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{{WIP}}
#REDIRECT [[Standard Yu language]]
{{Country icon Zyang}}
{{Country icon Hondonia}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Standard Yu
| altname = Zyangan, Northern Yu
| nativename = 標準語, ''bioe-jyun-viú''<br />潒語, ''Zyang-viú''<br />旗港話, ''Hhoe-gong-vai''
| pronunciation = {{wp|International Phonetic Alphabet|[p̬jɤ̀.t̬͡ɕȳn.vý]}}, {{wp|International Phonetic Alphabet|[ʑàŋ.vý]}}, {{wp|International Phonetic Alphabet|[ɦɤ̄.k̬ōŋ.vāɪ̯]}}
| states = {{flag|Zyang}}
| region =
| ethnicity = Zyangan people
| script={{wp|Chinese characters|Sinitic characters}}
| speakers = [Placeholder] million
| date = 2018
| familycolor = Oriental
| fam2 = {{wp|Sinitic languages|Sinitic}}
| fam3 = Old Yu
| fam4 = Northern
| isoexception = dialect
| iso6 =
| linglist =
| lingua =
| notice = IPA
| glotto =
| glottoname =
}}
 
The '''Standard Yu language''', also known as '''Norhtern Yu''', or simply '''Yu''', is a variety of Yu natively spoken in the majority of the northern regions of the [[Zyang|Kingdom of Zyang]] as well as majority of the country as a second language. It is classified as part of the {{wp|Sino-Tibetan languages|Oriental language family}}.
 
Standard Yu is based on the [[Hhoegong]] dialect with aspects of other Northern Yu dialects, it has around [Placeholder] million native speakers. It used to serve as the {{wp|lingua franca}} of the [[Atusia|Eastern Atusia]] region, but after the 17th century its status and use declined.
 
Like other Yu varieties, Standard has around fifteen unique vowel qualities, six of which are {{wp|Phoneme|phonemic}}. Yu also has a low number of tones compared to other {{wp|Sino-Tibetan languages|Oriental languages}}, and has a system of tone sandhi similar to the one in {{wp|Wu Chinese|Wu sinitic}}, or like {{wp|Japnese pitch accent|Kasai pitch accent}}.
 
== History ==
 
== Classification ==
 
== Status ==
 
== Phonology ==
Following conventions of Sinitic syllable structure, Yu syllables can be divided into {{wp|Syllable onset|initials}} and finals. The initial occupies the first part of the syllable. The final occupies the second part of the syllable and can be divided further into an optional medial and an obligatory {{wp|Syllable rime|rime}} (sometimes spelled ''rhyme''). Tone is also a feature of the syllable in Yu.
 
=== Initials ===
The following is a list of all initials in standard Yu, as well as the [Placeholder] romanization:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan="2" |
! {{wp|Labial consonant|Labial}}
! {{wp|Coronal consonant|Coronal}}
! {{wp|Palatal consonant|Palatal}}
! {{wp|Dorsal consonant|Dorsal}}
! {{wp|Glottal consonant|Glottal}}
|-
! colspan="2" | {{wp|Nasal}}
| {{IPAlink|m}} ⟨m⟩
| {{IPAlink|n}} ⟨n⟩
|
| ({{IPAlink|ŋ}} ⟨ng⟩)
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|Plosive}}
! plain
| {{IPAlink|p}} ⟨b⟩
| {{IPAlink|t}} ⟨d⟩
|
| {{IPAlink|k}} ⟨g⟩
|
|-
! aspirated
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}} ⟨p⟩
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}} ⟨t⟩
|
| {{IPAlink|kʰ}} ⟨k⟩
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|Affricate}}
! plain
|
| {{IPAlink|t͡s}} ⟨j⟩
| {{IPAlink|t͡ɕ}} ⟨jy⟩
|
|
|-
! aspirated
|
| {{IPAlink|t͡sʰ}} ⟨c⟩
| {{IPAlink|t͡ɕʰ}} ⟨cy⟩
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|Fricative}}
! voiced
| {{IPAlink|v}} ⟨v⟩
| colspan="2" | {{IPAlink|z}}~{{IPAlink|ʑ}} ⟨zy⟩
| {{IPAlink|ɦ}} ⟨hh⟩
| {{IPAlink|h}} ⟨h⟩
|-
! voiceless
| {{IPAlink|f}} ⟨f⟩
| {{IPAlink|s}} ⟨s⟩
| {{IPAlink|ɕ}} ⟨sy⟩
|
|-
! colspan="2" | {{wp|Approximant}}
|
| {{IPAlink|l}}~{{IPAlink|ɫ}} ⟨l⟩
| {{IPAlink|j}} ⟨y/i⟩
|
|
|-
|}
*The velar nasal {{IPAlink|ŋ|/ŋ/}} dosen't appear phonemically as an initial in any modern Yu languages, however it is found in some dialects as an allophone of plain {{IPAlink|k|/k/}} after nasals.
*The plain plosives and affricates {{IPAlink|p|/p/}}, {{IPAlink|t|/t/}}, {{IPAlink|k|/k/}}, {{IPAlink|t͡s|/t͡s/}} and {{IPAlink|t͡ɕ|/t͡ɕ/}} can be realized as voiced {{IPAlink|b|/b/}}, {{IPAlink|d|/d/}}, {{IPAlink|ɡ|/ɡ/}}, {{IPAlink|d͡z|/d͡z/}} and {{IPAlink|d͡ʑ|/d͡ʑ/}}.
*In some Yu dialects the fricatives {{IPAlink|ɦ|/ɦ/}} and {{IPAlink|h|/h/}} have merged and are allophones of eachother. However this dosent occur in Standard Yu
 
=== Finals ===
The following is a list of the {{wp|Phoneme|phonemic}} {{wp|vowel}} sounds in Standard Yu, as well as the [Placeholder] romanization::
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" |
! {{wp|Front vowel|Front}}
! {{wp|Back vowel|back}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|Close vowel|Close}}
! {{small|unrounded}}
| {{IPA link|i}} ⟨i⟩
|
|-
! {{small|rounded }}
| {{IPA link|y}} ⟨iu/u⟩
| {{IPA link|u}} ⟨u⟩
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|Mid vowel|Mid}}
! {{small|unrounded}}
| {{IPA link|e}} ⟨e⟩
| {{IPA link|ɤ}} ⟨eo⟩
|-
! {{small|rounded}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}} ⟨o⟩
|-
! colspan="2" | {{wp|Open vowel|Open}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|a}} ⟨a⟩
|-
|}
 
The following is a list of all possible finals in Standard Yu, as well as the [Placeholder] romanisation:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="7" | Codas
|-
! ∅
! ɪ
! ʊ
! m
! n
! ŋ
! ɫ
|-
! a
| a ⟨a⟩
| aɪ ⟨ai⟩
|
| am ⟨am⟩
| an ⟨an⟩
| aŋ ⟨ang⟩
| aɫ ⟨al⟩
|-
! ja
| ja ⟨ya/ia⟩
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! e
| e ⟨e⟩
| eɪ ⟨ei⟩
|
| em ⟨em⟩
| en ⟨en⟩
| eŋ ⟨eng⟩
| eɫ ⟨el⟩
|-
! je
| je ⟨ye/ie⟩*
|
|
|
| jen ⟨yen⟩*
|
|
|-
! y
| y ⟨iu/yu⟩
|
|
|
| yn ⟨iun/yun⟩
| yŋ ⟨iung/yung⟩
|
|-
! u
| u ⟨u⟩
|
|
|
|
| uŋ ⟨ung⟩
| uɫ ⟨ul⟩
|-
! o
| o ⟨o⟩
| oɪ ⟨oi⟩
| oʊ ⟨ou⟩
| om ⟨om⟩
| on ⟨on⟩
| oŋ ⟨ong⟩
| oɫ ⟨ol⟩
|-
! ɤ
| ɤ ⟨oe⟩
| ɤɪ ⟨oei⟩
| ɤʊ ⟨oeu⟩
| ɤm ⟨oem⟩
| ɤn ⟨oen⟩
| ɤŋ ⟨oeng⟩
| ɤɫ ⟨oel⟩
|-
! jɤ
| jɤ ⟨yoe⟩
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
* Some dialects preserve medial /je/, but in the standard language it has dissapeared.
 
=== Tones ===
Standard Yu has four phonetically distinguishable tones for single syllables said in isolation. These tones are illustrated below.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Tone
! rowspan="2" | Description
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA}}
! rowspan="2" | Heiviu
! rowspan="2" | Tyulev
! colspan="4" | Example
|-
! Heiviu
! Tyulev
! Character
! Meaning
|-
! Medium
| medium flat
| ˧ (33)
| ◌
| 1
| syim
|
| 心
| heart
|-
! High
| medium rising
| ˨˦ (24)
| ◌́
| 2
| foéu
|
| 好
| good
|-
! Low
| medium falling
| ˦˨ (42)
| ◌̀
| 3
| jyù
|
| 酒
| wine
|-
! Entering
| falling rising
| ˦˨˥ (425)
| ◌̌
| 4
| gǔ
|
| 國
| state
|-
|}
 
Some linguists assign two more tones, due to dissolution from the {{wp|Middle Chinese|Middle Sinitic}} checked tone which split into the current entering tone and the two lateral tones which are a medium and low tones with a final lateral approximant /ɫ/. In some varieties of Yu these final lateral sounds have merged with vowels to form diphthongs, this is most prominent in Southern Yu.
 
==== Tone Sandhi ====
{{wp|Tone sandhi}} is a process whereby adjacent tones undergo dramatic alteration in connected speech. Standard Yu, like other Yu varieties, is characterized by left-prominent tone sandhi where the first syllable dominates over the contour of the entire tone domain. As a result, the underlying tones of syllables other than the leftmost syllable, have no effect on the tone contour of the domain.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! tone
! One syllable
! Two syllable
! Three syllable
! Four syllable
! Five syllable
|-
! 1
| 33
| 33 33
| 33 33 33
| 33 33 33 33
| 33 33 33 33 33
|-
! 2
| 24
| 22 44
| 22 44 55
| 22 44 55 22
| 22 33 44 55 22
|-
! 3
| 42
| 44 22
| 44 33 22
| 44 33 22 22
| 44 33 22 22 22
|-
! 4
| 425
| 42 44
| 44 22 44
| 44 22 33 55
| 44 33 22 44 55
|-
|}
 
== Grammar ==
Like other {{wp|Sinitic languages}}, Yu is an isolating language that lacks marking for tense, person, case, number or gender. Similarly, there is no distinction for tense or person in verbs, with word order and particles generally expressing these grammatical characteristics. However, some analyses do suggest that one can analyse Yu to have tenses, especially in modern varieties.
 
Affixation, generally (but not always) taking the form of suffixes, occurs rather frequently in Yu, although the line between suffix and particle is somewhat nebulous. In the example below, the term 頭子 (''dou-joe'') can be used to change an adjective to a noun.
 
::{|
| 給||了||||我||||彼||||小||頭子！
|-
| ''kìl''||''loe''||||''voé''||||bé||||''siu''||- ''dou-joé!''
|-
| give||<small>P</small>||||me||||<small>DEF</small>||||small||- ''dou-joé!''
|-
| colspan=9 | Give me the small thing!
|}
 
Words can be reduplicated in order to express various differences in meaning. Nouns, for example, can be reduplicated to express collective or diminutive forms; adjectives so as to intensify or emphasize the associated description; and verbs in order to soften the degree of action. Below is an example of noun reduplication resulting in semantic alteration.
 
::{|
|獲||||獲。
|-
|''vè''||-||''ve.''
|-
|hold||-||hold
|-
|colspan=3|hold for a bit.
|}
 
Word compounding is also very common in Yu, and is the most productive method of creating new words. Many recent borrowings in Yu originating from Indo-European languages are di- or polysyllabic.
 
=== Word Order ===
 
Standard Yu generally adhears to SVO and SOV word order. The placement of objects in Yu dialects is somewhat variable, with Common Yu varieties positioning the direct object before the indirect object, and Giulce varieties favoring the indirect object before the direct object.
 
Adjectives usually go before the noun, most speakers place adverbs after verbs, however in some dialects, particularly in dialects close to or spoken by speakers of the Giulce Yu varieties.
 
=== Nouns ===
Except for the limited derivational processes described above, Yu nouns are isolating. There was no inflection for overt case or number, however in modern times the plural marker 拉 (lo), when suffixed to an animate noun, can indicate plurality, for inanimte nouns the plural marker 些 (sya) is used. When an overt number is used the plural markers are dropped, unless when part of pronuns.
 
::{|
|小子||||拉||兮||母。
|-
|''siu-joe''||-||''ló''||''he''||''moèu''
|-
|child||-||<small>PL</small>||<small>POSS</small>||mother
|-
|colspan=5|childrens' mother
|}
 
There are no proper articles in Yu, however marking for {{wp|definiteness}} in nouns is done by using the demonstrative pronouns, indefiniteness is usually unmarked, but the bare classifiers can be used to mark it.
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
::{|
|我||去||伊||山||上。
|-
|''voé''||''kiù''||''i''||''sen''||''zyàng''
|-
|I||go||this||mountain||on
|-
|colspan=5|Im going to the mountain.
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
::{|
|彼||人||獵漁||彼些||魚。
|-
|''bé''||''in''||''yel-viú''||''be-syá''||''viu''
|-
|that||man||hunt||those||fish
|-
|colspan=5|The man catches the fish.
|}
</div>
==== Classifies ====
Yu varieties, unlike other sinitc languages, posses a small number of classifiers (also sometimes known as "counters" or "measure words"). Some classifiers are based on standard measurements or containers. Classifiers can be paired with a preceding determiner (often a numeral) to form a compound that further specifies the meaning of the noun it modifies. The most basic classifiers used in Yu are split into animate and inanimate objects. Animate objects include living things like animals and plants, as well as ghosts and spirits, inanimate objects are everything else. There are also several other classifiers specifically for people, liquids, bundles, and abstractions and others.
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
::{|
|伊||根||果子||太||味||兮。
|-
|''i''||''gan''||''gu-joé''||''toèi''||''miù''||''he''
|-
|this||<small>CL</small>||fruit||very||taste||<small>POSS</small>
|-
|colspan=6|This fruit is tasty.
|}
</div>
<div style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top; margin-right: 1em;">
::{|
|我||見||十二||個||人。
|-
|''voé''||''gèn''||''zyil-yáng''||''goè''||''in''
|-
|I||see||twelve||<small>CL</small>||person
|-
|colspan=5|I see twelve people.
|}
</div>
 
Classifiers can be reduplicated to mean "all" or "every", as in:
::{|
|隻||||隻||鹿。
|-
|''jyè''||-||''jye''||''lǔ''
|-
|<small>CL</small>||-||<small>CL</small>||deer
|-
|colspan=4|All of the deer.
|}
 
=== Verbs ===
Yu verbs are {{wp|analytic}} and as such do not undergo any sort of conjugation to express tense or person. However, the language does have a richly developed aspect system, expressed using various particles. This system has been argued to be a tense system.
 
====Aspect====
Some disagreement exists as to how many formal aspect categories exist in Yu, but it is generally accepted that there are at least six. The line between aspect and tense is blurry, so they form a single cathegory.
 
'''Imperfective''' aspect expresses an incomplete or ongoing action, it is the default form of the verb.
::{|
|渠||往||學齋||對。
|-
|''giu''||''váng''||''vò-jei''||''jì''
|-
|3s||go||school||to
|-
|colspan="4"|He is going/goes to school.
|}
 
'''Perfective''' aspect expresses a complete action, it's marked by 了 (''loe''), which comes post-verbally.
::{|
|渠||往||了||學齋||對。
|-
|''giu''||''váng''||''loe''||''vò-jei''||''jì''
|-
|3s||go||<small>PF</small>||school||to
|-
|colspan="5"|He went to school.
|}
 
'''General future''' aspect is marked by 要 (''yu''), which comes pre-verbally.
::{|
|渠||要||往||學齋||對。
|-
|''giu''||''yu''||''váng''||''vò-jei''||''jì''
|-
|3s||<small>FUT</small>||go||school||to
|-
|colspan="5"|He will go to school?
|}
 
'''Imidiate future''' aspect is marked by 快 (''kòi''), and also comes pre-verbally.
::{|
|渠||快||往||學齋||對。
|-
|''giu''||''kòi''||''váng''||''vò-jei''||''jì''
|-
|3s||<small>IMM.FUT</small>||go||school||to
|-
|colspan="5"|He will go to school soon.
|}
 
'''Diminutive''' aspect expresses a softer quality to the verb, it's marked by redublication of the verb.
::{|
|渠||往||||往||學齋||對。
|-
|''giu''||''vang''||-||''váng''||''vò-jei''||''jì''
|-
|3s||go||-||go||school||to
|-
|colspan="6"|He goes to school a little.
|}
 
'''Participle-Renarrative''' aspect which depending on the context can express either a past participle form or a renerrative form of the verb. It is marked by 唻 (''lei'') post-verbally.
::{|
|渠||往||唻||學齋||對。
|-
|''giu''||''váng''||''lei''||''vò-jei''||''jì''
|-
|3s||go to||<small>PPRT</small>||school||to
|-
|colspan="5"|He had gone to school.
|-
|colspan="5"|Apparently he went to school.
|}
 
====Mood====
There is no overt marking for mood in Yu, some linguists go so far as to suggest that the concept of grammatical mood does not exist in the language. There are, however, several modal auxiliaries that collectively express concepts of desire, conditionality, potentiality and ability.
 
::{|
|-
| "can" || 會 (''voèi'') / 好 (''foéu'')
|-
| "may" || 可使 (''koe-soé'') / 可 (''koé'')
|-
| "ought to" || 該 (''gei'')
|-
| "should" || 應該 (''hoeng-gèi'')
|-
| "would" || 會...卻 (''voèi... kiǎ'') / 會...但 (''voèi... doen'')
|-
| "wish to"<br>(subjunctive) || 相 (''syang'')
|}
 
It's argued that there exists a type of passive voice in Yu, governed by the particle 撥 (bul). This construction is superficially similar to by-phrases in English.
 
::{|
|伊||果子||撥||渠||吃||了。
|-
|''i''||''gu-joé''||''bul''||''giu''||''kě''||''loe''
|-
|this||fruit||by||3s||eat||<small>PF</small>
|-
|colspan="6"|The fruit was eaten by him/her.
|}
 
=== Pronouns ===
Personal pronouns in Yu do not distinguish gender or case. Owing to its isolating grammatical structure, Shanghainese is not a {{wp|pro-drop language}}.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | General
! colspan="2" | Formal
|-
! Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
| 我||我拉
| ||
|-
| voé||voe-ló
| ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
| 你||你拉
| 儂||儂拉
|-
| yoě||yoè-lo
| noeng||noeng-lo
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
| 渠||渠拉拉
| 厥||厥
|-
| giu||giu-lo
| gol||gol-lo
|}
 
Standard Yu distinguishes between general and formal pronouns in the second and third person, the formal pronouns are used to show respect.
 
Reflexive pronouns are formed by the addition of the particle 自 (jyì) / 自家 (''jyi-gà''), as in:
 
:{|
|渠||會||怪||淨||自家。
|-
|''giu''||''voèi''||''giù''||''jyèng''||''jyi-gà''
|-
|3s||can||blame||only||self
|-
|colspan=4|He can only blame himself.
|}
 
Possessive pronouns are formed via the particle 兮 (he), for instance, 我兮 (voé he) meaning ''my / mine''.
 
=== Adjectives ===
Most basic Yu adjectives are monosyllabic. Like other parts of speech, adjectives do not change to indicate number, gender or case. Adjectives can take semantic prefixes, which themselves can be reduplicated or repositioned as suffixes, in order to express degree of comparison or other changes in meaning. Thus:
 
::冷 ''léng'' ("cold")
::冰冷 ''boeng-leng'' ("ice-cold")
::冰冰冷 ''boeng-boeng-leng'' ("cold as ice")
 
=== Interrogatives ===
The particle 吧 (''ba'') is used to transform ordinary declarative statements into yes/no questions. This is the most common way of forming questions in Standard Yu.
 
::{|
|你 / 儂||好||吧？
|-
|''yoě / noeng''||''foéu''||''ba''
|-
|2s||good||<small>Q</small>
|-
|colspan=3|How are you? ({{H:title|literal translation|lit}} "Are you good?")
|}
 
=== Negation ===
Verbs can be {{wp|Affirmation and negation|negated}} by the particle 無 (''moe'').
 
::{|
|伊||無是||厥。
|-
|''i''||''moe zyé''||''gol''
|-
|this||<small>NEG</small> be||him/her
|-
|colspan=3|This is not him/her.
|}
 
== Writing ==
== Sample Text ==
== See also ==
 
{{Template:Zyang Navbox}}
[[Category:Elezia]][[Category:Zyang]]

Latest revision as of 11:40, 19 May 2023

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