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{{WIP}}


{{Infobox language
| name            = Emnian
| altname          =
| nativename      = ''Eaimhnidht''
| acceptance      =
| image            =
| imagesize        = <!-- or image_size -->
| imagealt        =
| imagecaption    =
| pronunciation    = [ˈavʲɾʲiːtʲ]
| states          = [[Emnia]]
| region          =
| creator          =
| created          =
| setting          =
| ethnicity        = [[Emnian people|Emnians]]
| extinct          =
| era              =
| speakers        = 5.32 million
| date            = 2020
| dateprefix      =
| ref              = <!-- up to e21 (or current edition) if ref is ''Ethnologue'' -->
| refname          =
| speakers2        =
| revived          =
| revived-category = <!-- or revived-cat -->
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| family          = {{wpl|Semitic languages|Emnitic}}
| fam1            =
| fam2            =
| fam3            = <!-- up to fam15 -->
| protoname        =
| ancestor        = {{wpl|Biblical Hebrew|Primitive Emnian}}
| ancestor2        = {{wpl|Biblical Hebrew|Primitive Emnian}}
| ancestor3        = [[Old Emnian]]
| ancestor4        = [[Middle Emnian]]
| standards        =
| stand1          =
| stand2          = <!-- up to stand6 -->
| dialects        =
| listclass        =
| dia1            =
| dia2            = <!-- up to dia20 -->
| script          = {{wpl|Latin script|Equatoric}} ([[Emnian alphabet]])<br/>
                    [[Emnian Braille]]
| sign            = [[Emnian Sign Language]]
| posteriori      =
| nation          = [[Emnia]]
| minority        =
| agency          =
| development_body =
| iso1            =
| iso1comment      =
| iso2            =
| iso2b            =
| iso2t            =
| iso2comment      =
| iso3            =
| iso3comment      =
| lc1              =
| ld1              =
| lc2              = <!-- up to lc30 -->
| ld2              = <!-- up to ld30 -->
| iso6            =
| isoexception    =
| linglist        =
| lingname        =
| linglist2        = <!-- up to linglist6 -->
| lingname2        = <!-- up to lingname6 -->
| glotto          =
| glottorefname      =
| glotto2          = <!-- up to glotto5 -->
| glottorefname2      = <!-- up to glottorefname5 -->
| aiatsis          =
| aiatsisname      =
| aiatsis2        = <!-- up to aiatsis6 -->
| aiatsisname2    = <!-- up to aiatsisname6 -->
| guthrie          =
| ELP              =
| ELPname          =
| ELP2            = <!-- up to ELP6 -->
| ELPname2        = <!-- up to ELPname6 -->
| glottopedia      =
| lingua          =
| lingua_ref      =
| ietf            =
| map              =
| mapsize          =
| mapalt          =
| mapcaption      =
| map2            =
| mapalt2          =
| mapcaption2      =
| pushpin_map      =
| pushpin_image    =
| pushpin_map_alt  =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| pushpin_mapsize  =
| pushpin_label          =
| pushpin_label_position  =
| coordinates      = <!-- use {{Coord}} -->
| module          =
| notice          = IPA
}}
'''Emnian''' (Emnian: ''Eaimhnidht'' [ˈavʲɾʲiːtʲ]) is a {{wpl|Semitic languages|West Emnitic language}} spoken by about 5.32 million people, principally in [[Emnia]], where it is an official language.
Until the 16th century, Emnian was a continuum of dialects spoken from the Lower Delta to the [[Far East (Emnian region)|Far East]] without a standard variety or spelling conventions. With the advent of [[Autocephalist Temple (Emnian lore)|Autocephalism]] and the introduction of the printing press, a standard language was developed based on the speech of the Lower Delta region. It spread through use in the education system, trade, and administration. During the romantic nationalist movements of the 19th century, the language itself was promoted as a token of Emnian national identity, and experienced a surge in use and popularity as major works of literature were produced. Today, the traditional dialects have almost disappeared except for the [[Thárann Valley dialect]].
==History==
Emnitic languages may have arrived in Emnia between 2,500 BC and 2,000 BC with the spread of the [[High Lake Culture]]. The language spoken by the High Lake Culture has been suggested as a candidate for the {{wpl|Proto-Semitic language|Proto-Emnitic}}, or, specifically, the direct ancestral language to Primitive Emnian.
===Primitive Emnian===
The earliest written form of the Emnian language is known to linguists as Primitive Emnian. Primitive Emnian is known only from fragments — mostly personal names — inscribed on stone in {{wpl|Phoenician alphabet|Emnian runes}}. These inscriptions are mostly found in the south of the country as well as in northern [[Southerland (Emnian lore)|Southerland]], where it was brought by settlers from Emnia.
===Old Emnian===
{{main|Old Emnian}}
Old Emnian first appears in the margins of {{wpl|Latin|Equatoric}} manuscripts as early as the 6th century. A large number of early Emnian literary texts, despite having been recorded as manuscripts during the Middle Emnian period (such as the ''[[Seaphair Mudoire]]''), are written in Old Emnian.
===Middle Emnian===
{{main|Middle Emnian}}
Middle Emnian refers most narrowly to the form of the language used from the 10th to the 12th centuries; it's therefore a contemporary of late {{wpl|Old English|Old Sudric}} and early {{wpl|Middle English|Middle Sudric}}. It is the language of a large amount of literature, including the entire ''[[Angaoide t-an Éile]]''.
===Modern Emnian===
Early Modern Emnian began to take shape between the 13th and 18th centuries, when numerous {{wpl|Tract (literature)|tracts}} were written in order to teach the most cultivated form of the language to student bards, lawyers, doctors, administrators, monks, and so on in Emnia. Despite being a ''cultivated'' language, the standards were largely based on vernacular usage and allowed a number of dialectal forms which had already existed at the time.
==Dialects==
==Phonology==
One of the most notable aspects of Emnian phonology is that nearly all consonants are paired — with one having a "broad" pronunciation and one having a "slender" one. Broad consonants are either {{wpl|Velarization|velarised}} (that is, the back of the tongue is pulled back and slightly up in the direction of the soft palate while the consonant is articulated) or simply velar. Slender consonants are {{wpl|Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalised}}, which means the tongue is pushed up towards the hard palate during articulation. The contrast between broad and slender consonants is crucial in Emnian as it not only plays a critical role in distinguishing the individual consonants themselves, but also in the pronunciation of the surrounding vowels, in the determination of which consonants can form clusters, and in the behaviour of words that begin with a vowel. The broad/slender distinction is similar to the hard/soft distinction of many languages such as {{wpl|Russian language|Slavonian}}.
===History===
===Vowels===
The vowel sounds vary from dialect to dialect, but most agree in having the monophthongs {{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/uː/}}, {{IPA|/ʊ/}}, {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, {{IPA|/aː/}}, {{IPA|/a/}}, and schwa ({{IPA|/ə/}}), which is found only in unstressed syllables; and the falling diphthongs {{IPA|/əi/}}, {{IPA|/əu/}}, {{IPA|/iə/}}, and {{IPA|/uə/}}. The vowel sounds of the [[Thárann Valley Dialect]] are significantly divergent from the standard language, and will not be discussed here.
===Consonants===
Most dialects of Emnian contain at a minimum the consonant phonemes shown in the following chart (see {{wpl|International Phonetic Alphabet|here}} for an explanation of the symbols). The consonant {{IPA|/h/}} is neither broad nor slender. Voiceless stops are aspirated at the start of a word; after a word initial /sˠ/ or /ʃ/, voiceless stops become unaspirated.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant phonemes
! rowspan="2"  colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Labial
! colspan="2" | Coronal
! colspan="2" | Dorsal
! rowspan="2" | Glottal
|- class="small"
! broad
! slender
! broad
! slender
! broad
! slender
|-
! rowspan="2" | Stop
! <small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA|pˠ}} || {{IPA|pʲ}}
| {{IPA|t̪ˠ}} || {{IPA|tʲ}}
| {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|c}}
|
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| {{IPA|bˠ}} || {{IPA|bʲ}}
| {{IPA|d̪ˠ}} || {{IPA|dʲ}}
| {{IPA|ɡ}} || {{IPA|ɟ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | Fricative/<br>Approximant
! <small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA|fˠ}} || {{IPA|fʲ}}
| {{IPA|sˠ}} || {{IPA|ʃ}}
| {{IPA|x}} || {{IPA|ç}}
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| {{IPA|w}} || {{IPA|vʲ}}
| ||
| {{IPA|ɣ}} || {{IPA|j}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| {{IPA|mˠ}} || {{IPA|mʲ}}
| {{IPA|n̪ˠ}} || {{IPA|nʲ}}
| {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{IPA|ɲ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Tap
| ||
| {{IPA|ɾˠ}} || {{IPA|ɾʲ}}
| ||
|
|-
! colspan="2" | Lateral
| ||
| {{IPA|ɫ̪}} || {{IPA|lʲ}}
| ||
|
|}
===Off- and onglides===
In many regional accents, broad (velar or velarised) consonants have a noticeable velar offglide (a very short vowel-like sound, {{IPA|[ɰ]}}) before front vowels. Similarly, slender (palatal or palatalised) consonants have a palatal offglide ({{IPA|[j]}}) before back vowels.
When a broad consonant follows a front vowel, there is a very short vowel-like sound ({{IPA|[ə̯]}}) called an onglide just before the consonant. Similarly, when a slender consonant follows a back vowel, there is an onglide ({{IPA|[i̯]}}) before the consonant.
===Variation===
The treatment of {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/vˠ/}} (broad ''bh'', ''mh'', ''v'') varies regionally. In the west and central parts of the country (constituting the majority of speakers), only {{IPA|/vˠ/}} is found, while in the southern border regions ([[Seleagh an Labhainn (prefecture)|Seleagh an Labhainn]] especially) only {{IPA|/w/}} can be heard. In the Thárann Valley, the distribution of {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/vˠ/}} is allophonic, with {{IPA|/w/}} occurring word-initially and {{IPA|/vˠ/}} occurring elsewhere. In the far east, {{IPA|/vˠ/}} generally prevails but {{IPA|/w/}} is found in some speakers.
The treatment of {{IPA|/ɾˠ/}} and {{IPA|/ɾʲ/}} (broad and slender ''r'' respectively) is also widely variable by region, social class, and age bracket. In cultivated speech, both are pronounced as an alveolar tap or flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}}; however, in colloquial Emnian, most speakers fall into one of 3 categories:
* '''broad R''' pronounced as a voiced alveolar trill {{IPA|/r/}} and '''slender R''' pronounced as an alveolar tap or flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}}; ''this is true primarily of rural lower- and middle-class people, although it is also salient in the Thárann Valley.''
* '''broad R''' pronounced as a voiced postalveolar approximant {{IPA|/ɹ̠/}} and '''slender R''' pronounced as an alveolar tap or flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}}; ''this is the most common realisation of the rhotic by urban upper- to middle-class people throughout the country.''
* '''both broad and slender R''' pronounced as a voiced postalveolar approximant {{IPA|/ɹ̠/}}; ''this was formerly limited to the area around the border with Southerland, but is becoming generalised among people under 30 and the working class.''
===Regional variations===
==Orthography==
===Consonants===
Consonant letters generally correspond to the consonant phonemes displayed in the table below. See the section on [[Emnian language#Phonology|phonology]] for an explanation of the symbols below. Consonants are '''broad''' (velarised or plain) when the nearest vowel letter is '''a''', '''o''', or '''u''', and '''slender''' (palatalised) when the nearest vowel is either '''e''' or '''i'''.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | Letter(s)
! Phoneme(s)
! Examples
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''b'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/bˠ/}}
| ''baght'' {{IPA|/bˠəit̪ˠ/}} "house"; ''baighle'' {{IPA|/bˠəil̪ʲə/}} "wife"
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/bʲ/}}
| ''béann'' {{IPA|/bʲeːn̪ˠ/}} "son"; ''beáth'' {{IPA|/bʲaː/}} "daughter"
|-
| rowspan=3 |  '''bh'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/w/}}~{{IPA|/vˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
| ''ceibhis'' {{IPA|/cɛvʲəʃ/}} "ram, male sheep"; ''bhéann'' {{IPA|/vʲeːn̪ˠ/}} "son" (lenited)
|-
| colspan=3 | See '''vowel chart''' for '''abh, obh'''
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''c'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| ''cairn'' {{IPA|/kaɾˠnʲ/}} "antler, horn"; ''tionoc'' {{IPA|/tʲɪnˠək/}} "baby"
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/c/}}
| ''ceilibh'' {{IPA|/kɛlʲəvʲ/}} "dog"; ''ceann'' {{IPA|/caːn̪ˠ/}} "yes"; ''oimhic'' {{IPA|/ɪvʲəc/}} "valley"
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
| broad<br /><small>(always broad before '''t''')</small>
| {{IPA|/x/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/ç/}};<br />{{IPA|/h/}} between vowels (except verb roots)
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''d'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/d̪ˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/dʲ/}}; {{IPA|/dʑ/}} in eastern dialects
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''dh'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}} syllable-initially;<br />silent after a long vowel
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/ʝ/}}~{{IPA|/j/}}
|
|-
| colspan=3 |  See '''vowel chart''' for '''adh, aidh, eadh, eidh, idh, oidh, odh'''.
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''f'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/fˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/fʲ/}}
|
|-
| colspan=2 | '''fh'''
| silent
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''g'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/ɟ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''gh'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}} syllable-initially;<br />silent after a long vowel
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/ʝ/}}~{{IPA|/j/}}
|
|-
| colspan=3 |  See '''vowel chart''' for '''agh, aigh, eagh, eigh, igh, ogh, oigh'''.
|-
| colspan=2 | '''h'''
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''l'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/l/}}; also frequently {{IPA|/l̪ˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/lʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''ll'''
|broad
| {{IPA|/l̪ˠ/}}
|
|-
|slender
| {{IPA|/l̪ʲ/}}; also frequently {{IPA|/lʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''m'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/mˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/mʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''mh'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/w/}}~{{IPA|/vˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
|
|-
| colspan=3 | See '''vowel chart''' for '''amh, omh'''
|-
| rowspan=2| '''n'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/nˠ/}}~{{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}} word initially, intervocally, and after  {{IPA|/sˠ/}};<br/> {{IPA|/ɾˠ/}} after other consonants
| ''naoichde'' {{IPA|/nˠiːçdʲə/}} "granddaughter"; ''tionoc'' {{IPA|/tʲɪnˠək/}} "baby"; ''Eamhna'' {{IPA|/avˠɾˠə/}} "Emnia"
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/nʲ/}} word initially, intervocally, and after  {{IPA|/ʃ/}};<br/> {{IPA|/ɾʲ/}} after other consonants
| ''néichid'' {{IPA|/nʲeːhədʲ/}} "grandson"; ''labhaine'' {{IPA|/ləunʲə/}} "white" (fem.); ''Eaimhnidht'' {{IPA|/avʲɾʲiːtʲ/}} "Emnian"
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''nc'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/ŋk/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/ɲc/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''ng'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/ŋɡ/}}
| ''angaoide'' {{IPA|/anˠɡiːdʲə/}} "legend"
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| {{IPA|/ɲɟ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/nʲ/}} in final unstressed '''-ing'''
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''nn'''
|broad
|{{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}}
|
|-
|slender
|{{IPA|/n̪ʲ/}}; also frequently {{IPA|/nʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''p'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/pˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/pʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ph'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/fˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/fʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''r'''
| broad<br /><small>(always broad word-initially; always broad in '''rd, rl, rn, rr, rs, rt, rth, sr''')</small>
| {{IPA|/ɾˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/ɾʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''s'''
| broad<br /><small>(always broad word-initially before '''f, m, p, r''')</small>
| {{IPA|/sˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}; {{IPA|/ɕ/}} in eastern dialects
|
|-
| colspan=2 | '''sh'''
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''t'''
| broad
| {{IPA|/t̪ˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/tʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''th'''
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|/h/}}
|
|-
| colspan=2 | Silent at the end of a syllable
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ts'''<br /><small>(dialectal lenition of '''s-''' after '''an''' 'the')</small>
| broad
| {{IPA|/t̪ˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/tʲ/}}; {{IPA|/tɕ/}} in eastern dialects
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''v''' <small>(loan consonant)</small>
| broad
| {{IPA|/w/}}~{{IPA|/vˠ/}}
|
|-
| slender
| {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''z''' <small>(loan consonant)</small>
|broad
|{{IPA|/zˠ/}}
|
|-
|slender
|{{IPA|/ʒ/}}; {{IPA|/ʑ/}} in eastern dialects
|
|-
|}
===Vowels===
Sequences of vowels are very common in Emnian spelling due to the rule of "slender with slender and broad with broad". This rule states that the vowels on either side of any consonant or consonant cluster must both be slender (''e'' or ''i'') or both be broad (''a'', ''o'', or ''u'''), to unambiguously determine the consonant's own broad versus slender pronunciation. A notable exception is the combination ''ae'', which is followed by a '''broad''' consonant despite the ''e'' (the slender variant is ''aei'').
====Simple vowels====
Unstressed vowels are generally reduced to [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}).
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''a'''
| rowspan=2 | stressed
| {{IPA|/a/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/aː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
|
|-
| unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''e'''
| stressed
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|
|-
| unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''i'''
| rowspan=2 | stressed
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/iː/}} before syllable-final '''ll, nn'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} finally
|
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''o'''
| rowspan=4 | stressed
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}} before '''n, m'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/oː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, rr'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/uː/}} before syllable-final '''nn'''<br />before word-final '''m, ng'''
|
|-
| unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''u'''
| rowspan=3 | stressed
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in Sudric loanwords, corresponds to {{IPA|/ʌ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/uː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}} finally
|
|}
====Digraphs and trigraphs====
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan=2 | Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ae''', '''aei'''
| {{IPA|/eː/}}
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | '''ai'''
| rowspan="3" | stressed
| {{IPA|/a/}}
|
|-
|  {{IPA|/aː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''
| 
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in certain words
|
|-
|  unstressed
|  {{IPA|/ə/}}
| 
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | '''ao'''
| {{IPA|/iː/}} ({{IPA|/eː/}} in eastern dialects)
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in the feminine plural suffix
|
|-
| colspan="2" |'''aoi'''
| {{IPA|/iː/}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''ea''', '''eai'''
| rowspan="2" | stressed
|{{IPA|/a/}}
|
|-
|{{IPA|/aː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''<br />before syllable-final '''ll, nn, rr'''
|
|-
| unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| rowspan="5" colspan=2 | '''ei'''
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} before '''m, mh, n'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/eː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/əi/}} before syllable-final '''ll'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/iː/}} before syllable-final '''nn''' and word-final '''m'''
|
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | '''eo''', '''eoi'''
| rowspan=1 | {{IPA|/oː/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}} in the feminine plural suffix
|
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ia''', '''iai'''
| rowspan=1 | {{IPA|/iə/}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" colspan=2 | '''io'''
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} before coronals and '''th'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}} before noncoronals
|
|-
| {{IPA|/iː/}} before syllable-final '''nn'''
|
|-
| colspan=2 | '''iu'''
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=7 | '''oi'''
| rowspan=6 | stressed
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}} before '''s, cht, rs, rt, rth'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} next to '''n, m, mh'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/əi/}} before syllable-final '''ll'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/iː/}} before syllable-final '''nn''' and word-final '''m'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/oː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''
|
|-
| unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ua''', '''uai'''
| rowspan=1 | {{IPA|/uə/}}
|
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''ui'''
| rowspan=4 | stressed
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}} before '''cht, rs, rt'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/iː/}} before syllable-final '''ll, nn'''<br />before word-final '''m'''
|
|-
| {{IPA|/uː/}} before '''rl, rn, rd'''
|
|-
| unstressed
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|}
====Followed by ''bh'', ''dh'', ''gh'', or ''mh''====
When followed by the lenited consonants ''bh'', ''dh'', ''gh'', or ''mh'', a vowel usually forms a diphthong.
=====Stressed=====
{| class="wikitable"
! Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples
|-
| '''(e)abh''', '''(e)abha''', '''(e)abhai'''
| rowspan="5" | {{IPA|/əu/}}
|
|-
| '''(e)amh''', '''(e)amha''', '''(e)amhai'''
|
|-
| '''(e)obh''', '''(e)obha''', '''(e)obhai'''
|
|-
| '''(e)odh''', '''(e)odha''', '''(e)odhai'''
|
|-
| '''(e)ogh''', '''(e)ogha''', '''(e)oghai'''
|
|-
| '''(e)omh''', '''(e)omha''', '''(e)omhai'''
| {{IPA|/oː/ ~ /əu/}}
|
|-
| '''(i)umh''', '''(i)umha''', '''(i)umhai'''
| {{IPA|/uː/}}
|
|-
| '''(e)adh''', '''(e)adha''', '''(e)adhai'''
| rowspan="8" | {{IPA|/əi/}}
|
|-
| '''(e)agh''', '''(e)agha''', '''(e)aghai'''
|
|-
| '''aidh''', '''aidhe''', '''aidhea'''
|
|-
| '''aigh''', '''aighe''', '''aighea'''
|
|-
| '''eidh''', '''eidhea''', '''eidhi'''
|
|-
| '''eigh''', '''eighea''', '''eighi'''
|
|-
| '''oidh''', '''oidhea''', '''oidhi'''
|
|-
| '''oigh''', '''oighea''', '''oighi'''
|
|}
=====Unstressed=====
{| class="wikitable"
! Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples
|-
| '''adh''', '''eadh'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ə/}}
|
|-
| '''agh''', '''eagh'''
|
|-
| '''aidh''', '''idh'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː/}}
|
|-
| '''aigh''', '''igh'''
|
|}
====Vowels with a ''gaola''====
Vowels with a ''gaola'' are always pronounced long.
{| class="wikitable"
! Letter(s)
! Phoneme
! Examples
|-
| '''á'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/aː/}}
|
|-
| '''ái'''
|
|-
| '''aí'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː/}}
|
|-
| '''aío'''
|
|-
| '''aoú'''
| {{IPA|/iː.uː/}}
|
|-
| '''é'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/eː/}}
|
|-
| '''éa'''
|
|-
| '''eá'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/aː/}}
|
|-
| '''eái'''
|
|-
| '''éi'''
| {{IPA|/eː/}}
|
|-
| '''í'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː/}}
|
|-
| '''ío'''
|
|-
| '''iá'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː.aː/}}
|
|-
| '''iái'''
|
|-
| '''ió'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː.oː/}}
|
|-
| '''iói'''
|
|-
| '''iú'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/uː/}}
|
|-
| '''iúi'''
|
|-
| '''ó'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/oː/}}
|
|-
| '''ói'''
|
|-
| '''oí'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː/}}
|
|-
| '''oío'''
|
|-
| '''ú'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/uː/}}
|
|-
| '''úi'''
|
|-
| '''uá'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/uː.aː/}}
|
|-
| '''uái'''
|
|-
| '''uí'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː/}}
|
|-
| '''uío'''
|
|-
| '''uó'''
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/uː.oː/}}
|
|-
| '''uói'''
|
|}
Two vowels with a ''gaola'' will occasionally appear in succession. Should this occur, they are pronounced separately.
====Epenthetic vowels====
In the sequence of short vowel + /l, n, r/ + labial, palatal, or velar consonant (except for voiceless stops) within the same morpheme, an unwritten /ə/ gets inserted between the /l, n, r/ and the following consonant.
==Grammar==
===Nouns and adjectives===
Emnian nouns (''séimh'', plural ''séimhimh'') and adjectives are declined according to the following properties:
* ''State'' (indefinite, definite, or construct)
* ''Gender'' (feminine or masculine); this is an inherent characteristic of nouns but part of the declension of adjectives
* ''Number'' (singular, plural, or dual)
Nouns are generally related to verbs via their shared verbal roots, but the formation of some nouns is not systematic due to loanwords and influence from foreign languages.
====Gender====
Every Emnian noun has a gender — either masculine or feminine (though there are some 'ambigender' nouns which can be either masculine or feminine). Emnian is logically very similar to other Emnitic languages regarding grammatical gender: animate nouns, such as those referring to people, usually have a grammatical gender that corresponds to their natural gender, but for inanimate nouns the grammatical gender is largely arbitrary.
Most feminine nouns end in the vowels '''-e''' or '''-a''', but many do not (e.g. ''éimh'' "mother", ''eirias'' "earth", ''eáthann'' "jenny, female donkey").
====Number====
All Emnian nouns can be '''singular''', '''dual''', or '''plural'''.
In Old Emnian, the use of the dual was mandatory whenever exactly two objects were referred to, regardless of whether the twoness of the objects is explicit or relevant to the point. The plural ''necessarily'' referred to three or more objects. By the Middle Emnian period, this was beginning to shift, and in modern Emnian the dual is generally only used with a handful of common words and for emphasis.
Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding the suffix '''-imh''' (slender ending) or '''-aimh''' (broad ending); both suffixes are pronounced /-əvʲ/.
* ''méilich'' (king) → ''méilichimh'' (kings)
* ''seoghaill'' ([male] fox) → ''seoghailimh'' ([male] foxes)
* ''míseor'' (flatland; plain) → ''míseoraimh'' (flatlands; plains)
Feminine nouns generally form their plural by adding the suffix '''-(e)oth''' (slender ending) or '''-(a)oth''' (broad ending); both suffixes are pronounced /-ɔː/.
* ''máilce'' (queen) → ''máilceoth'' (queens)
* ''seoghaile'' ([female] fox; vixen) → ''seoghaileoth'' ([female] foxes; vixens)
* ''adapha'' (addendum) → ''adaphaoth'' (addenda)
The dual is formed with the suffixes '''-eaidhimh''' (slender ending) or '''-aidhimh''' (broad ending); both suffixes are pronounced /-eːvʲ/. There exists no separate masculine or feminine dual form — but dual nouns agree in gender with their verbal/adjectival/pronominal complements.
* ''méilich'' (king) → ''méilicheaidhimh'' (two kings)
* ''máilce'' (queen) → ''máilceaidhimh'' (two queens)
* ''adapha'' (addendum) → ''adaphaidhimh'' (two addenda)
Note that nouns ending in doubled consonants revert to a single consonant before taking the plural or dual suffixes.
====State====
The grammatical property of ''state'' is specific to Emnian and other {{wpl|Semitic languages|Emnitic languages}}. The basic division is between ''indefinite'', ''definite'', and ''construct''.
''Indefinite'' nouns refer to entities not previously determined or mentioned, and correspond to {{wpl|English language|Sudric}} nouns preceded by ''a'', ''an'' or ''some'', or mass nouns with no preceding determiner. Adjectives modifying a noun must agree with the noun in state:
* ''méilich'' — "(a) king"
* ''máilce'' — "(a) queen"
* ''béann othuibh'' — "(a) beloved son"
* ''beáth othuibhe'' — "(a) beloved daughter"
* ''míseor gaodhall'' — "(a) great plain"
* ''seoghaile ádaoime'' — "(a) red fox"
*''déilith ádaoime'' — "(a) red door"
''Definite'' nouns signal entities previously referenced, and correspond to the following {{wpl|English language|Sudric}} forms: nouns preceded by ''the'', ''this'', ''that'', or a possessive adjective (e.g. ''my'', ''your''; or proper nouns. Nouns in the ''definite'' state are marked with the definite article ''an''. Note that singular, feminine nouns are always lenited when preceded by the definite article '''unless''' they begin with ''d'' or ''t''.
* ''an méilich'' — "the king"
* ''an mháilce'' — "the queen"
* ''an béann an othuibh'' — "the beloved son"
* ''an bheáth an othuibhe'' — "the beloved daughter"
* ''an míseor an gaodhall'' — "the great plain"
* ''an seoghaile an ádaoime'' — "the red fox"
* ''an '''d'''éilith an ádaoime'' — "the red door"
The third value for state is ''construct'', which is assumed by nouns when they are modified by another noun in a [[Emnian language#Genitive construction|genitive construction]]. A noun in the construct state is never marked by a definite article even if it is semantically definite. Furthermore, no word can intervene between a construct-state noun and a following possessive with the exception of a demonstrative determiner.
Many commonly used nouns have a slightly different construct form from their indefinite/definite form — usually common nouns ending in broad consonants, which become slender in the construct. Additionally, feminine nouns ending in vowels or '''-th''' trigger '''t-prothesis'''. Any adjectives modifying the noun in the construct appear at the very end ''without'' a definite article.
* ''méilich eirias'' — "(a) king of a country"
* ''méilich an eirias'' — "the king of the country"
* ''máilce t-eirias'' — "(a) queen of a country"
* ''béinn an mhéilich othuibh'' — "the king's beloved son"
* ''beáth t-an mhéilich an othuibh seomhaine'' — "the beloved king's plump daughter"
* ''seoghaile t-an míseor an gaodhall ádaoime'' — "the red fox of the great plain"
The construct is also used for nouns with a "bound" pronoun:
* ''méilich aonú'' — "our king"
* ''máilce t-aonú'' — "our queen"
* ''béinn í othuibh'' — "my beloved son"
* ''beáth t-í othuibhe'' — "my beloved daughter"
Masculine, plural nouns that end in '''-imh''' or '''-aimh''' change their suffix to '''-e''' (slender) and '''-a''' (broad).
* ''méiliche aonú'' — "our kings"
* ''seoghaile an eoghar ádaoimimh'' — "the red foxes (m.) of the forest"
* ''caedhmona an óthaeill'' — "ancestors of the family"
===Pronouns===
===="Free" pronouns====
In Emnian, "free" personal pronouns have 14 distinct forms. In the singular and plural, 2nd and 3rd person pronouns have separate masculine and feminine forms, while the 1st person does not. Traditionally, there exists a formality distinction in the first-person pronouns, although this is exceedingly rare even in the most formal of modern speech.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st
! <small>informal</small>
| style="text-align: center;" | ''aoine''
| style="text-align: center;" | ''anuách''
|-
! <small>formal</small>
| style="text-align: center;" | ''anaoiche''
| style="text-align: center;" | ''anú''
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd
! <small>masculine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''tá''
| style="text-align: center;" |''tim''
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''át''
| style="text-align: center;" |''tin''
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''thú''
| style="text-align: center;" |''them''
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''thaoi''
| style="text-align: center;" |''then''
|-
! <small>impersonal</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''dhe''
| style="text-align: center;" |''dheile''
|}
====Bound pronouns====
The enclitic forms of the personal pronouns (or "bound" pronouns) are used:
* After the construct state of nouns, where they have the meaning of possessive determiners, e.g. "my, your, his, her", etc.
* After prepositions, where they construe the objects of prepositions, e.g. "to me, to you, to him, to her", etc.
* After verbs, where they have the meaning of direct object pronouns
Unlike in the free pronouns, there exists no traditional formality distinction in the 1st person in bound pronouns.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Person
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st
| style="text-align: center;" | ''í''
| style="text-align: center;" | ''aonú''
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd
! <small>masculine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''chá''
| style="text-align: center;" |''chim''
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''ách''
| style="text-align: center;" |''chin''
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3rd
! <small>masculine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''ó''
| style="text-align: center;" |''ám''
|-
! <small>feminine</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''á''
| style="text-align: center;" |''án''
|-
! <small>impersonal</small>
| style="text-align: center;" |''dhe''
| style="text-align: center;" |''dheile''
|}
====Demonstratives====
===Numerals===
===Verbs===
{{main|Emnian verbs}}
Emnian verbs, like the verbs in other Emnitic languages, are based on a historic root made up of two to five (but most often three) consonants. The historic root communicates the basic meaning of the verb, e.g. {{nowrap|'''K'''-'''T'''-'''B'''}} 'write', {{nowrap|'''Q'''-'''R'''-'''ʾ'''}} 'read', {{nowrap|'''ʾ'''-'''K'''-'''L'''}} 'eat'. Changes to the vowels between the consonants, along with prefixes, suffixes, and lenition, specify grammatical functions such as person, gender, number, tense, and mood.
===Prepositions===
===Syntax===
Emnian syntax is markedly different from that of many other Calatanian languages, due to its strict {{wpl|Verb–subject–object|VSO}} word order.
====Formulae meaning "to be"====
In Emnian, there are two separate copular terms which are used in different situations: ''is''/''inn'' and ''l'ochúnn''. Unlike in many other Emnitic languages, '''an explicit copula is required in the present tense''' in Emnian.
=====''is'' and ''inn''=====
''Is'' ({{IPA|/ɪsˠ/}}) doesn't conjugate for person, number, or tense, and technically isn't a verb at all. It is derived from Old Emnian {{nowrap|𐤉𐤔}} which originally had the meaning of "there is/are", and it is debated whether it constitutes an adverb, a particle, or something else entirely.
Where ''is'' is used, the formula for a copular sentence is: "''Is'' <small>[predicate]</small> (<small>subj. pronoun</small>) (<small>subj.</small>)". The predicate must be explicit, but the subject pronoun or explicit subject can be omitted.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Is''}}
| {{nowrap|''méilich''}}
| {{nowrap|''thú''.}}
|-
| ''is''
| king
| he
|-
| colspan=3 | "He is a king."
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Is''}}
| {{nowrap|''máilce''}}
| {{nowrap|''Príoma''.}}
|-
| ''is''
| queen
| Prima
|-
| colspan=3 | "Prima is a queen."
|}
''Is'' becomes ''inn'' ({{IPA|/ɪn̪ˠ/}}) when negative. This term is derived from Old Emnian {{nowrap|𐤀𐤉𐤍}} or {{nowrap|𐤀𐤍}}, which originally had the meaning of "there isn't/aren't".
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Inn''}}
| {{nowrap|''be taoire t-an mhéilich''}}
| {{nowrap|''thaoi''}}
| {{nowrap|''an naoische''.}}
|-
| ''isn't''
| in castle.CNS the king
| she
| the princess
|-
| colspan=4 | "The princess isn't in the King's castle."
|}
''Is''/''inn'' is always present-tense in Emnian. In order to encode the past tense using ''is''/''inn'', one must employ the auxiliary particle ''eátha'' ({{IPA|/aːhə/}}) directly following ''is''/''inn''. ''Eátha'' is actually derived from a former verb in Old Emnian: {{nowrap|𐤄𐤉𐤄}}, which had the meaning of "to be". It's become fossilised in the past tense as an adverb that pairs with ''is''/''in''.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Is eátha''}}
| {{nowrap|''b'an uír an gaoll''}}
| {{nowrap|''thú''}}
| {{nowrap|''baight áibh í''.}}
|-
| ''was''
| in the city the big
| he
| house.CNS father.CNS my
|-
| colspan=4 | "My father's house was in the big city."
|}
=====''l'ochúnn''=====
There also exists a regular verbal copula, ''l'ochúnn'', which is a weak class I verb with the historic root K-W-N. When the verbal copula ''l'ochúnn'' is used, the word order reverts to the canonical VSO expected in Emnian.
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Oichiúnn''}}
| {{nowrap|''méilich''.}}
|-
| be.3S.MASC.NPST
| king
|-
| colspan=3 | "He is a king."
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Toichiúnn''}}
| {{nowrap|''Príoma''}}
| {{nowrap|''máilce''.}}
|-
| be.3S.FEM.NPST
| Prima
| queen
|-
| colspan=3 | "Prima is a queen."
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Látha''}}
| {{nowrap|''toichiúnn''}}
| {{nowrap|''an naoische''}}
| {{nowrap|''be taoire t-an mhéilich''.}}
|-
| not
| be.3S.FEM.NPST
| the princess
| in castle.CNS the king
|-
| colspan=4 | "The princess isn't in the King's castle."
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Cóinn''}}
| {{nowrap|''baight áibh í''}}
| {{nowrap|''b'an uír an gaoll''.}}
|-
| be.3S.MASC.PAST
| house.CNS father.CNS my
| in the city the big
|-
| colspan=4 | "My father's house was in the big city."
|}
Modern Emnian generally prefers ''is''/''inn'' in the present tense and ''l'ochúnn'' in other tenses — but the two forms are equally correct and interchangeable.
====Genitive construction====
A noun may be more precisely defined by adding another noun immediately afterwards. In Emnian grammar, this is known as an ''adapha'' (lit. "addendum") or the "genitive construct". The first noun (the possessed) must be in the construct state, while the subsequent noun or bound pronoun (the possessor) can be either definite or indefinite. Following a feminine noun ending in a vowel or the plural suffix -''(a/e)oth'', nouns or bound pronouns beginning with vowels undergo T-prothesis. This construction is typically equivalent to the construction "(noun) of (noun)".
Simple examples include:
* ''beáth Príoma'' — "the daughter of Príoma/Príoma's daughter"
* ''beáth t-Annraoi'' — "the daughter of Annraoi/Annraoi's daughter"
* ''béinn Annraoi'' — "the son of Annraoi/Annraoi's son"
* ''baight aoinse'' — "the house of a woman/a woman's house"
* ''baight an aoinse'' — "the house of the woman/the woman's house"
Nothing except a demonstrative can intervene between the two nouns in an ''adapha''. If an adjective modifies the first noun, it appears at the end of the ''adapha'' without a definite article ''regardless of whether the term it modifies is semantically definite''. An ajdective modifying the second noun will appear directly after the second noun, and will match the definiteness of that noun.
* ''máilce t-an eirias chadhaise'' — "The new queen of the country"
* ''máilce t-an eirias an chadhaise'' — "The queen of the new country"
====Word order====
The normal word order for an Emnian sentence is:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Clausal adverb/negation
| Finite verb
| Subject
| Non-finite verb
| Object(s)
| Place adverb
| Manner adverb
| Time adverb
|}
Only the '''finite verb''' and the '''subject''' (which can be explicit or implicit) are obligatory for the creation of a complete sentence; the remaining parts are optional (unless the primary verb is transitive, in which case a '''direct object''' is also required).
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Látha''}}
| {{nowrap|''toichiálann''}}
| {{nowrap|''an anaoisimh''}}
| {{nowrap|''l'ocruágh''}}
| {{nowrap|''a t-an seaphairimh''}}
| {{nowrap|''be scoill án''}}
| {{nowrap|''leathat''}}
| {{nowrap|''an eogham.''}}
|-
| not
| can.3P.FEM.NPST
| the women
| read.INF
| [dir. obj. marker] the books
| in school.CNS their.FEM
| slowly
| the day
|-
| colspan=8 | "The women cannot slowly read the books in their school today."
|}
An adverb can be moved in front of the verb in order to emphasise it in the sentence. Compare:
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Toicreághann''}}
| {{nowrap|''then''}}
| {{nowrap|''mothair.''}}
|-
| read.3P.FEM.NPST
| they.FEM
| quickly
|-
| colspan=3 | "They are reading quickly."
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{nowrap|''Mothair''}}
| {{nowrap|''toicreághann''}}
| {{nowrap|''then''.}}
|-
| quickly
| read.3P.FEM.NPST
| they.FEM
|-
| colspan=3 | "They are reading '''quickly'''."
|}
====Definite article====
==See also==
[[category:Emnia]][[category:Languages]]

Latest revision as of 05:18, 18 January 2024

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