===Modern Manchuria===
[[File:Události na náměstí Tian an men, Čína 1989, foto Jiří Tondl.jpg|thumb|Protesters against the communist regime in 1990]]
 
By 1990, Manchuria's economy started to decline; many people felt that the communists have long outlasted them. Chinese exiles after the 1989 protests aided the pro-democracy protesters. After much hesitation, [[Li_Zhaolin|Ligiya Sabintu]] resigned and a more moderate leader, [[:zh:于浩成|Donggo Mutembu]], took over.
 
After the fall of Communist regime in Manchuria, the government in Cacungga feared that China will attempt to overthrow their government by force, as Chinese people who fled the [[Tiananmen Square]] protests in 1989 were allowed refuge by the Manchurian government.
 
The economy grew again after the change of government, but the fallout in sales of weaponry to such states such as Saddam-era Iraq and Rwanda caused Donggo Mutembu, a Social Democrat, to lose to [[Guan Guangfu|Guwalgiya Bayan]], a former Manchu Communist Party stalwart now becoming the leader of the opposition [[People's Party|Manchurian People's Party]], a conserative party. Guwalgiya accused Donggo of being a "sellout", and he sought to repair Manchuria's economy using methods he claims to have borrowed from Finland and Korea during the rule of Park Chung-hee.<ref>Kwak, Tae-Hwan; Joo, Seung-Ho (2003). ''The Korean peace process and the four powers''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3653-3}}.</ref><ref>DeRouen, Karl; Heo, Uk (2005). ''Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies''.ABC-CLIO.</ref>
 
Guwalgiya was succeeded as President by Niohuru Maoseng, also a People's Party member. While he continued Guwalgiya's economic reforms, his credibility plummeted due to his numerous political scandals, disputes with Korea,<ref>Kwak, Tae-Hwan; Joo, Seung-Ho (2003). ''The Korean peace process and the five powers''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3653-3}}</ref><ref>DeRouen, Karl; Heo, Uk (2005). ''Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies''.ABC-CLIO.</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=204}}, his attempt to repair relations with China, and his public criticism of the US War in Iraq. [[Chen Zhenggao|Cenggiya Dasan Den]] of the National Association Party, defeated Guwalgiya in the next election. He then used his power to arrest the decline of the factories despite Manchuria's economic growth, concentrating on increasing petroleum and automotive exports and used what he termed "infrastructure diplomacy" in Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. His efforts was hampered by the economic crisis in 2008, but he made a comeback a year later and was poised to be the first Manchurian president to get re-elected, in 2010. However, his second term was marred with another series of scandals, this time involving China and its investment in the Manchurian economy, and after a series of protests in 2012, requested a referendum which was granted. [[Liu Xiaobo|Lin Boljon]], his Prime Minister, defected from the National Association and formed his own party called the Democrats, and easily won the election. He repaired the damaged relations with Korea and Japan and took a pro-United States position in political affairs. Lin never stood for re-election again due to cancer; he died in 2016 seven months before he could finish his term. A coup de etat by some members of the National Assembly, ostensibly to install their preferred successor against Lin's wishes, were suppressed in June 3, 2016. [[Li Jingtian|Liyala Tuwabun]] took over the presidency and tried to stand for election in 2017 but was defeated by [[Bai Chunli|Baigiya Dorolon]] of the Manchurian People's Party. He took a neutral stand in political affairs.
 
==Government and Politics==
 
{{Main|Government of Manchukuo|l1=Politics of Manchuria}}
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; float:left; margin-right:9px; margin-left:2px;"
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| [[File:Professor Chunli Bai ForMemRS.jpg|120px]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[Bai Chunli|Baigiya Dorolon]]<br /><small>[[President]]</small>
|}
 
Manchuria is officially a unitary semi-presidential parliamentary state with a unicameral legislature.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=186}}<ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status= |journal=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archivedate=August 19, 2008 |pages= |access-date=21 February 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Dual">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://www.palgrave-journals.com/fp/journal/v3/n3/pdf/8200087a.pdf |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |access-date=21 February 2016 |quote=Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger’s sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia,'''Manchuria''', Poland, and Senegal. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053112/http://www.palgrave-journals.com/fp/journal/v3/n3/pdf/8200087a.pdf |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>The non-governmental organization Freedom House consider Manchuria as ''Partially Free''.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FITW_Report_2016.pdf|title = Freedom in the World, 2016|date = |access-date = 30 January 2016|website = |publisher = Freedom House|url-status=live|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205095411/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FITW_Report_2016.pdf|archivedate = February 5, 2016|df = mdy-all}}</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=207}}
 
[[File:The Puppet Manchukuo government's State Department 伪满洲国务院.jpg|thumb|220px|National Assembly Building.]]
 
The [[President]] (Beile) is the recognized head of state of the country; he is elected by the populace for a five-year term renewable only once in a re-election. He appoints the [[Prime Minister]] (Ejen) who heads the cabinet{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=218}}. The so-called "Joogiya's Mansion", the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era, was converted for the President's personal residence with the Salt Palace used as official residence.
 
The [[Constitution|Constitution of Manchuria]] serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which established clear separation of powers. However, for the most part of its history Manchuria was under autocratic rule.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=220}} From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a Communist single-party state that ended in 1991 following the Sorghum Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a liberal democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria are still prominent and active in politics.
 
The legislature is called the National Assembly or Irgen-i Fundesi Isan; it sits in the General Affairs State Council building. They number 485 members, chaired by the President. 195 members are selected through constituencies by first past-the-post election; the remaining seats 290 are elected through [[Party-list proportional representation]].{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=225}} The members then select members of the Legislative Council (Kemun-i Jurgan) that will exercise functions in a "regular" session. While the National Assembly can be dismissed by the President or can be in recess, the Legislative Assembly will still function and have the functions of an upper chamber of the legislature.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=229}}
 
==Foreign Relations==
 
{{Main|Manchukuo#Diplomatic_recognition|l1=Foreign Relations of Manchuria}}
 
Manchuria's foreign affairs is conducted by its [[Foreign Ministry]]. Its key foreign policy is to retain its relative military power among other Asian nations, especially that along with China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, possess nuclear weapons in the Eastern Asia region. It pursues an independent foreign policy but has been notably close to Russia since 1945. However, Manchuria also pursued warmer relations with Western countries particularly the United States.
 
Manchuria is a member of several organisations such as the [[United Nations]], [[G-20]], [[WTO]], [[APEC]], [[IMF]], [[WBG]], [[ADB]], [[East Asia Summit]], [[ACD]], [[PEMSEA]], [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[Group of 15]], and the [[Group of 24]].
 
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev with Li Hui.jpg|thumb|Li Foson, Manchurian ambassador to Russia, with then President Dmitri Medvedev in Moscow in 2009.]]
 
During the Cold War, it traditionally supported the Soviet Union until its demise in 1991. During the Manchukuo era, the Soviets opened consulates in Harbin. After the war, the Soviet Union upgraded their full relations with the new Manchurian communist government.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=222}}  Manchuria continues its relations with Russia although in a reduced fashion.<ref>[http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp Генеральное консульство СССР в Харбине] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318211826/http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp |date=18 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>[[Igor Ivanov|Ivanov, Igor]] (2002). ''Outline of the History of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia''. In Russian. OLMA Media Group, p. 219</ref><ref>[http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm Chronology of China in the 1940s] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023023540/http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm |date=23 October 2014}}. [[Osaka University]] School of Law. Retrieved 29 December 2017.</ref><ref>K. A. Karayeva. [http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf МАНЬЧЖОУ ГО (1931–1945): «МАРИОНЕТОЧНОЕ» ГОСУДАРСТВО В СИСТЕМЕ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ НА ДАЛЬНЕМ ВОСТОКЕ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903140739/http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf |date=3 September 2014}}. [[Ural Federal University]] archives.</ref> Manchuria under Lin Boljon criticized the Russian invasion of Ukraine as "extreme over-reach of people's aspirations". Manchuria has amicable relations with all the other post-Soviet republics, especially [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uyghuristan]].
 
Manchuria also has traditionally warm relations with [[India]], as Manchuria provided material for India's [[India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Nuclear_weapons|nuclear weapons program]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mea.gov.in/mystart.php?id=50049826 |title=Sorry for the inconvenience. |publisher= |accessdate=21 February 2015}}</ref>
 
As Mongolia second-largest trading partner, Manchuria enjoy excellent relations with its western neighbor. There are issues being tackled including emigration of Mongols to Manchuria.<ref name="mfat">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en |title=LIST OF STATES WITH DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |accessdate=26 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722215952/http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en|archivedate=22 July 2011}}</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=272–273}}
 
Of all the countries in Western Europe, Manchuria is said to be closest to Finland, and Manchurian economic planners took cues to Finland's economic model. Many Manchurian products sold to Europe were sold first to Finland. Some of modern Manchurian artists' first exposure to western arts are through Finnish channels. The largest non-native minority in Finland are Manchurians.
 
Manchuria's relations with the West increased considerably. There is steady immigration to the United States, but as these emigrants tend to be Chinese-speaking Manchurians, until recently they are considered as Chinese.
 
Manchuria both maintains relations with Israel<ref name="Urban History">{{cite journal |last1=Gamsa |first1=Mark |title=Harbin in comparative perspective |journal=Urban History |date=May 2010 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=136-149 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44614252}}</ref> and the State of Palestine as well as the Sahrawi Democratic Republic.<ref name="SADR official web">{{Cite web|title=States recognizing the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic| language=Arabic |publisher=Official Website of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic |url=http://www.rasd-state.ws/reconocimientos_rasd.htm |accessdate=2008-04-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031153428/http://www.rasd-state.ws/reconocimientos_rasd.htm |archivedate=2007-10-31|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amb-rasd.org/ES/1e1es.htm<!--Arabic version:http://www.amb-rasd.org/ARAB/1ar12.htm--> |title=Listado de Paises Que Han Reconocido a La Republica Arabe Saharaui Democratica |publisher=Embajada de la República Saharaui en Argelia |language=Spanish |date=2006-10-22 |accessdate=2012-08-25 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510164330/http://www.amb-rasd.org/ES/1e1es.htm |archivedate=2012-05-10 }}</ref><ref name="arso">{{cite web|title=States which recognize the SADR |url=http://www.arso.org/03-2.htm |publisher=ARSO – Association de soutien à un référendum libre et régulier au Sahara Occidental |year=2009 |accessdate=2012-07-21 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716183754/http://www.arso.org/03-2.htm |archivedate=2012-07-16 }}</ref><ref name="wsnet">{{cite web|url=http://www.wsahara.net/recognitions.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221020514/http://www.wsahara.net/recognitions.html|title=Country recognitions of the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic|publisher=Western Sahara Online|archivedate=2006-02-21|accessdate=2012-08-21}}</ref><ref name="pbs">{{cite web|title=Countries That Recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/sahara-marathon/countries-that-recognize-the-sahrawi-arab-democratic-republic/1052/ |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) |accessdate=2012-07-21 |date=2004-08-19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702224422/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/sahara-marathon/countries-that-recognize-the-sahrawi-arab-democratic-republic/1052/ |archivedate=2012-07-02 }}</ref>{{sfn|Wertz|Oh|Kim|2016|p=8}} Although it supported the Palestinian struggle like other East Bloc countries, it is one of the few countries that still maintained relationship with [[Israel]] during that period.
 
It was with its immediate neighbors that Manchuria has difficulty in maintaining good relations. Mao's acceptance of Manchurian independence was said by him to have been made with "great reluctance." Even though Manchuria and China fought on the same side during the Korean War, China tried and failed to use the war as leverage to re-incorporate Manchuria. During the Sino-Soviet Split and the Cultural Revolution, Manchuria had to fend off border incursions by China with Soviet help. Only after the Sino-Vietnamese War and China's market reforms did Manchuria-Chinese relations improve, and even then, the defeat of the former Democratic People's Republic of Korea was "never forgotten" by Beijing and Manchuria's role with it was used as a sticking point.
 
Manchurian-Korean relations are friendly despite the Korean War and subsequent border clashes. Sticking points include how to address war reparations with each other and claims by Manchurian historians that Korea deliberatedly whitewashed the history of [[Goguryeo]] to erase the Manchurian origin of the kingdom, causing protests and counter-protests from both sides.<ref>[http://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/texts/Gries2005KoguryoEAIQ.pdf 02Gries.pmd<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="news.naver.com">Donga Monthly. http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=037&aid=0000006961</ref> <ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |url= http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html |title=Asia Times&nbsp;– News and analysis from Korea; North and South |work=Asia Times |location =Hong Kong |date=September 11, 2004 |accessdate=April 25, 2010}}</ref>. As of 2018, Manchuria is now Korea's largest trading partner, accounting for 46 percent of the trade.<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |url= https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/kor/ |title=South Korea Country Profile |work=MIT |date=March 10, 2018}}</ref>
 
While Manchurian-Japanese relations are now better than before, their background was also complex. Left-leaning Manchurian politicians occasionally request compensation from Japan, in which Japan said it already made apologies. Japanese politicians in turn decry Manchuria's sidestepping in its roles in anti-Japanese pogroms in 1946. Nevertheless, Japanese-Manchurian relations are cordial and compared in the past, now done in an equal basis; anime and manga are regularly being shown in Manchuria with a large fandom in Manchuria itself, and Manchurian light novels and visual novels recently provide material for new Japanese animated series. Many Japanese people retire to Manchuria and younger Manchurians emigrate to Japan. 30% of the Chinese diaspora in Japan are of Manchurian origin.<ref>[[https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/n_korea/index.html|https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/manchuria/index.html]]</ref><ref>[http://jp.changchun.gov.cn/japan/whys.aspx?ID=3|http://jp.cacungga.gov.mj/japan/whys.aspx?ID=3| 満州・長春の民俗文化]</ref>
 
==Military==
 
{{Main|Military of Manjugurun|l1=Military of Manchuria}}
 
[[File:Su-27SM3 flight, Celebration of the 100th anniversary of Russian Air Force.jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian Su-27.]]
 
[[File:North_Korea_Victory_Day_122_(9465927866).jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian tanks in a military parade.]]
 
The Manchurian Armed Forces is the second largest armed forces in East Asia after China.
 
The Armed Forces is composed an army, navy, and air force. The MAF has the second largest army in East Asia in active forces (1,228,300), though its paramilitary forces called the Green Standard Corps (9,320,000) when added make it the largest military force in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2010 |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies |authorlink=International Institute for Strategic Studies |editor-last=Hackett |editor-first=James |date=3 February 2010 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=[[London]] |isbn=978-1-85743-557-3 |ref=IISS2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217230331/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archivedate=17 February 2007 |title=Army personnel (per capita) by country |accessdate=1 August 2007 |year=2007 |work=NationMaster}}</ref> Manchuria has the largest submarine force in the world. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=288–293}}
 
In addition, a separate armed force called the National Guard  directly reports to the President, and serves as his bodyguard. The National Guard is focused on unconventional warfare.
 
The President of Manchuria is the commander-in-chief of the MAF, which answers to the [[Ministry of Defence]]. The Chief of Staff of the Manchurian Armed Forces is a professional soldier with a four-star rank. The military's influence in civilian life had been shaped by its role by throwing its support behind the protesters in the 1991 anti-communist revolution. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=247}}
 
The predecessor to the MAF, the [[Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army|Manchurian People's Army]], primarily received military equipment from the Soviet Union. The MAF's foreign weaponry are largely Soviet or Eastern Bloc in design if not in manufacture, and many of the weaponry made in Manchuria are of East Bloc heritage as well. Recently Manchuria has started purchasing weaponry and equipment from Germany and Japan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |title=Worls militaries: K |publisher=soldiering.ru |accessdate=23 May 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006112837/http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |archivedate=6 October 2014 }}</ref>
 
Manchuria possesses nuclear weapons. <ref name="economist-armied" /><ref>{{cite book|url=http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|title=The East Asian Military Balance|author=Anthony H. Cordesman|date=21 July 2011|publisher=Center for Strategic & International Studies|isbn=978-0-89206-632-2|page=156|quote=The State of Manchuria has [[Nuclear weapon design|implosion fission]] and fusion weapons.|accessdate=28 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011185007/http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The nuclear weapons program were built in the 1960s as an anti-Chinese deterrent, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was rumored that the Soviets actually sold some of their newer weapons to Manchuria in exchange not to sell Manchurian weapons to countries Russia disapproved of. Manchuria signed the [[Nuclear Proliferation Treaty]] in a new revised form; it also signed the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] in 1987 but did not ratify it.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=260}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |title=New Threat from Manchuria's 'Asymmetrical' Warfare |publisher=The Chosun Ilbo (English Edition) |work=English.chosun.com |date=29 April 2010 |accessdate=13 December 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224190403/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |archivedate=24 December 2010 }}</ref>
 
[[conscription|Patriotic Civil Service]] is the term called for conscription; all males at the age of 18 are considered recruits; people who had disabilities are granted honorary ranks but are only allowed to participate in civil relations. Refusal to serve is considered a capital punishment during early communist times which meant automatic death penalty; this was reduced and concentious objectors are sentenced to hard labor camps, which were still criticized. After the fall of the Communist system, conscientious objection is no longer punished; "equivalent civilian work" or heavier taxation were used instead.
 
===Law Enforcement and Intelligence===
 
{{main|Manchukuo Police|l1=Giyarici Kuwaran}}
 
{{main|Manchukuo#Legal_system|l1=Law of Manchuria}}
 
{{see also|Manchukuo#Legal_system|l1=Judiciary of Manchuria}}
 
Manchuria has a legal system inherited from Russian, Japanese, Prussian, and Chinese models.<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140518174611/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html</ref> Judiciary appeals are handled by the Supreme Court, which serves as the highest court of appeal.


Internal security is provided by the [[Police|Giyarici Kuwaran]].{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=278}} The Foreign Intelligence Agency is called the Elhe Karmatambi Yamun, or the Security Bureau, being headed by the Minister of State Security, and the domestic intelligence service is called the Baiicambi Yamun, or the Investigation Bureau, subordinated under the Ministry of Justice.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=274}}All of the security services are routinely criticized for their lack of oversight, police brutality, and excessive use of force, but were known to be very effective in counter-terrorist and counter-intelligence activities.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=201}} Crimes in Manchuria are relatively lower than in the recent years, after an uptick in the 1990s and early 2000s, and involved bulglary, money-laundering, and drug-trafficking.<ref>{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Fifth Survey (1990 - 1994)|url=http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|accessdate=2008-08-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729012918/http://www.uncjin.org/Statistics/WCTS/WCTS5/wcts5.html|archivedate=2009-07-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Sixth Survey (1995 - 1997)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Sixth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Seventh Survey (1998 - 2000)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Seventh-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Eighth Survey (2001 - 2002)>Sorted by variable|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Eighth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=UNODC|title=Data and Analysis>Crime surveys>The periodic United Nations Surveys of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems>Ninth Survey (2003 - 2004)>Values and Rates per 100,000 Total Population Listed by Country|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/Ninth-United-Nations-Survey-on-Crime-Trends-and-the-Operations-of-Criminal-Justice-Systems.html|accessdate=2008-08-26 }}</ref>
===Modern Era===


==Geography==
Manjugurun was struck by the {{W|Covid-19 Pandemic}}, and was criticized for strict lockdowns. However, the Manjurian government also criticized the Chinese government for failing to stop the spread of the virus.


{{main|Manchuria#Geography_and_climate|l1=Geography of Manchuria}}
==Geography==


[[File:Photo by Xundaogong 巡道工出品 报恩寺海浪河大弯道K1452 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Hailang River|Mederi Bolori River]] near Ninguta City]]
The climate of Manjugurun spans the mid-temperate zone and the cold-temperate zone from south to north. There are four distinct seasons, with hot weather in summer and cool weather in winter. Precipitation drops from 1000mm down to below 300mm annually as you go northwestward across this humid area, semi-humid area, arid region, and high forest coverage rate region. This contributes to agricultural development (due to prolonged melting time on ice) as well as forestry ( due to storage capacity of trees).


==Government==


The territory within Manchuria lies within the northern part of the [[North China craton]], which is an area of [[Precambrian]] rocks over 100 million hectares. Manchuria is traditionally divided into three geographic regions: the Hingan mountains, the Manchurian plain, and the [[Changbai Mountains|Golmin Shanggiyan Mountain]] region. The Hinggan mountains are a Jurassic mountain range<ref>Bogatikov, Oleg Alekseevich (2000); ''Magmatism and Geodynamics: Terrestrial Magmatism throughout the Earth's History''; pp. 150–151. {{ISBN|90-5699-168-X}}</ref>, stemming from a collision between the North China craton and the Siberian craton.
Manjugurun is a unitary semi-presidential republic. Manchuria is classified as partially free by the non-governmental organisation Freedom House.
 
The President (Beile) is the country's recognised head of state; he is elected by the people for a five-year term that can be renewed only once in a re-election. He chooses the Prime Minister (Ejen) who is the head cabinet minister. The President's personal residence is the so-called "Joogiya's Mansion," the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era.
Manchuria was never glaciated during the Quartenary period, but the fertile soils of the lower-lying areas indicate movements from the western mountains in Asia such as the Himalayas and the Tien Shan mountains, and also the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts.<ref>Kropotkin, Prince P.; "Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia"; in '''Popular Science''', May 1904; pp. 68–69</ref>
 
In the middle between the Hinggan Range and the Golmin Sanggiyan Mountains is the Manchurian plain, also known as the Dongbei plain in Chinese or the Sungari-Liyoo Plain, with the [[Sungari]], [[Nen River|Non]], and [[Liao River|Liyooha]] Rivers running through the plain. Here is the area where widespread cultivation takes place. Majority of the soybean, millet, wheat, and rice are being planted in this region. The area is connected to the North China plain to the south-west.
 
===Climate===
 
Manchuria's climate provided contrasts, with very Arctic-like winters and hot, tropical summers. The position of Manchuria between the Eurasian landmass and the Pacific Ocean contribute to this climactic situation. Due to being in the border region of Eurasia and the Pacific, the climate triggers monsoonal wind reversal.
 
[[File:Climate_Map_for_Manchuria-Northeast_China.png|thumb|left|Climate map of Manchuria]]
 
The dominant climate type according the Koppen scheme is the hot-summer dry continental, especially in the plain. In the far north, dry-winter subarctic climate prevails, and in the west, pockets of cold semiarid climate persist.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |title=Average Annual Precipitation in China |accessdate=2010-05-18 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602163920/http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |archivedate=2 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
 
Temperatures during the winter are usually cold due to the [[Siberian High]], ranging from -5 °C (23°F) to -30°C (-22°F), depending on latitude, which is considered colder when further north.<ref>Kaisha, Tesudo Kabushiki and Manshi, Minami; '''Manchuria: Land of Opportunities'''; pp. 1–2. {{ISBN|1-110-97760-3}}</ref> The Siberian winds are relatively dry, however, and the snow is rarely heavy. <ref>Kaisha and Manshi; '''Manchuria'''; pp. 1–2</ref>  Thus Manchuria, despite being colder than North America, never glaciated due to the strong westerly winds from western Eurasia.<ref>[http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/KChauff/earth_history/4EH-posted.pdf Earth History 2001]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (page 15)</ref>
 
In contrast, during summer, moist, southwestern winds bring thunderstorms, usually bringing 400 to 1150 mm of rain depending on the area; the area around the east receives more rain.
 
===Flora===
 
Manchuria has a varied flora and fauna. The [[Mongolian-Manchurian Grassland]], for example, are dominated by grasslands like the [[feather grass]]. It was reported that there are eighty-five native Manchurian species of flowers and plants.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Komarov |first1=Vladimir Leontovich |title=Flora Manshuriae. |date=1901 |location=St. Petersburg |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/44863 |accessdate=2 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baranov |first1=A.I. |title=Wild Vegetables of the Chinese in Manchuria |journal=Economic Botany |date=April 1967 |volume=Vol. 21 |issue=No. 2 |pages=140-155 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4252860 |accessdate=2 April 2020}}Because of early settlement, the southern Liyootun Peninsula was cleared of native vegetation early. Most of the forests that remain, however, do contain species of Manchurian pine, elm, birch, lime, oaks, apples, and ashes.On the western side of the peninsula, trees are scarce. During the early 20th century after the fall of the Qing, indiscriminate logging thinned down most of the southern Manchurian forests. The vegetation in the eastern zone of the peninsula has mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests.</ref><ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Liaoning#ref280641</ref>In central Manchuria, the vegetation is prairie grass in the western side, and mostly mixed conifer and deciduous forests on the eastern side.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Jilin-province-China#ref71048</ref>In the north, cultivation also thinned down forests there; the majority of the trees are poplars.Herbaceous plants, pasteurizable grass, and sorghum and found there.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/place/Heilongjiang#ref71034</ref>The trees that are commonly found in Manchuria are conifers like the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis), Manchurian fir (Abies holophylla), and Siberian spruce (Picea obovata), and also deciduous trees like the Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandschurica), Amur linden (Tilia amurensis), and Manchurian elm (Ulmus laciniata). The Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) can also be found in Central Manchuria.<ref name="wwf"/><ref name=Ecoreg>{{cite journal | first1=Eric | last1=Dinerstein | first2=David | last2=Olson | display-authors=etal | year=2017 | title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm | journal=BioScience | volume=67 | issue=6 | date=June 2017 | pages=534–545 | doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014| doi-access=free }} Supplemental material 2 table S1b.</ref>
 
===Fauna===
 
Manchuria is also home to varied fauna such as the [[Manchurian tiger]]<ref>http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat10/sub68/item381.html</ref>, though the World Wildlife Fund fears that the protection of these wildlife is limited at best.<ref>https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0902</ref> In the southern flatlands, wild animals are scarce, except for rodents. Locusts are considered destructive pests. In contrast, northern Manchuria has abundance of wildlife. During the Manchukuo era, fur trade was common and extended in the Communist era; fear of extinction and efforts by wildlife activists and the government stemmed most extinctions.<ref>https://www.nature.com/articles/144936a0</ref>
 
==Administative Divisions==
 
{{Main|List of administrative divisions of Manchukuo|l1=List of administrative divisions of Manchuria}}
 
Manchuria is organized into provinces (golo, голо), subdivided into districts (guusa, гөса) and towns (sumu, суму). Certain cities such as the capital Cacungga, Harbin, Mukden, and Tiyeliyan are termed "Special Cities"; they are considered to be metropolitan provinces.
 
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-size:90%;" align=center
|-
! #
! Name
! Administrative<br />Seat
! Transliteration (Traditional)
! Transliteration (Cyrillic)
! Area<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
|-
|1
|[[Changchun|Cacungga]]
|(special city)
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠠᠴᡠᠩᡤᠠ}}</span><br />
|Чачуңга
|1,855
|-
|2
|[[Harbin]]
|(special city)
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠯᠪᡳᠨ}}</span><br />
|Харбин
|10,205
|-
|3
|[[Dalian|Tiyeliyan]]
|(special city)
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ}}</span><br />
|Тиелиян
|3,168
|-
|4
|[[Mukden]]
|(special city)
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ}}</span><br />
|Мукден
|5,116
|-
|-
|5
|[[Liaodong|Abkai Aliyangga]]
|[[Yingkou|Ishangga Gašan Hoton]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠩᡤᠠ}}</span><br />
|Абкаи Алияңга
|14,800
|-
|6
|[[Rehe|Halhuun Ula]]
|[[Chengde|Erdemu Be Aliha]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡥᠠᠯᡥᡡᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Халхөн Ула
|179,982
|-
|-
|7
|[[Jilin|Girin]]
|[[Jilin City|Girin Hoton]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡳᡵᡳᠨ}}</span><br />
|Гирин
|83,207
|-
|-
|8
|[[Sanjiang|Sungari Ula]]
|[[Mudanjiang|Mudan Bira]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᡠᠨᡤᠠᡵᡳ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Сунгари Ула
|90,418
|-
|-
|9
|[[Heihe|Nemeri Ula]]
|[[Qiqihar|Cicigar]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡝᠮᡝᡵᡳ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Немери Ула
|62,482
|-
|-
|10
|[[Nenjiang|Acan Ula]]
|[[Shangzhi|Tana Ula]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠴᠠᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠨᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Ачан Ула
|67,034
|-
|11
|[[Heilongjiang|Sahaliyan Ula]]
|[[Heihe|Aigun]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡠᠯᠠ}}</span><br />
|Сахалиян Ула
|118,899
|-
|12
|[[Xingan|Hinggan]]
|[[Horqin|Horcin]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡥᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ}}</span><br />
|Хиңган
|209,616
|-
|13
|[[Hulunbuir|Huleigiolo]]
|[[Hailar]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᡥᡠᠯᡝᡳ}} {{MongolUnicode|ᡤᠣᠯᠣ}}</span><br />
|Хулеигиоло
|263,953
|-
|14
|[[Yanbian|Yanbiyan]]
|[[Yanji]]
|<span style="font-size:125%;">{{MongolUnicode|ᠶᠠᠨᠪᡳᠶᠠᠨ}}</span><br />
|Йоңил
|43,509
|-
|}
 
=== Largest Cities ===
 
{{Largest cities
| name        = Largest cities of Manchuria
| country      = Manchuria
| stat_ref    = [https://www.ris.gov.tw/app/portal/346 source]
| list_by_pop  =
| class        = nav
| div_name    = province
| div_link    =
| kind        = cities and special municipalities
 
|city_1 = Mukden
|div_1 = Mukden
|pop_1 = 5,119,100
|img_1 = Shenyang_Panorama.jpg
 
|city_2 = Harbin
|div_2 = Harbin
|pop_2 = 5,115,000
|img_2 = Shengmu_jiaotang.jpg
 
|city_3 = Dalian{{!}}Tiyeliyan
|div_3 = Dalian{{!}}Tiyeliyan
|pop_3 = 4,009,700
|img_3 = Zhongshan_Square,_Dalian.jpg
 
|city_4 = Changchun{{!}}Cacungga
|div_4 = Changchun{{!}}Cacungga
|pop_4 = 4,041,200
|img_4 = 香格里拉饭店路口向西拍摄_-_panoramio.jpg
 
|city_5 = Anshan{{!}}Engemer Alin
|div_5 = Liaoning{{!}}Abkai Aliyangga Golo
|pop_5 = 1,406,000
|img_5 = File:View_of_Anshan_on_Shengli_Plaza.jpg
 
|city_6 = Jilin City{{!}}Girin Hoton
|div_6 = Jilin{{!}}Girin Ula
|pop_6 = 1,268,900
|img_6 = File:吉林大桥和世纪广场.jpg
 
|city_7 = Daqing{{!}}Sarhu
|div_7 = Heilongjiang{{!}}Sahaliyan Ula
|pop_7 = 1,415,268
|img_7 = File:三永湖灯塔2017夏.jpg
 
|city_8 = Fushun{{!}}Hetu Ala
|div_8 = Liaoning{{!}} Abkai Aliyangga Golo
|pop_8 = 1,307,200
|img_8 = File:Fushun_Skyline.jpg
 
|city_9 = Qiqihar{{!}}Cicigar
|div_9 = Heilongjiang{{!}}Sahaliyan Ula
|pop_9 = 979,517
|img_9 = File:Qiqiharskyline4.JPG
 
|city_10 = Benxi{{!}}Bengsi
|div_10 = Liaoning{{!}} Abkai Aliyangga Golo
|pop_10 = 855,800
|img_10 = File:Pingdinshan.jpg
 
}}


==Economy==
==Economy==


{{Main|Economy of Manchukuo|l1=Economy of Manchuria}}
==Agriculture==
 
Manchuria has a economy that is measured to be the 15th largest in the world by 2018, at US$989 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea-new.pdf|title=Country Profile: North Korea |date=July 2007|publisher=Library of Congress&nbsp;– Federal Research Division|accessdate=4 July 2009|ref={{SfnRef|Country Profile|2007}}}}</ref> Manchuria has been one of the strongest in the Asia-Pacific region and is considered an honorary Asian Tiger. The service industry is smaller compared to the other East Asian countries. Manchuria was the richest East Bloc country in Asia and was second only to Japan.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Luo |first1=Weiteng |title=Unlocking the paradox of nation's 'eldest son' |url=https://www.chinadailyhk.com/articles/254/3/20/1577416086129.html |accessdate=February 27, 2020 |agency=China Daily |date=December 27, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |title=Edit/Review Countries |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=14 September 2006 |accessdate=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209145442/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |archive-date=9 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Country Profile|2007|p = 9}}Even after the fall of communism, Manchuria is the richest former communist country when measured by its GDP per capita.
 
During the Qing period, Manchuria was one of the most industrialized parts of the Chinese Empire, and its coal deposits made it a highly-urbanized country. During the Manchukuo era until 1945, Manchuria was considered more industrialized than China and even Japan; Japanese investment has expanded Manchukuo industries.<ref>{{cite news|title =The Unquiet Past Seven decades on from the defeat of Japan, memories of war still divide East Asia|newspaper =The Economist|date =12 August 2015|url =https://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|accessdate =9 September 2015|url-status =live|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20150906053333/http://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|archivedate =6 September 2015|df =dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=zh-hans |url=http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |title=东北1945年工业规模亚洲第一 |publisher=深圳新闻网 |date=July 7, 2009 |accessdate=July 28, 2011  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020150957/http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |archivedate=2011-10-20 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |title=The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective |author=Prasenjit Duara |accessdate=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616115234/http://japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |archive-date=16 June 2010 |url-status=live  }}</ref> Indeed, China refers to Manchuria as the "Eldest Son" of industrialized communist countries in Asia.{{Sfn|Country Profile|2007|pp=7–8}} After the fall of communism, Manchuria struggled to keep its industry as it stagnated, prompting the government to diversify its economic structure.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chan |first1=Elaine |title=China’s Northeastern rust belt was once ‘eldest son’, now struggling as runt of the litter |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3008778/chinas-northeastern-rust-belt-was-once-eldest-son-now |accessdate=June 5, 2019 |work=China Economy |agency=South China Morning Post |date=June 5, 2019}}</ref>
 
In 1991, Manchuria's GDP stalled to the level it achieved in 1990, and considered a "national scandal". Immediately, Prime Minister [[Tian Fengshan|Tiyan Fengsan]] of the People's Party then installed new economic policies and copied the economic system instituted by Japan in the 1950s and South Korea in the 1960s. Tiyan threatened to close un-productive companies and he did with a few; as the enterpreneurial pool is still limited, Tiyan encouraged businessmen to set up their own businesses to augment the economy. Manchuria managed to keep the majority of its labor-intensive manufacturing from being transferred to the neighboring PRC keeping unemployment at bay, although pay was low compared to Korea. There are calls for the government to abandon state-owned enterprises altogether as they are a remnant of communist and Manchukuo era policies.<ref name="Caixin92415">{{cite news |author = Li Yongfeng |title = Central Planning Got Manchuria in Trouble – and Won't Save It |url = http://english.caixin.com/2015-09-24/100856216.html |accessdate = 24 September 2015 |work=Caixin |date = 24 September 2015}}</ref>It was said that Manchuria's explosive economic growth after the Financial Crisis was due to Tiyan's reforms; however, inequality in income increased. It's petroleum and shale oil industry, enabled Manchuria to increase its economic clout; also, its economic penetration to Eastern European markets and West Asian markets had been credited to Manchuria's rise as one of the world's largest economies.
 
[[File:Shenyang montage.jpg|thumb|left|Mukden, financial center of Manchuria.]]
 
Manchuria's economy still remains industrial, with steel, automotive, rail, aircraft, and shipbuilding industry predominating. Manchuria also has coal and petroleum industry and has several petroleum refinery facilities. The appliance industry has also been booming since the 2010s, and Manchuria's software production has been ramped up since 2005.
 
Despite decline of agriculture due to industrialization, it remains important. Fishing is important on the coasts and rivers, while farming is dominant in the south with corn, wheat, soya, and sorghum commonly cultivated there. Animal husbandry is also common, with cattle, pigs, horses, and sheep being raised.
 
===Agriculture===
 
[[File:Scene in rural Liaoning.jpg|thumb|right|Although no longer used for farming, mules are sometimes still used in the countryside.]]
 
Agriculture still plays a vital role in the Manchurian economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Nai-Ruenn |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/1152906|title=Agricultural Productivity in a Newly Settled Region: The Case of Manchuria |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |date=October 1972 |volume=1 |issue=21 |pages=87-95 |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref> In the northern cold regions, corn, wheat, sorghum, flax, potatoes and sunflowers are grown. In the center, soybeans are planted; Manchuria is the chief source for US soybean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freese |first1=Roseanne |title=This is Manchuria |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref>  In the east, rice is grown especially in Yanbiyan, whereas in the south, corn, sorghum, cotton, and soybeans are cultivated. The south is also where Manchuria's fruit industry dominate. Herding is also common, with pigs, cows, and horses predominating; the dairy industry also supplies all of Manchuria's yearly needs. Sheep farming is common in [[Baicheng|Šanggiyan Hoton]].
 
Manchuria's agriculture has undergone a shift after 1990. Prior to 1990, all farming are done within collective farms confiscated from the Manchukuo government and Japanese companies, with 50 families inhabiting a farm called [[collective farm|Concentrated Agricultural Farm]]. The collective farms have moderate to high production rates but needed subsidies for technology. In 1990 collective farms remain but as their subsidies were cut off, many failed and shuttered. Conversion to co-operative farms alleviated the situation. Private plots, de-facto recognized by 1971, were legalized by 1990.
 
===Currency===
 
The currency is known as the [[Manchukuo yuan|Muheren]], divided into 100 Menggun. It is issued by the [[Central_Bank_of_Manchou|Manchurian Central Bank]].
 
===Industry===
 
Manchuria's industry has developed considerably, both light and heavy industrial products. In the late 1990s, Manchuria attempted to curry foreign investment, including those of Korea, China, and Japan, and Western countries, and there was a boom in manufacturing, however, Russian and East European industries took up the bulk of foreign investment. However, it is still a major production base for heavy industry. Many companies have origins in the Manchukuo era and nationalized by communists; the saying that "Manchuria X Corporation" owns everything in Manchuria is still evident, as these state-owned industries control 25 percent of the economy. Others are dominated by so-called "Ulinhala" or "Wealth clans", analogous to the [[Zaibatsu]]/[[Keiretsu]] of Japan and the [[Chaebol]] of Korea.
 
In 2012, President Lin Boljon initated the Revitalize Manchuria program to enhance the industrial situation in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Central Area Revitalization Plan (2012)|url=http://www.gov.mj/gzdt/2007-08/20/content_721632.htm|publisher=Manchuria State Council|accessdate=31 August 2013|language=mnc}}</ref> While it saw moderate success, Lio's untimely death and political infighting hampered its implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=27756425|title=Assessing the "Revive Manchuria" Programme: Origins, Policies and Implementation|last1=Chung|first1=Jae Ho |first2=Hongyi|last2=Lai|first3=Jang-Hwan|last3=Joo|journal=[[The China Quarterly]]|publisher=Cambridge University Press|issue=197|date=March 2009|page=113}}</ref> In addition, remnants of the old communist bureaucracy are still in charge of a huge sector of Manchuria's economy, prompting government leaders to encourage private enterpeneurships without government spurring.
 
There are three industrial zones in Manchuria: Mukden-Tiyeliyan Industrial Zone, Cacungga-Girin Industrial Zone, and Harbin-Sartu Industrial Zone. Two major urban agglomerations have been formed: the central and southern Liaoning urban agglomeration and the Hachang urban agglomeration. The main industrial cities are [[Mukden]], [[Dalian|Tiyeliyan]], [[Anshan|Engemer Alin]], [[Benxi|Bensi]], [[Fushun|Fusi Hecen]], Girin, Cacungga, and Harbin.
 
====Automotive Industry====
 
Manchuria is the world's sixth largest automobile maker, with 5,340,034 units produced by 2018. Most are exported to China, Russia, Eastern Europe, Korea, and Third World countries. Manchuria had difficulties in penetrating the Western markets due to Manchu cars being perceived as knockoffs of Russian, Korean, and Japanese vehicles, a trend that it managed to overcome by the mid-2010s.Automotive makers include [[Dowa Automobile Company|Manju Sukdujen]], [[FAW|Kiruda]], [[Hafei|Hadeyere]],
[[Brilliance Auto|Jergi]], and others.
 
[[File:Brilliance Junjie FSV China 2012-04-22.jpg|thumb|A Manchurian-built automobile.]]
 
===Services===
 
Services account for at least one fourth of Manchuria's economy.<ref>https://www.gfmag.com/global-data/country-data/north-korea-gdp-country-report</ref> Some of the largest banks of Manchuria are the [[Central Bank of Manchou|Manchurian National Bank]], the [[Shengjing Bank|Mukden Bank]]<ref>[http://baike.baidu.com/view/841693.htm Shengjing Bank (Baidu Encyclopedia)] (in Chinese)</ref>,[[Harbin Bank]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://harbin.dbw.cn/system/2011/10/11/053442238.shtml |title=2011全国城市商行竞争力排名 哈尔滨银行居第四 |publisher=哈尔滨新闻网 |date=2011-10-11 |accessdate=2014-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517115213/http://harbin.dbw.cn/system/2011/10/11/053442238.shtml |archive-date=2014-05-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the [[Bank of Jilin|Bank of Girin]]<ref>[http://www.jlbank.com.cn/docc/about.aspx?id=A337BCFE10785EE0 A Brief introduction of Bank of Jilin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007215746/http://www.jlbank.com.cn/docc/about.aspx?id=A337BCFE10785EE0 |date=2008-10-07 }}</ref>.
 
===Transportation===
 
{{Main|Transportation in North Korea|l1=Transportation in Manchuria}}
 
[[File:Manchukuo Railmap en.png|thumb|Manchurian railways by 1945.]]
 
Transportation in Manchuria is dominated by railways, with roads coming in second and air and sea transport not falling behind.
 
==== Railway network ====
 
Manchuria's railways, owned by the [[Manchukuo National Railway|Manchurian National Railway]], are one of the world's busiest. High-speed rail in Manchuria is common; as the matter of fact, the first railway system to be called "high-speed" was created during the Manchukuo era.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=185}}
 
The late Qing's Dong Qing Railway and the South Manchurian Railway constitute the "D" word Manchurian Railway. While serving Russian and Japanese interests, it also promoted the development of the country. Harbin, as the intersection of two railways, replaced Cicigar and became the major city in North. During the Manchukuo era, the Japanese expanded the railway network, which is not much different from the current form.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=188}}
 
In recent years, high-speed railway lines such as the Qingdao-Abkai Passenger Railway, the Harbin-Tiyeliyan High-speed Railway, the Cacungga-Girin InterCity, the Ha-Ji Railway, and the Muk-Dan Railway have also been completed and opened to traffic.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=191}}
[[File:Trams in Changchun 900 series (1).JPG|thumb|Cacungga tram.]] <br>[[File:201605 G1359 at Jinhua Station.jpg|thumb|Manchurian Railway Vehicle high speed train in Mukden.]]
 
==== Highways ====
Manchuria has an extensive highway system. The Tiyeliyan-Mukden Superhighway was opened in 1990, shortly before the fall of the Communist regime.<ref>https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf</ref>It is operated by the Manchurian Expressway Company Ltd.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=9673935|title=Manchurian Expressway Co. Ltd.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg|website=www.bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-04-29}}</ref>
 
==== Shipping ====
 
Manchuria's major port is Tiyeliyan, with Niyehetun as second. Tiyeliyan's port handles the bulk of shipping in Manchuria.<ref name="大连港集团">[http://www.portdalian.com/webcms/english/page2.htm 大连港集团<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>During 1973, Tiyeliyan handled 23.1 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/CHN_Port_of_Dalian_238.php|title=Port of Dalian|website=World Port Source|access-date=2017-08-30}}</ref>By 2015, this now stands to 555 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-06/14/content_29736814.htm|title=Liaoning to set up integrated port operating platform  - Business - Chinadaily.com.cn|last=宋静丽|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2017-08-30}}</ref>Tiyeliyan is the world's seventeenth-largest port in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130827191609/http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world-container-ports|title=Top 50 World Container Ports|website=Worldshipping|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref>
 
==== Aviation ====
 
{{Main|:ja:満州国#航空|l1=Aviation in Manchuria}}
 
[[File:沈阳桃仙国际机场第三航站楼登机口.jpg|left|thumb|Mukden Airport.]]
 
There are currently 22 major civil airports, including international airports: [[Shenyang Taoxian International Airport|Mukden International Airport]]<ref>https://worldaerodata.com/wad.cgi?id=CH73366&sch=ZYTX</ref>, [[Harbin Taiping International Airport|Harbin International Airport]], Ice Hoton New International Airport, Tiyeliyan International Airport, Hailar Airport, Yanji Airport, Mudanbira Airport, Išangga Gašan Airport, Antun Airport and Giyamusi Airport. The first four airports have flights globally, while the rest are concentrated on neighboring Asian countries. The Ilan-Ula (Sanjiang) Plain is has many airports. [[Manchuria Aviation Company|Manchurian Airlines]]<ref>Francis Clifford Jones: ''Manchuria since 1931''. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London 1949, S. 120.</ref><ref>Philip S. Jowett: ''Rays of the Rising Sun. Armed Forces of Japan's Asian Allies 1931-45. Volume 1: China & Manchukuo.'' Helion & Company Ltd., Solihull 2004, {{ISBN|1-874622-21-3}}, S. 90.</ref><ref>Togo Sheba (Hrsg.): ''The Manchoukou Year Book 1941.'' The Manchoukou Year Book Co., Hsinking 1941.</ref> has been the flag carrier of Manchuria since 1931.
 
===Energy===
 
The slim majority of Manchuria's energy resources are being based on fossil fuels{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=146}}; they have been replaced by nuclear energy and hydroelectric energy. Coal is being steadily replaced due to being used as shale oil for export. Manchuria also shies from using petroleum as fuel for power plants, preferring it to be used as fuel for vehicles and petrochemicals instead. Renewable energy like solar and wind power had been limited due to lack of funds and overabundance of energy supply. Manimenggi (Manchurian Petroleum Company) is the country's state owned petroleum company; however, its duopoly along with Synthetoil (Manchurian Synthetic Oil Company) has been broken since the fall of communism, though both remain the largest petroleum companies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ifes.kyungnam.ac.kr/eng/FRM/FRM_0101V.aspx?code=FRM130917_0001 |title=Manchuria Adopts Renewable Energy Law |publisher=The Institute for Far Eastern Studies |date=17 September 2013 |accessdate=15 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423171303/http://ifes.kyungnam.ac.kr/eng/FRM/FRM_0101V.aspx?code=FRM130917_0001 |archivedate=23 April 2015 }}</ref>
 
=== Science and Technology ===
 
Manchuria has encouraged science and technology since the Communist period, though it preferred "not to brag about its achievements." Manchuria's expenditures on science are 7.2 percent equivalent of the national GDP in 2018.
 
Manchuria produced several world renowned scientists. [[Yongqi,_Prince_Rong|Yongki]], Emperor Hungli's fifth son, was known for book Jiaotong Tenggao in Chinese and concerns about astronomical calculations. The [[Siku Quanshu|Duin Namun I Yooni Bithe]], also created during Hungli's period, was the largest collection of books in Manchurian and Chinese history, and dealt with scientific topics as well as literature. Hungli's predecessor [[Kangxi|Hiowan Yei]] was even more renowned and personally supervised the creation of the Kangxi Dictionary.
 
Scientists such as [[Peng Huanwu|Peng Cooha]] was the chief scientist in building Manchuria's nuclear arsenal.<ref>[http://sourcedb.cas.cn/sourcedb_itp_cas/yw/zjrck/cm/200908/t20090810_2355217.html Institute of Theoretical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences:  Huan-Wu Peng]</ref><ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/182184.htm|http://www.manchuria.org.mj/english/scitech/182184.htm Asteroid Named after Manchu Physicist] www.manchuria.org.mj</ref>[[Sun Jiadong|Sugiya Ujin]] developed Manchuria's first satellite.<ref name="CCTV">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cctv.com/english/special/news/20100115/103690.shtml
|title=Sugiya Ujin, Father of Manchuria's Satellite Technology
|date=2010-01-15
|publisher=[[CCTV.com]]
|accessdate=2010-05-20}}</ref> In 1958, Sun graduated "with highest honor" and returned to China.<ref name="CCTV" /><ref name="CRI">{{cite web
|url=http://english.cri.cn/4406/2008/09/25/1141s409110.htm
|title=Sun Jiadong, from Dong Fang Hong to Chang-E
|date=2008-09-25
|publisher=[[cri.cn]]
|accessdate=2010-05-20}}</ref> [[Min Chiu Li]], a Mukden native that later emigrated to the United States, was the first doctor to successfully use chemotheraphy in fighting maligant cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Freireich |first = EJ |title = Min Chiu Li: a perspective in cancer therapy. |journal = Clinical Cancer Research |date = September 2002 |volume = 8 |issue = 9 |pages = 2764–5 |pmid = 12231514 |accessdate = 12 March 2013 |url = http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/8/9/2764.full |ref = harv}}</ref>
 
There are also Manchu innovators in the present. One example is Nanfulu Gosin, a astrophysicist who cooperated with China and developed the Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope in China, and advised in the construction of a new telescope in Yanbiyan before his death.<ref name="aas">{{cite news|title=World's largest radio telescope will search for dark matter, listen for aliens|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/09/world-s-largest-radio-telescope-will-search-dark-matter-listen-aliens|work=Science {{!}} AAAS|date=26 September 2016|language=en}}</ref> Laibu Engiye was the chief scientist of Manchuria's lunar lander program.<ref>https://k.sina.cn/article_2102509491_7d51bfb3001001pjm.html?from=cul</ref>Guwalgiya Shumuri is also reknowned for his contribution for artificial intelligence.<ref>https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1SNUZGKl9KIC&hl=en</ref>
 
Manchurians are also known for inventions that were only recently appreciated in the present day. Poisoned arrows, two-seasoned rice planting,and planting new rice and oilseed vareities are among the inventions created during the Qing. The first iteration of a machine gun was also created by Dai Dzi during the early Qing.<ref>https://www.sohu.com/a/153834413_115482
</ref>
 
Manchuria is the eighth nation that launched an independently-built rocket into space, in January 8, 2001, called the Adun-i Haban (Auspicious Cloud). In February 24, 2003, in response to China launching the Shenzhou manned rockets, Manchuria launched its own man into space, [[Yang Liwei|Yanggiya Horonggo]].<ref name="xinhua-15oct">{{cite news|title=Chinese astronaut calls family from space (details added).|url=http://global.factiva.com/aa/?ref=XNEWS00020031015dzaf0015w&pp=1&fcpil=en&napc=S&sa_from=|accessdate=14 December 2013|newspaper=Xinhua News Agency|date=15 October 2003}} {{closed_access}}</ref><ref name=st-yang>{{cite news|last=Ong|first=Hwee Hwee|title=Fighter pilot Yanggiya - average student, superb self-control.|url=http://global.factiva.com/aa/?ref=STIMES0020031016dzag0000v&pp=1&fcpil=en&napc=S&sa_from=|accessdate=14 December 2013|newspaper=[[The Straits Times]]|date=16 October 2003}} {{closed_access}}</ref> However, he was not the first Manchurian into space; Ligiya Sekiyen and Liohala Cungfu were the first Manchurians into space launched by the Interkosmos program together with the Soviet Union.<ref name="Sheehan">{{cite book|last=Sheehan|first=Michael|title=The international politics of space|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-39917-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V-Z0kfqPHy8C|location=London|pages=59–61}}</ref><ref name="Burgess">{{cite book|last=Burgess|first=Colin |last2=Hall|first2=Rex |title=The first Soviet cosmonaut team: their lives, legacy, and historical impact|year=2008|publisher=Springer|isbn=0-387-84823-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rrdVPtCNL9AC|location=Berlin|page=331}}</ref>
 
==Demographics==
 
{{main|Manchukuo#Demographics|l1=Demographics of Manchuria}}
 
===Languages===
 
{{main|Manchu language|l1=Manchu|Northeastern Mandarin|l2=Gongheyu|Kyowa-go}}
 
The official language is the Manchu language, which during the period of Japanese Manchuria meant the [[Mandarin Chinese]] spoken in Manchuria as expediency. Eventually it again meant the original Tungusic language. While the majority of the population of Manchuria are proficient in Chinese or "Republic language" or "Gongheyu" as it was popularly called (65%), most of the native-speakers of Manchu (28%) are ethnically Manchurians or Sibe people; the rest speak Manchu as a second language and is the lingua franca of the government and the military. Back in even the 19th century, most Manchus spoke only Mandarin, with the Beijing Mandarin accent being used as an identifier.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2011], p. 204.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA204#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2000], p. 204.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2011], p. 42.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2000], p. 42.</ref> Many of the Mandarin teachers in South China during the early 20th century were of Manchurian origin.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=okhrBBmnHVQC&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false Kaske 2008], p. 69.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=okhrBBmnHVQC&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false Kaske 2008], p. 51.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA270#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2011], p. 270.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA270#v=onepage&q&f=false Rhoads 2000], p. 270.</ref> This began to change shortly after the foundation of the Manchu People's Republic, in an attempt to distinguish itself from China. There is an disagreement on which alphabet it will use, but the example of Mongolia and the former Tannu Tuva republic won the battle to those who proposed Manchurian Cyrillic. Sibe speakers from the former Xinjiang province were brought in and taught the Manchu cadres and trained new Manchu-speaking teachers. The near-exclusive use of Manchu in the military and the government, mandated in the communist era, which employed universal conscription was cited as a reason in the Manchu-language revival. Modern Standard Manchu as it was called is different from Classical Manchu as it was written in the Cyrillic script introduced in 1949. Also, it contains heavier Russian and Mongolian vocabulary, mainly as lexicons for non-existent words in Manchu. The traditional Manchu script is re-instated slowly.<ref>[http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html Liaoning News: 29 Manchu Teachers of Huanren, Benxi Are Now On Duty (simplified Chinese)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130102104216/http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html |date=2 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.chinanews.com/edu/2011/10-29/3423577.shtml |script-title=zh:辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注|author=chinanews |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://edu.sina.com.cn/zxx/2012-03-22/1435332134.shtml |script-title=zh:满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂(图) |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref> Manchurians also conduct free language sessions throughout the country to make the Manchurian people proficient in the language, and there are even Manchu language classes in neighboring China.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.mzb.com.cn/zgmzb/html/2011-07/29/content_78793.htm |script-title=zh:中国民族报电子版 |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/news.ifeng.com/gundong/detail_2011_12/12/11251077_0.shtml|title=iFeng: Jin Biao's 10-Year Dream of Manchu Language (traditional Chinese)|author=|date=|website=ifeng.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://i.syd.com.cn/content/2011-12/05/content_25882720.htm|title=Shenyang Daily: Young Man Teaches Manchu For Free To Rescue the Language (simplified Chinese)|author=|date=|website=syd.com.cn}}</ref><ref>[http://bjwb.bjd.com.cn/html/2012-03/03/node_17.htm Beijing Evening News: the Worry of Manchu language (simplified Chinese)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513105009/http://bjwb.bjd.com.cn/html/2012-03/03/node_17.htm |date=13 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dahai|First Historical Archives of China |1990|pp=1196–1197}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|p=218}}</ref> In recent years, the Manchu language, instead of Chinese, is the primary language of instruction, and dual language Manchu-Chinese classes were largely reduced.<ref>[http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html Liaoning News: 29 Manchu Teachers of Huanren, Benxi Are Now On Duty (simplified Chinese)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130102104216/http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html |date=2 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.chinanews.com/edu/2011/10-29/3423577.shtml |script-title=zh:辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注|author=chinanews |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://edu.sina.com.cn/zxx/2012-03-22/1435332134.shtml |script-title=zh:满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂(图) |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref>
It was said that the communist government deliberately revived the Manchu language to differentiate itself from China and to reduce illiteracy among the population.
 
Russian is also heavily spoken due to immigration of Soviet Russians to Manchuria and is still a requirement in schools. It is the third most spoken language in Manchuria, and said to be used even by Chinese and Manchus themselves. They are most dominant in Harbin.
 
Other languages are Korean, spoken in [[Yeonbyeon|Yanbiyan]], Japanese in Tiyeliyan and isolated southern communities, and Mongolian, Orochon, Evenki, Nanai, and Daur in the west.
 
=== Ethnic Groups ===
 
{{Pie chart
|thumb=left
|caption = Ethnicity in Manchuria ([[China Family Panel Studies|Manchuria Statistics Office]] 2014)
|label1 = [[Manchu people|Manchu]]
|value1 = 44
|color1 = yellow
|label2 = [[Han Chinese|Nikan]]
|value2 = 38
|color2 = red
|label3 = [[Koreans in China|Korean]]
|value3 = 9
|color3 = orange
|label4 = [[Mongolians in China|Mongolian]]
|value4 = 3
|color4 = Cyan
|label5 = [[Russians in China|Russians]]
|value5=  2
|color5 = DodgerBlue
|label6 = Japanese
|value6 = 1.6
|color6 = Purple
|label7 = Hui
|value7 = 1
|color7 = Green
|label8 = Other (Evenki, Nanai, Daur, etc.)
|value8 = 2.4
|color8 = Gray
}}
 
[[File:Manchus dressed as royal family.jpg|thumb|right|Young Manchus in traditional costume]]
 
The Manchus and the Chinese are the largest ethnic groups in the country, with 44 percent of them are Manchus and 37 are Chinese. However it is commonly accepted that the Chinese population is much higher and the real majority of the country due to assimilation, and emigration during the communist period; many of them simply recorded their ethnicity as Manchu in censuses. Intermarriage between Manchus and Chinese are common and became more acceptable by the fall of the Qing.<ref>Chen, Bijia, et al. "Interethnic Marriage in Manchuria, 1866–1913." Demographic Research, vol. 38, 2018, p. 953. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26457068?seq=27#metadata_info_tab_contents.</ref><ref name="Rhoads2000">{{cite book|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiM2pF5PDR8C&pg=PA76#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2000|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|isbn=978-0-295-98040-9|pages=76–77}}</ref><ref name="Rhoads2011">{{cite book|author=Edward J. M. Rhoads|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA263&dq=Aihun+Heilongjiang+Hanjun#v=onepage&q=Aihun%20Heilongjiang%20Hanjun&f=false|date=1 December 2011|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-80412-5|pages=263–}}</ref><ref name="Lattimore1932">{{cite book|author=Owen Lattimore|title=Manchuria, Cradle of Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gnlCAAAAIAAJ&q=Not+only+was+intermarriage+free+%28between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen%29,+but+it+was+certainly+possible+for+a+Chinese+Bannerman,+moving+north+into+a+district+so+preponderantly+Manchu+that+no+Chinese+Banners+were+maintained,+to+change+his+registration+to+a+Manchu+Banner;+although+technically+the+change+of+registration+was+supposed+to+be+only+temporary.+Thus+the+distinction+between+the+Bannermen+as+a+group+and+non-Bannermen+as+a+group+included+Chinese+among+the+privileged....+Thus,+in+the+case+of+laws+prohibiting+Manchus+from+intermarrying+with+Chinese,+it+ought+to+be+much+better+known+that+in+fact+there+was+no+restriction+on+marriage+between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen&dq=Not+only+was+intermarriage+free+%28between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen%29,+but+it+was+certainly+possible+for+a+Chinese+Bannerman,+moving+north+into+a+district+so+preponderantly+Manchu+that+no+Chinese+Banners+were+maintained,+to+change+his+registration+to+a+Manchu+Banner;+although+technically+the+change+of+registration+was+supposed+to+be+only+temporary.+Thus+the+distinction+between+the+Bannermen+as+a+group+and+non-Bannermen+as+a+group+included+Chinese+among+the+privileged....+Thus,+in+the+case+of+laws+prohibiting+Manchus+from+intermarrying+with+Chinese,+it+ought+to+be+much+better+known+that+in+fact+there+was+no+restriction+on+marriage+between+Manchus+and+Chinese+Bannermen|year=1932|publisher=Macmillan|page=47}}</ref> Even famous Han Chinese political figures like Yuan Shikai had Manchu daughter in-laws.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chao |first1=Sheau-yueh J. |last2=Gee |first2=KaChuen Yuan |title=Early Life of Yuan Shikai and the Formation ofYuan Family |date=2012 |pages=26, 28, 29, 32 |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1011&context=bb_pubs |publisher=CUNY AcademicWorks}}</ref>Koreans compose nine percent of the population, Mongolians 3%, and Russians and mixed Russians comprise 2%.
 
===Religion===
 
{{Main|Religion in Northeast China|l1=Religion in Manchuria}}
 
[[File:The Temple of Lord Guan in Chaoyang 27 2015-09.JPG|thumb|right|Temple of Guwan-di in Erdei S'un.]]
 
There is a diversity of religion in Manchuria. The 1991 Constitution proclaims complete freedom of religion. 23.3 percent of the population say in a 2014 interview that they do not practice any religion. During the Communist era, the Manchurian communist government did little to interfere in the religious affairs of each country as long as they obey the party line. The strongest traditional religious influences in Manchuria  are Buddhism<ref name="满族帝王与佛教的渊源in Chinese simplified">[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=378 The Relation of Manchu Emperors and Buddhism (simplified Chinese)]</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC/page/n214 <!-- pg=203 --> Wakeman Jr. 1986], p. 203.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = The Cambridge History of China: Pt. 1 ; The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA64#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1978 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-24334-6|page=64}}</ref><ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book |title = The Cambridge History of China: Pt. 1 ; The Ch'ing Empire to 1800 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1978 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-24334-6|page=65}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=mjUHF7kQfVAC&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q&f=false Lopez 1999], p. 20.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=BsyFU9FwCIkC&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false Berger 2003], p. 35.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA123#v=onepage&q&f=false Dunnell & Elliott & Foret & Millward 2004], pp. 123–4.</ref>, Tengriism, Manchu Shamanism, and Confucianism.  However, the largest numbers of people in Manchuria are said to be non-religious.<ref name="Cavendish2007">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YG2AFyFppJQC&pg=PA933 |year=2007|title =World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia|publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]]|quote=Manchuria is officially a secular state.|accessdate = 20 May 2019|isbn=9780761476313}}</ref><ref name="PalmerOBrien1993">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/stateofreligiona00obri|url-access=registration|title =The State of Religion Atlas|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|quote=The majority of Manchurians are atheistic or profess no religion|accessdate = 20 May 2019|author=Joanne O'Brien, Martin Palmer|date =December 1993}}</ref>Certain religious groups, mainly those who have a pacifist bent such as Jehovah's Witnesses, and new religious movements are banned. An unusual theme of Manchurian religion is the greater penetration of Christianity in Manchuria. Due to the majority of the European settlers being Russians and Ukrainians, the Orthodox Christians are the majority of the Christian population in Manchuria, but Catholics and Protestants are also well-represented, typically with Koreans.<ref>''Dui Hua'', issue 46, Winter 2012: ''[http://duihua.org/wp/?p=5313 Uncovering China’s Korean Christians]''.</ref><ref>Joel Carpenter, Kevin R. den Dulk. ''Christianity in Chinese Public Life: Religion, Society, and the Rule of Law''. Palgrave Pivot, 2014. {{ISBN|1137427876}}. p. 37</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|title=National Qing History Compilatory Committee: Sunu Research (simplified Chinese)|author=|date=|website=historychina.net|access-date=21 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623113540/http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|archive-date=23 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="清代八旗子弟184" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|title=National Qing History Compilatory Committee: Sunu Research (simplified Chinese)|website=historychina.net|access-date=21 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623113540/http://www.historychina.net/manager/info/inner.jsp?sid=1&cid=29&infoid=24514|archive-date=23 June 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
{{pie chart
|caption = Religion in Manchuria<ref name="Wang2015">China General Social Survey (CGSS) 2009, Chinese Spiritual Life Survey (CSLS) 2007. Report by: [https://baylor-ir.tdl.org/baylor-ir/bitstream/handle/2104/9326/WANG-THESIS-2015.pdf?sequence=1 Xiuhua Wang (2015, p. 15)]</ref>{{refn|group=note|Some of the data collected by the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of 2009 and by the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey (CSLS) of 2007 have been reported and assembled by Xiuhua Wang (2015)<ref name="Wang2015"/> in order to confront the proportion of people identifying with two similar social structures: ① Christian churches, and ② the traditional Chinese religion of the lineage (i. e. people believing and worshipping ancestral deities often organised into [[Chinese lineage associations|lineage "churches"]] and [[ancestral shrine]]s). Data for other religions with a significant presence in China (deity cults, Buddhism, Taoism, folk religious sects, Islam, et. al.) were not reported by Wang and come from different sources.}}
|label1 = other/irreligious
|value1 = 33.7
|color1 = purple
|label2 = [[Northeast China folk religion|Manchurian folk religion]]
|value2 = 27.3
|color2 = #C00000
|label3 = New spiritual movements such as [[Shanrendao]]{{refn|group=note|Assuming that the percentage of adherents to the doctrines of Wang Fengyi's [[Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue]] (today popularly known as Shanrendao) has remained the same as in the 1930s (25% of the population).{{sfnb|Ownby|2008|ps=. § 23: «the Daodehui eight million in Manchukuo alone (a quarter of the total population) in 1936-1937.»}}}} and Falun Gong.
|value3 = 15
|color3 = GreenYellow
|label4 = [[Chinese ancestral religion]]
|value4 = 7.73
|color4 = DarkSlateBlue
|label5 = [[Buddhism]]{{refn|group=note|Based on a 2006 survey of the distribution of Buddhist institutions in China,<ref>Ji Zhe's "[http://www.fjzd.org/news/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=2268 Three Decades of Revival: Basic Data on Contemporary Chinese Buddhism / 复兴三十年：当代中国佛教的基本数据] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427135345/http://www.fjzd.org/news/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=2268 |date=2017-04-27 }}" (2011).</ref> assuming that the percentage of institutions per capita is consistent with the percentage of Buddhists (which has been proved so by data on other regions), the Buddhist religion would account for 9-10% of the population of Heilongjiang and 4-5% of the population of Jilin. The Buddhist population of Liaoning has been calculated by the CFPS survey of 2012 and the result is 5.5%.<ref>China Family Panel Studies 2012: [http://iwr.cass.cn/zjwh/201403/W020140303370398758556.pdf 当代中国宗教状况报告——基于CFPS（2012）调查数据] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809051625/http://iwr.cass.cn/zjwh/201403/W020140303370398758556.pdf |date=2014-08-09 }}. p. 013</ref> Calculating the absolute number of people represented by these percentages on the provinces' total populations in 2010, summing the absolute numbers obtained the result is 6,952,638 Buddhists. On the total 2010 population of northeast China (109,520,844) they represent the 6.3%.}}
|value5 = 6.3
|color5 = Yellow
|label8 = Other [[Christianity]]
|value8 = 2.15
|color8 = DodgerBlue
|label7 = [[Islam]]{{refn|group=note|As of 2010 there are 26,700 Muslims in Liaoning, 12,700 in Jilin and 12,700 in Heilongjiang.<ref name="2010-Islam">Min Junqing. ''The Present Situation and Characteristics of Contemporary Islam in China''. JISMOR, 8. [https://doors.doshisha.ac.jp/duar/repository/ir/18185/r002000080004.pdf 2010 Islam by province, page 29]. Data from: Yang Zongde, ''Study on Current Muslim Population in China'', Jinan Muslim, 2, 2010.</ref> The total 52,100 is 0.04% if the population of northeast China.}}
|value7 = 0.04
|color7 = Green
|label6 = [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christianity
|value6 = 8.8
|color6 = Violet
}}
 
===Fertility Rate===
 
Manchuria has the lowest fertility rate in the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Northeast China has the world’s lowest fertility rate |url=https://asiatimes.com/2018/07/northeast-china-has-the-worlds-lowest-fertility-rate/ |accessdate=February 25, 2020 |date=July 25, 2018}}</ref> It was estimated that in 2015, Manchuria's fertility rate was 0.55 percent, even lower than Japan, which already have a low fertility rate.
 
===Education===
{{main|Manchukuo#Education|l1=Education in Manchuria}}
 
Manchuria inherited from Manchukuo and Communist times an efficient educational system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawkins |first1=Everett D. |title=Education in Manchuria |journal=Far Eastern Survey |date=March 12, 1947 |volume=Vol. 16 |issue=No. 5 |pages=52-54 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3021748 |accessdate=February 24, 2020}}</ref> Manchuria's government had established numerous universities and schools. City universities tend to be of better quality than provincial schools, a problem acknowledged by the government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |title=Educational themes and methods |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |accessdate=23 June 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121212124233/lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |archivedate=12 December 2012 }}</ref> Literacy rates have been on an all-time high of 98.9 percent, with most illiteracy coming from the western rural areas of Manchuria. <ref>https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=BSZ</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=TWN&treshold=10&topic=PI | title=Chinese Taipei Student performance (PISA 2015) | publisher=OECD | accessdate=19 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/pisa-worldwide-ranking-of-math-science-reading-skills-2016-12 |title=The latest ranking of top countries in math, reading, and science is out – and the US didn't crack the top 10 |last= Kiersz |first=Andy |date=16 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Patriarchy in East Asia: A Comparative Sociology of Gender | publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] | author=Sechiyama, Kaku | year=2013 | pages=254 | isbn=978-9004230606}}</ref>
 
Notable universities include the Manchuria State University, Mukden University, [[Harbin Institute of Technology|Harbin University]], Tiyeliyan University of Technology, and among others.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=102}}
 
Manchuria's education system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Facilities are either maintained by both private and public schools under the Ministry of Education. The ministry also sets a National Curriculum that provides guidelines for teachers; it is always regularly updated. Private schools may adopt a modified version of the National Curriculum provided it did not conflict with the government's policies.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=104}}
 
All education is compulsory in primary and secondary. Subsidies remain for these schools; most tertiary school subsidies ceased after the fall of the communist regime. However, the government maintained the position that public education would be permanently be free.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=105}}
 
Prior to formal education, children are educated in kindergartens. By the time they reached five, they are enrolled in primary schools until the age of eleven. In elementary school, the children by learning Manchu, Guanhua, mathematics, science and physical education.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=106}}
 
Manchurian schools usually conduct school festivals, a trait inherited from the Manchukuo and communist eras.<ref name="Japan Focus">[http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 Japan Focus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051026150022/http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 |date=26 October 2005 }</ref>
 
Like its fellow East Asian countries, Manchuria's education system has been criticized due to pressures given to its students. Rote memorization are also seen as a problem.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://news.asiaone.com/news/education/university-degrees-mindset-shift-needed |title=University degrees: Mindset shift needed |last=Lee |first=Pearl |publisher=The Straits Times |date=13 April 2015}}</ref>However like its Asian neighbors, it was also praised for the quality of its graduates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://isc.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03_M_Chap1.pdf|title=TIMSS Math 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://isc.bc.edu/PDF/t03_download/T03_S_Chap1.pdf| title= TIMSS Science 2003}}</ref>
 
===Health===
 
{{main|Health in North Korea|l1=Health in Manchuria}}
 
Manchuria has a universal health system; all citizens are required to sign up. The system was created during Communist times in 1956 as official government policy for its citizens. All Manchurians can sign for either a private program of either two of the government's insurance programs, which are both subsidized. Both private and public hospitals exist; in the case of the latter, they are administered by the Ministry of Health's Public Hospital Administration.
 
Cardiovascular diseases are the single highest reason for death in Manchuria.<ref name="Overview of the Burden of Diseases">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Yo Han|last2=Yoon|first2=Seok-Jun|last3=Kim|first3=Young Ae|last4=Yeom|first4=Ji Won|last5=Oh|first5=In-Hwan|date=1 May 2013|title=Overview of the Burden of Health Problems in Manchuria|journal=Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health|volume=46|issue=3|pages=111–117|doi=10.3961/jpmph.2013.46.3.111|pmc=3677063|pmid=23766868}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Cause of death, by non-communicable diseases (% of total) - Manchuria {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DTH.NCOM.ZS?locations=KP&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-11|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>The average life expectancy for Manchurians is 79.8 years; 78 for males and 80 for females.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) - Korea, Dem. People’s Rep. {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=KP&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-11|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>1.9 percent of deaths in Manchuria are attributed to communicable and preventable diseases, higher than in Korea and Russia but lower than in China and Mongolia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cause of death, by communicable diseases and maternal, prenatal and nutrition conditions (% of total) - Manchuria, Low income, High income {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DTH.COMM.ZS?locations=KP-KR-XM-XD&most_recent_value_desc=true&view=chart|access-date=2020-07-11|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>
 
According to the US State Department, Manchurians have virtually 100 percent access to clean water and sanitation;95 percent have access to improved sanitation facilities by 2015.<ref name="Life Inside Manchuria">{{cite web|title=Life Inside Manchuria|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rm/2003/21269.htm|accessdate=18 November 2008|work=U.S. Department of State}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Manchuria: WHO statistical profile |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |url=http://www.who.int/gho/countries/man.pdf }}</ref>
 
Both state-owned and private-owned universal insurance system is in place; the latter were permitted after the fall of communism and at least 49 percent of the population have access to it; private insurance, while more expensive, is considered as superior.{{Sfn|Country Profile|2007|pp=7–8}} The quality of health care is said to be good, if not excellent; differing health problems exist from obesity in urban areas and malnutrition in the rural areas.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=127}} Every individual is entitled to a health card detailing full medical records.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=126}}
 
While Manchuria has a low AIDS rate, it was steadily increasing, and is spreading from the urban areas to the rural ones, alarming health officials and critics alike.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.unaids.org/publications/fact-sheets01/manchuria_en.pdf#page=6 |title=Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Infections : 2004 Update : Manchuria |date=2004 |publisher=UNAIDS / WHO | page=6|access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="abc._Corr">{{Cite web | title = Manchuria fights AIDS | publisher=  ABC Radio National | last=O'Byrne|first=Tom| date = 2 December 2001 | accessdate = 8 December 2015 | url = http://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/s430901.htm }}</ref><ref name="upi._Nort">{{Cite web | title = AIDS in Manchuria is contained, thanks to healthcare system, or so it claims | last = Shim  | first = Elizabeth  | work = UPI | date = 1 December 2015 | accessdate = 7 December 2015 | url = http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/12/01/Manchuria-says-it-contained-AIDS-thanks-to-healthcare-system/1241448979750/ }}</ref>Most of the people interviewed in Manchuria are said to be reasonably educated about AIDS.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aidsdatahub.org/sites/default/files/documents/Fact_Sheets_Manchuria_AHD_07.pdf#page=3 |title=Adolescent Health : Fact Sheet : Manchuria|date=January 2007 |publisher=Adolescent of Health Development (AHD) Unit, Department of Family and Community Health, World Health Organization|page=3|access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref>
 
==Society and Culture==
 
===Culture===
 
Manchurian culture is a mix of traditional Manchu culture, Manchurian Chinese influences, and input from its neighbors and conquerors. Although many commonly thought of Manchus as nomadic like the neighboring Mongols, in reality, most Manchus are sedentary.<ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|p=218}}</ref> A common question by many scholars is if Manchu culture is a culture of its own right, or was feared to be assimilated to Chinese culture.
 
During the communist era, Manchuria tried to build a culture unique from its past, using common Communist ideals, but with mixed success. In the end, it opted to pursue a unique kind of Manchu nationalism, even as it opened up its culture to the West. However, cultural norms such as respect to authority, family life, and respect for consensus remain strong, as well as maintaining aspects of traditional culture.
 
Manchurians have a number of festivals, some are borrowed from the Chinese like [[Duanwu Festival]] and the [[Chinese New Year|Spring Festival]].<ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=238 Manchu Spring Festival]</ref><ref>[http://www.manchus.cn/plus/view.php?aid=4412 Manchu Duanwu Festival]</ref>.Others are of Manchu origin like the Banjin Inenggi ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᠨ<br />ᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ}}), or the traditional Manchu ethnic holiday, commemorated in the thirteenth day of the tenth month of the Chinese calendar.Another day is called the "Food Extermination Day" or "Day of Starvation."Although it was commonly believed that it involved fasting, as it was intended to commemorate a day where Nurhaci run out of food, this is not the case, but instead it honors the hospitality of the villagers despite not even having tableware. The traditional food eaten on this day are rice, pork, and egg wrapped in perilla leaves.<ref>[http://manchu.library.nenu.edu.cn/webcache/lishiwenhua/manzufengsu/201012/14-6518.html The Day of Running Out of Food (simplified Chinese)]</ref>
 
Manchurians are also said by the Chinese to be natural comedians. Crosstalk, a Chinese folk comedy genre, was popularized by the Manchus living in Beijing. It also spread into Manchuria itself and artists perform in Chinese and Manchu.<ref name="郭德綱" >{{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vSH-J6yJgCE |script-title=zh:郭德纲 德云社 有话好好说 2011.12.04 |date = 4 December 2011|via=YouTube |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref>
 
===Music===
 
{{Main|Music of Northeast China|l1=Music of Manchuria}}
 
[[File:八角鼓演出照.jpg|thumb|Manchu traditional folk singer.]] The [[Zidishu|Juse Deote Bithe]] is a Manchu folk ballad song common with ethnic Manchus in Manchuria and China.<ref>{{cite book|last=Blader|first=Susan|title=Tales of Magistrate Bao and His Valiant Lieutenants: Selections from ''Sanxia Wuyi''|year=1998|publisher=[[The Chinese University Press]]|isbn=962-201-775-4|ref={{harvid|Blader}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Sound Rising from the Paper: Nineteenth-Century Martial Arts Fiction and the Chinese Acoustic Imagination|last1=Keulemans|first=Paize|year=2014|publisher=[[Harvard University Asia Center]]|isbn=978-0-674-41712-0|ref={{harvid|Keulemans}}}}</ref>
 
Ulabun is a form of Manchu entertainment combining story-telling and music with an octagonal drum and is known to be a traditional ethnic Manchu folk music.<ref>http://iel.cass.cn/news_show.asp?newsid=7932</ref>[[:zh:宋熙东|Akšan]] is the most famous ulabun singer.
 
[[Lang Lang|Niohuru Gehun]] is an accomplished Manchurian composer and pianist that played for various orchestras such as the New York Philharmonic Orchestra and Vienna Orchestra.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131019084645/http://www.langlang.com/us/biography "Lang Lang"]. Retrieved 11 September 2011. (archived from [http://www.langlang.com/us/biography the original] on 2013-10-19)</ref>.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rhein|first=John von|date=7 March 2000|title=Lang Leaves Audience Elated|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/50794251.html?dids=50794251:50794251&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+7%2C+2000&author=John+von+Rhein%2C+Tribune+Music+Critic&pub=Chicago+Tribune&edition=&startpage=2&desc=LANG+LEAVES+AUDIENCE+ELATED|journal=Chicago Tribune}} {{Subscription}}</ref>
 
Manchurian pop music at first utilized Guanhua as Manchu-language music are still considered only for folk music. This perception changed in the late 1990s to compete with Korean and Japanese pop music, and started to use the Manchu language. Since then, Manchupop refers to pop songs sung in the Manchu language. [[Na Ying|Yehenara Yebken]], formerly a Mandopop and Mandopop singer in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China, later shifted to Manchu language songs late in her career and kickstarted the trend, along with Akšan in the 2000s.
 
===Film===
 
{{Main|Manchukuo Film Association|l1=Cinema of Manchuria}}
 
The Manchu film industry started during the Manchukuo-era, with the Cacungga Film Studio in the later Manchurian People's Republic utilizing the same equipment of the old Manchurian Film Association.<ref>{{cite book | last = Baskett | first = Michael | year = 2008 | title = The Attractive Empire: Transnational Film Culture in Imperial Japan | publisher = [[University of Hawai'i Press]] | location = Honolulu | isbn = 978-0-8248-3223-0 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lx4QfrTyvWEC | pages = 29, 31–32, 77–79, 115}}</ref><ref>Cyyy. "[http://www.cyyy.com.cn/newpage1.htm Cyyy]." "Cacungga." Retrieved on 2007-01-18.</ref> Like other communist states, Manchurian films during that period were considered propaganda materials by the government, but the filmmakers were allowed a greater leeway in creative content as long as they obeyed the party line.Many filmmakers and films from Manchuria won prizes in foreign film festivals especially the [[Prague International Film Festival]].
 
=== Art===
 
Manchuria's art reflects the period and the political climate; a strong Japanese aesthetic element is not only present during the Manchukuo era, but also during the communist era. Post-communist Manchuria continued the trend.<ref name="Art world">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/NF16Dg02.html|title=A window into Manchuria's art world|last=Rank|first=Michael|date=16 June 2012|website=Asia Times|publisher=|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326075320/https://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/NF16Dg02.html|archive-date=26 March 2013|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref>Išilangga Art Studio was known to commission monuments for foreign countries.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=16089&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=5874 |title=Heroes' monument losing battle |newspaper=The Namibian |date=5 June 2005 |accessdate=14 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724234853/http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=16089&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=5874 |archivedate=24 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8435805.stm |title=Senegal President Wade apologises for Christ comments |work=[[BBC News]]|date=31 December 2009 |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] |location=[[London]] |accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref>
 
===Literature===
 
{{main|Manchu literature}}
 
The ''[[Tale of the Nisan Shaman]]'' ({{manchu|m={{ManchuSibeUnicode|lang=mnc|ᠨᡳᡧᠠᠨ<br />ᠰᠠᠮᠠᠨ {{zwj}}ᡳ<br />ᠪᡳᡨ᠌ᡥᡝ}}|v=nišan saman i bithe}},{{lang|mnc|[[Cyrillic]]:Нишан Саман-И Битхе}}) is considered the magnum opus of Manchu literature.<ref name="尼山萨满03" >{{harvnb|Dekdengge|Zhang|Guang|2007|p=03}}</ref>The story revolves on the titular Shaman to revive a young hunter. The story is also widespread on other related peoples like the [[Evenki]],[[Sibe]], and [[Daur]]. Its modern version by Dekdengge was written in the 1800s.<ref>{{harvnb|Dekdengge|Zhang|Guang|2007|p=1}}</ref>
 
[[File:Laoshe.jpg|thumb|Sumuru Šušu.]] Manchu literature before the establishment of the People's Republic tend to be extremely limited, and what literature were there were in Chinese. Since founding, Manchuria saw what Joogiya called the "Flowering of Manchurian Literature".{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=155}} The immigration of [[Lao She|Sumuru Šušu]] to Manchuria and his shift of writing from Chinese to Manchu have been called influential in later cadres of Manchurian writers. Another known writer was [[Duanmu Hongliang|Caogiya Bai]], also wrote novels about the anti-Japanese wars in Manchuria in both Manchu and Chinese.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=157}} Manchu language literature during that period, however, operated on a state mandated censorship and limited Manchu-language readers at that time. Only after the fall of Communism did Manchu-language literature proliferate, and much of this were published on the Internet.
 
Modern Manchu literature also tend to be influenced by science and therefore very willing to embrace science fiction. It was said that many authors chose this genre because during the communist era, literature topics tended to be historical or folk-tale in variety.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=187}} This enabled the writers to depict [[sexual crime]], [[cyberwarfare]], [[space exploration]] and [[immortality]] in a manner that was distinct from science fiction of other countries, as they usually centered on [[anthropocentrism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sinonk.com/2013/09/25/from-pyongyang-to-mars-sci-fi-genre-and-literary-value-in-north-korea/ |title=Benoit Symposium: From Cagungga to Mars: Sci-fi, Genre, and Literary Value in Manchuria |publisher=SinoManchu |date=25 September 2013 |accessdate=14 July 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140613021918/http://sinomanchu.com/2013/09/25/from-cacungga-to-mars-sci-fi-genre-and-literary-value-in-manchuria/ |archivedate=13 June 2014 }}</ref>
 
Chinese-language literature in Manchuria, although ignored by the government, were somewhat more widespread. It diverged from mainstream Chinese literature since most Chinese typefaces have been melted down and had to use Cyrillic script in its place. Even when the ban on Chinese characters was lifted after Communism, writers tend to mix Chinese with Cyrillic characters or Manchu in their works, creating a curious niche in Chinese literature.
 
===Architecture===
 
While Manchu architecture commonly follows foreign influences, Manchuria did retain some architectural pecularities and eccentricities<ref>http://www.nakazono.lab.kde.yamaguchi-u.ac.jp/journal/ronbun/you_2012.10.pdf</ref>{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=168}} The Fulmiyen Boo, or the "pocket house", is a typical Manchu architectural style. The house faces the north with the door opening south for sunlight. To preserve the head, it is encompassed by four walls.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=169}} The house had pipes from the ground that serve as chimneys. In each room, there is a "Tumen Boo" that is used for private religious activities and also used to as sleeping rooms. Accoring to Jiro Murata, there are at least five or six architectural influence; ethnic Manchu, Han Chinese, Tibetan, And Western, plus Korean and Hui sensibilities. <ref>https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3130/jaabe.15.177</ref> Also, traditional Manchurian buildings in ancient times were less-durable and only became stronger by the time of the Qing. Later on, the Han Chinese imported their own building styles.
 
During the Manchukuo era, it imported the [[Imperial Crown Style]] as shown in buildings built during the Manchukuo era. Because the Manchu architectural styles have not fully developed and forced to adopt Chinese elements, during the Manchukuo era, it adopted the Han Chinese building appearances but adopted the interior designs and sensibilities of traditional Manchu houses.<ref>{{cite web|title=THE NEUTRAL CITY: ARCHITECTURE OF PRE-WAR HIROSHIMA|url=http://fac.arch.hku.hk/asian-cities-research/the-neutral-city-architecture-of-pre-war-hiroshima/|publisher=The University of Hong Kong Faculty of Architecture|date=Dec 24, 2017}}</ref> During the Communist period, it inherited Socialist Realism styles and mixed with previous traditions.
 
Larger structures such as the [[Chengde Mountain Resort|Halhūn Be Jailara Gurung]], for example, shows strong Tibetan influences from its seemingly Chinese interior.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=169}}
 
===Cuisine===
 
{{further|Manchu cuisine}}
 
Manchurian cuisine (Manju sogi) is a amalgamation of ethnic Manchu, Chinese, Korean, Mongolian, and European influences. They are often hearty, with meats being roasted and seasoned with cumin and garlic and salt. The Man-Han Imperial Feast was known in Asia as a court dish during Qing times, modified in the present-day to suit modern tastes and only using domesticated meat.<ref>https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf</ref><ref>http://en.g-photography.net/china/food/news_10392.html</ref>[[File:Suan cai pork stew.jpg|thumb|Gidaha Lafu Pork Stew.]]
 
Manchurian cuisine is concentrated on grains, vegetables, and meat. Wheat, sorghum, soybean, and rice are commonly used as staple grains, with potatoes and corn becoming common in the late 20th century. Compared to China, Korea, and Japan, Manchurian cuisine uses greater amount of meat. Unlike in China, Manchurians tend to limit their choices of meat, as many Manchus for example, see eating dog-meat as sacrilegious.Gidaha Lafu, or [[Suancai]] in Chinese, is fermented cabbage similar but not identical to the Korean Kimchi, and is commonly used in dishes.<ref>http://www.flavorandfortune.com/dataaccess/article.php?ID=764</ref> Sile seng-i duha or báiròu xuěcháng is a famous pork and cabbage dish, as well as ludagun, and potstickers.<ref>https://windhorsetour.com/blog/manchu-cuisine-china-northeast
</ref>
Manchurian barbecue stands are also common in Manchurian cities, and it is claimed it was a legacy of traditional Manchurian barbecue techniques.
 
===Sport===
 
Manchuria's national sports are said to be ice hockey, football, basketball, and the indigenously developed sport of [[:zh:珍珠球|nicuhe mumuhu]], literally meaning "Pearl-ball". Martial arts are also commonly practiced, including Buku or Manchurian wrestling,<ref name="摔跤史118" >{{harvnb|Jin|Kaihe|2006|p=118}}</ref><ref name="摔跤史142" >{{harvnb|Jin|Kaihe|2006|p=142}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jin|Kaihe|2006|p=153}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://epaper.qingdaonews.com/html/qdwb/20120306/qdwb386565.html |script-title=zh:摔跤历史挺悠久不同流派有讲究-青岛报纸电子版 |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref> and archery. Manchus like Mongolians were fond of falconry.<ref name="八旗子弟106" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=106}}</ref><ref name="八旗子弟107" >{{harvnb|Liu|2008|p=107}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.jl.xinhuanet.com/tese/2011-01/10/content_21821594.htm |script-title = zh:新华网吉林频道 |accessdate = 18 March 2015 |title = Archived copy |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304040403/http://www.jl.xinhuanet.com/tese/2011-01/10/content_21821594.htm |archive-date = 4 March 2016 |url-status = dead }}</ref>
 
Manchuria's football association was founded during the Manchukuo era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com/footbook/2010/10/post-bfa7.html |title=満州国の国技は"蹴球"－読売新聞記事より : 蹴球本日誌 |work=fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com |date=1 October 2010 |accessdate=10 September 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927144028/http://fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com/footbook/2010/10/post-bfa7.html |archivedate=27 September 2015  }}</ref> While it is a competitive team in the Asian championships, it was only able to enter the [[FIFA World Cup]] once in 2010, defeating Cote d'Ivoire's national football team but in turn defeated by both Portugal and Brazil.
 
[[File:延辺スタジアム.jpg|thumb|A stadium in Yongil.]]
 
Manchuria was supposed to compete in the Summer Olympics in 1932, but its only candidate, [[Liu Changchun]], defected to the [[Republic of China]] and became the first Chinese Olympic representative. Attempts to join the 1936 Olympics in Berlin were frustrated by the [[International Olympic Committee]]'s decision not to allow unrecognized states in the Olympics. Manchuria was to join the 1940 Summer Olympics but [[World War II]] prevented its entry<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mangan|first1=J. A.|last2=Collins|first2=Sandra|last3=Ok|first3=Gwang|title=The Triple Asian Olympics - Asia Rising: The Pursuit of National Identity, International Recognition and Global Esteem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-GEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119|year=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-71419-2|page=119}}</ref> Instead, it sent atheltes to the [[1940]] [[Far East Games]] organized by Japan. <ref name=1940j>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Sandra|title=1940 TOKYO GAMES – COLLINS: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic Movement|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317999669|pages=179–180}}</ref> It was only able to compete in 1952 in Helsinki due to Finnish invitation, and as the Manchurian-Chinese delegation at the insistence of the Republic of China. By 1956, it was able to compete under its own name since. Manchuria is more successful in Winter Games, primarily due to the country's climate; indeed it was only second to Korea in the number of Asian medalists in the Winter Olympics.Ice skating is also a popular Manchu sport and has roots in tradition;Qing emperors once retained an ice skating battalion of Manchu bannermen chosen from the best of his forces, and Qianlong even referred to ice skating as a "national custom".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/edu/2012-08/08/c_123551557.htm|title=Xinhua: How Did Chinese Emperors Award Athletes? (simplified Chinese)|agency=Xinhua News Agency}}</ref><ref name="中新网冰嬉" >{{cite web |url = http://www.chinanews.com/cul/news/2010/01-20/2083099.shtml |script-title = zh:"冰嬉"被乾隆定为"国俗" 清军有八旗冰鞋营(5)——中新网 |author = Chinanews.com |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref>
 
Motor racing sports are also popular; a group of Manchurian businessmen are negotiating with Formula One to bring the race to Manchuria by 2022.
 
==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
 
==Bibliography==
 
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{{refend}}
 
* https://manchuria.gov.mj Government website (English)
* https://manchuria.net General information and tourism site (English)
* [https://www.britannica.com/place/Manchuria Manchuria] ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' entry
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15256929 Manchuria profile] at [[BBC News]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090421051351/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/northkorea.htm Manchuria] from ''[[University of Colorado Boulder|UCB]] Libraries GovPubs''
* {{wikiatlas|Manchuria}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html Manchuria] ''The World Factbook.'' [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
* [https://curlie.org/Regional/Asia/China Manchuria] at ''[[Curlie]]''
 
 
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* {{wpl|List of ethnic groups in China|other ethnic groups in China}}
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* {{flagicon|Australia}}&nbsp;{{wpl|Australia}}
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{{Country topics
| country = Manchuria
| state = {{{state<includeonly>|{{{1|collapsed}}}</includeonly>}}}
| image = [[File:Jakvn_gvsa.svg|100px|link=Imperial Seal of Manchukuo]]
| adjective = Manchu
| noportal=yes
 
| history =
*[[Manjugurun#Early history|Early history]]
*[[Manjugurun#Jin dynasty|Jin dynasty]]
*[[Manjugurun#Mongol rule|Mongol rule]]
*[[Manjugurun#Ming dynasty|Ming dynasty]]
*[[Manjugurun#Qing dynasty|Qing dynasty]]
*[[Manjugurun#Republic of China|Republic of China]]
*[[Manchuria#Warlord era|Warlord era]]
*{{W|Manchukuo|Manchukuo}}
*[[Manchu People's Republic]]
*[[Manjugurun#Present Day|Modern history]]
 
 
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| politics = <!--Alphabetical:-->
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* [[Constitution of Manjugurun|Constitution]]
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* [[Prime Minister of Manjugurun|Prime Minister]]
* [[National Assembly of Manju Gurun|National Assembly {{small|(parliament)}}]]
* [[Supreme Court of Manju Gurun|Supreme Court]]
 
| economy =
<!--Alphabetical:-->
* [[Agriculture in Manjugurun|Agriculture]]
* [[Automotive Industry in Manjugurun|Automotive Industry]]
* [[List of companies of Manjugurun|Companies]]
* [[Manjugurun Stock Exchange|Stock Exchange]]
* [[Energy in Manjugurun|Energy]]
* [[Manchukuo Yuan|Jiha {{small|(currency)}}]]
* [[Telecommunications in Manjugurun|Telecommunications]]
* [[Tourism in Manjugurun|Tourism]]
* [[Transport in Manjugurun|Transportation]]
 
| society = <!--Alphabetical:-->
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* [[Manchus]]
* [[Education in Manjugurun|Education]]
* {{wpl:Manchu language|Language}}
* [[Public holidays in Manjugurun|Public holidays]]
 
| culture = <!--Alphabetical:-->
* [[Architecture in Manchuria]]
* [[Art and entertainment in Manchuria]]
*([[Art in Manjugurun|Art]]
*[[Cinema in Manjugurun|Cinema]]
*[[Theatre and dance in Manjugurun|Dance]]
*[[Literature in Manjugurun|Literature]]
*[[Music in Manjugurun|Music]]
*[[Theatre and dance in Manjugurun|Theatre]])
*[[Sport of Manjugurun|Sport]]
*{{W|Manchu cuisine|Cuisine}}
*[[Media of Manjugurun|Media]]
*[[Public Holidays in Manjugurun|Public Holidays]]
 
 
}}<noinclude>


[[Category:Manjugurun]]
==Industry==

Latest revision as of 01:23, 18 December 2022

Republic of Manjugurun
Манҗу Гурун
Flag of Manjugurun
Flag
Emblem of Manjugurun
Emblem
Anthem: 

File:Manchukuo National Anthem 1933.mid
location of Manchuria in green
location of Manchuria in green
CapitalCacungga
Largest cityMukden
Official languagesManchu (official and national), Kyowa-go, Mandarin, Russian, Korean, Japanese, Mongolian
Official scriptsManchu Cyrillic
Manchu script
Ethnic groups
(2010)
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary state
• President
Baigiya Dorolon
Citela Sucun
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
formed 1115
formed 1636
• Manchukuo
1932
• Manju People's Republic was established
February 1, 1946
• Sorghum Revolution
October 3, 1990
• Current Constitution
March 1, 1991
Area
• Total
1,260,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi) (18th)
• Water (%)
5.4
Population
• 2017 estimate
121,163,770 (134th)
• Density
96.1/km2 (248.9/sq mi) (67th)
GDP (PPP)2019 estimate
• Total
$4.50 trillion
• Per capita
$37,084
GDP (nominal)2019 estimate
• Total
$4.06 trillion
• Per capita
$33,493
Gini (2013)36.5
medium
HDI (2015)Increase 0.765
high
CurrencyMuheren (MNM)
Time zoneUTC+9
Date formatyyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+976
ISO 3166 codeMN
Internet TLD.mj, .ман


Manjugurun is an independent state located in East Asia. It is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by Mongolia, on the southwest by China, and on the southeast by Korea. Cacungga is the capital, and Mukden, the former capital, is the largest city. It has one of the world's largest populations, with 121,204,300 people. Manjugurun is a country formed by numerous ethnic groups such as the Sarpi, the Khitans, and the Jurchen which became the Manchus. After invading China in the 1600s, it established the Qing Dynasty until 1911. It fell under Japanese domination in 1932 and a puppet state was established there. After the Second World War, it became a Soviet satellite and after the fall of communism in 1991, it adopted representative democracy amid a tumultous end to the 20th century.

History

Prehistoric and ancient eras

Several ethnic groups, including the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens, inhabited today's Manjugurun in ancient times. Several Chinese dynasties ruled over parts of Manjugurun at various times throughout the history of the Manjus, usually along the coasts. The Chinese also established tributary relationships with the tribes.

Manjus was also ruled by the Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo. The Korean kingdoms may feature sizable Tungusic-speaking minorities and perhaps a Tungusic aristocracy, according to Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen. The ancestors of the Jurchens were made to serve as tributaries when the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manjugurun created the Liao empire, which included Northern China and Manjugurun, between the tenth and eleventh centuries.

By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, a tributary people of the Khitans, had revolted against Liao rule and been replaced by the Jin Dynasty. The Jurchen were able to capture territory in northern China thanks to numerous campaigns against the Song. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty eventually conquered the Jurchens. Manjugurun, along with Northern Korea, was known as Liaoyang during Mongolian rule. Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula in 1375, but his forces were defeated and surrendered. The Nurgan Regional Military Commission was established by Ming Emperor Yongle to consolidate control of the Manju lands.

Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens, led by Nurhaci, began to consolidate their control of the region in the 1580s. They had to deal with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, who was eventually killed in 1640 and his remaining troops incorporated into the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organisation. During this time, Chinese cultural influence permeated the Manjurian region.

Qing era

early 20th century

In 1903, Russia established the Viceroyalty of the Far East in Port Arthur, and the Russian government considered the project of securing Manjugurun as " Zheltorossiya", the basis of which was to be the Kwantung Region established in 1899 in the right-of-way of the CER, and the formation of a new Cossack army and settlement by Russian colonists.

Japan's claims to Manchuria and Korea and the refusal of the Russian Empire to withdraw Russian troops from Manchuria and Korea in violation of the allied treaty led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which was fought in southern Manchuria up to Mukden.

According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Liaodong Peninsula with the Kwantung region and the Chinese Eastern to Port Arthur went to Japan. Between 1905 and 1925, Japan further strengthened its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic levers like the South Manchurian Railway.

In 1910-1911, the last major outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in Manjugurun.

After the Xinhai Revolution and the collapse of the Qing Empire from 1912 to 1932, the territory of Manchuria was controlled by the Fengtian clique, a northeastern grouping of Chinese warlords. By the end of the 1920s, the Chinese government of the Kuomintang established formal control over this territory. In 1929, the Chinese Nationalists attempted to seize the CER, but were defeated by Soviet troops. In 1929-1931, in some areas of eastern Manjugurun, inhabited by Koreans, established an anarchist territory called Korean People's Association until defeated by Chinese and Japanese authorities.

Manchukuo

Communist era

Modern Era

Manjugurun was struck by the Covid-19 Pandemic, and was criticized for strict lockdowns. However, the Manjurian government also criticized the Chinese government for failing to stop the spread of the virus.

Geography

The climate of Manjugurun spans the mid-temperate zone and the cold-temperate zone from south to north. There are four distinct seasons, with hot weather in summer and cool weather in winter. Precipitation drops from 1000mm down to below 300mm annually as you go northwestward across this humid area, semi-humid area, arid region, and high forest coverage rate region. This contributes to agricultural development (due to prolonged melting time on ice) as well as forestry ( due to storage capacity of trees).

Government

Manjugurun is a unitary semi-presidential republic. Manchuria is classified as partially free by the non-governmental organisation Freedom House. The President (Beile) is the country's recognised head of state; he is elected by the people for a five-year term that can be renewed only once in a re-election. He chooses the Prime Minister (Ejen) who is the head cabinet minister. The President's personal residence is the so-called "Joogiya's Mansion," the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era.

Economy

Agriculture

Industry

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