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{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Manchuria
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Manjugurun
|native_name = Манҗу Гуңхего<br />{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ}}{{MongolUnicode|ᡤᡠᠨᡥᡝᡬᠣ}}<br />满洲共和国<br />Маньчжурская Республика<br />만주 공화국<br />満州共和国<br />Манжуурын Бүгд Найрамдах Улс
|native_name = Манҗу Гурун
|common_name = Manchuria
|common_name = Manjugurun
|image_flag = Flag of Manchukuo.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Manchukuo.svg
|image_coat = File:A symbol of Manchu.svg
|image_coat = File:Jakvn_gvsa.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = File:Manchukuo orthographic projection.png
|image_map = Manchu State.png  
|map_width = 239px
|map_caption = location of Manchuria in '''green'''
|map_caption = location of Manchuria in '''green'''
|national_motto =
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = {{unbulleted list |[[National Anthem of Manchukuo|Манжу Гурун-и Учун]]<br />{{transl|mnc|''Manju Gurun-i Ucun''}}<br />{{small|''National anthem of Manchuria''}}}}<br /><center>[[File:Mongolian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.ogg]]</center>
|national_anthem = {{unbulleted list |[[National Anthem of Manchukuo|Манжу Гурун-и Учун]]<br />{{transl|mnc|''Manju Gurun-i Ucun''}}<br />{{small|''National anthem of Manchuria''}}}}<br /><center>[[File:Manchukuo National Anthem 1933.mid]]</center>
|official_languages = [[Manchu language|Manchu]] (official and national), [[Mandarin]], [[Russian]], [[Korean]], [[Japanese]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|official_languages = [[Manchu language|Manchu]] (official and national), [[Kyowa-go]], [[Mandarin]], [[Russian]], [[Korean]], [[Japanese]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|languages_type = [[Official script]]s
|languages_type = [[Official script]]s
|languages = [[Xibe language|Manchu Cyrillic]]<br />[[Manchu script]]
|languages = {{W|Xibe language|Manchu Cyrillic}}<br />{{W|Manchu script}}
|ethnic_groups =
|ethnic_groups =
  {{unbulleted list
  {{unbulleted list
   | 41% [[Manchus]]
   | 44% {{W|Manchus}}
   | 46% [[Chinese]]
   | 38% {{W|Chinese|Nikan}}
   |  6% [[Koreans]]
   |  9% {{W|Koreans}}
   |  2% [[Mongols]]
   |  3% {{W|Mongols}}
   |1.7% [[Japanese]]
   | 2% {{W|Russians}}
   | 1% [[Russians]]
   |1.7% {{W|Japanese}}
   |1.3% [[others]]
   |2.3% {{W|others}}
  }}
  }}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010
|demonym = {{hlist |[[Manchu]] |Manchurian{{Ref label|b|b}} }}
|demonym = {{hlist |{{W|Manchu|Manju}} {{Ref label|b|b}} }}
|capital = [[Changchun|Cangcon]]{{Ref label|a|a}}
|capital = {{W|Changchun|Cacungga}}
|coordinates = {{coord|43|15|N|125|19|E|scale:20000000_source:GNS|display=title}}
|largest_city = {{W|Mukden}}
|largest_city = [[Mukden]]
|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|parliamentary]]}} [[state]]
|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|parliamentary]]}} [[state]]
|leader_title1 = [[President]]
|leader_title1 = [[President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Bai Chunli]]
|leader_name1 = [[Bai Chunli|Baigiya Dorolon]]
|leader_title2 = [[Founder]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Jin Yuzhang|Aisin Gioro Yujang]]
|leader_name2 = [[:zh:齐续春|Citela Sucun]]
|leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister]]
|legislature = [[National Assembly]]
|leader_name3 = [[:zh:齐续春|Citela Sucun]]
|legislature = [[State Great Khural|National Assembly]]
|area_rank = 18th
|area_rank = 18th
|area_km2 = 1,260,000
|area_km2 = 1,260,000
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|HDI_year = 2015
|HDI_year = 2015
|HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|HDI_change = increase <!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
|HDI = 0.675 <!-- number only, between 0 and 1 -->
|HDI = 0.765 <!-- number only, between 0 and 1 -->
|HDI_ref =
|HDI_ref =
|HDI_rank =  
|HDI_rank =  
Line 70: Line 68:
|established_event3 = [[Manchukuo]]
|established_event3 = [[Manchukuo]]
|established_date3 = 1932
|established_date3 = 1932
|established_event4 = [[Mongolian People's Republic|Manchurian People's Republic]] was established
|established_event4 = [[Mongolian People's Republic|Manju People's Republic]] was established
|established_date4 = February 1, 1946
|established_date4 = February 1, 1946
|established_event5 = Sorghum Revolution
|established_event5 = Sorghum Revolution
|established_date5 = October 3, 1990
|established_date5 = October 3, 1990
|established_event6 = [[Constitution of Mongolia|Current Constitution]]
|established_event6 = Current Constitution
|established_date6 = February 1, 1991
|established_date6 = March 1, 1991
|currency = [[Manchukuo yuan|Jiha]]
|currency = [[Manchukuo yuan|Muheren]]
|currency_code = MNJ
|currency_code = MNM
|time_zone = <!-- [[Asia/Seoul||KST]] (Manchurian Standard Time) -->
|time_zone = <!-- [[Asia/Seoul||KST]] (Manju Standard Time) -->
|utc_offset = +9
|utc_offset = +9
|time_zone_DST =
|time_zone_DST =
Line 87: Line 85:
|iso3166code = MN
|iso3166code = MN
|cctld = [[.mn|.mj]], [[.мон|.ман]]
|cctld = [[.mn|.mj]], [[.мон|.ман]]
|footnote_a = {{Note|a}} Also called "Niyengnyeltu" and "Ice Hoton".
}}
}}


'''Manchuria''' {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Mongolia.ogg|m|æ|ŋ|ˈ|t|ʃ|u:|r|i|ə}} (Manju Gurun in Manchu; Манҗу Гурун in Manchu Cyrillic) is a sovereign state in [[East Asia]]. It borders [[Russia]] to the north, [[Mongolia]] to the west, [[China]] to the southwest, and [[Korea]] in the southeast. Its capital is [[Changchun]], and its former capital [[Mukden]] is the largest city. Its population of 121,204,300 is one of the largest on earth.{{UN_Population|ref}}


While Manchuria was dominated by Korean and Chinese dynasties, they were mostly dominated by [[Tungusic]] peoples such as the [[Jurchens]]. The region was the center of the [[Jin Dynasty]] from 1125 to 1234, when it was conquered by the [[Mongol Empire]] and its [[Yuan Dynasty]]. Southern Manchuria fell under Ming rule, but the northern parts remained outside Chinese control. The Jianzhou Jurchen chieftain [[Nurhaci]] later took over the Jurchen tribes in the 1600s, culminating in the [[Qing Dynasty]] founded by [[Hong Taiji]] in 1636, and later conquering China by 1644. Intrigues by Russia led to the loss of Outer Manchuria by 1860, with Manchuria coming under Russian influence by the late 19th century. The southern part was also later influenced by Japan by the early 1900s. By 1911, the Qing Dynasty fell and Manchuria went to a sway of Chinese warlords such as [[Zhang Xueliang]]. <ref name=":0"/> and is considered the homeland of several groups besides the Manchus, including the [[Koreans]] and [[Chinese]]. <ref>{{Cite book|title=The Ancient State of Puyŏ in Northeast Asia: Archaeology and Historical Memory|last=Byington|first=Mark E.|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center|year=2016|isbn=978-0-674-73719-8|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London|pages=11, 13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6NPMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia|last=Tamang|first=Jyoti Prakash|date=2016-08-05|publisher=Springer|isbn=9788132228004|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=u7-SCzkMZgAC&pg=PA81 |title=Haan (han, Han) of Minjung Theology and Han (han, Han) of Han Philosophy: In the Paradigm of Process Philisophy and Metaphysics of Relatedness|last=Son|first=Chang-Hee|date=2000|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780761818601|language=en}}</ref>Japan's influence increased by 1932, later establishing [[Manchukuo]] as a satellite state, with the last emperor of Qing and China, [[Pu Yi]] being installed as a puppet leader. Popular resistance against Japanese rule intensified, and by the end of World War II, a pro-Communist parallel government took over most parts of Manchuria, co-operating with coup-plotters in [[Xinjing]] and the Soviet and Mongolian invaders. A plebiscite held in October 1945 confirmed the independence of the new People's Republic of Manchuria.
Manjugurun is an independent state located in East Asia. It is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by Mongolia, on the southwest by China, and on the southeast by Korea. Cacungga is the capital, and Mukden, the former capital, is the largest city. It has one of the world's largest populations, with 121,204,300 people. Manjugurun is a country formed by numerous ethnic groups such as the {{W|Xianbei|Sarpi}}, the Khitans, and the Jurchen which became the Manchus. After invading China in the 1600s, it established the Qing Dynasty until 1911. It fell under Japanese domination in 1932 and a puppet state was established there. After the Second World War, it became a Soviet satellite and after the fall of communism in 1991, it adopted representative democracy amid a tumultous end to the 20th century.
 
An intensive [[Desinicization]] program was enacted, imposing the Manchu language on the majority Chinese population with limited success<ref>{{harvnb|Writing Group of Manchu Brief History|2009|pp=206–207}}</ref>, and the country provided support during the [[Korean War]]. During the 1960s, disagreements with Mao Zedong and Zhao Shangzhi over the latter's refusal to join the People's Republic were cited as a reason for the [[Sino-Soviet Split]]. In response for Chinese nuclear tests, Manchuria developed its own nuclear weapons, which it maintains to this day. After the fall of communism in 1991, Manchuria reformed its economy from a socialist economy to a mixed-market economy.
 
Although having the 15th largest economy in the world, the country has a lower GDP per capita compared to neighbors, compounded with government controversies. The economy is bolstered by new conglomerates that expanded after the fall of communism in Manchuria, propelling its rather high growth. It maintains amicable relations with most of its neighboring countries, and is a member of the United Nations, the G-25, the World Trade Organization, the Shanghai Co-Operation Organization, the World Bank, the Asian International Investment Bank, and the Asian Development Bank.
 
==Etymology==
 
The word Manchuria comes from the word ''Manju'', decreed by Hong Taiji in 1636 to replace Jurchen, which was seen as derogatory. It may have come from the Buddhist deity Manjusri, or from a compound word meaning 'strong arrow'.
 
The current English name of Manchuria is rooted in controversy. It was first used by Japanese and Western geographers during the 18th and 19th centuries. <ref>E.g. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dJo8AAAAIAAJ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 11–12], 1867, p. 162</ref> The Manchus reportedly have no native name for the land, except to refer to the territory as the Three Eastern Provinces (Dergi Ilan Goro).<ref name=bob/><ref name=giles/><ref>{{harvnb |Giles|1912|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCqMneCHMJ4C&pg=PA8 8]}}.</ref><ref name=japanese1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=159}}.</ref><ref name=japanese2>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA167#v=onepage&q&f=false]{{harvnb |Pozzi|2006|p=167}}.</ref>  Also, the Qing Dynasty consistently refer to their territory as merely China. It was during and after World War II that the word Manchuria gained currency, and was accepted as the normal English name of the country.
 
A few Western academics suggested renaming the English name of the country due to its associations with imperialism; the Chief Executive of Manchuria replied in 2013 interview with BBC: "This is telling a person that he needs to change his name because it was offensive, even if for that person it is harmless. It is bullying, pure and simple." <ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-25411700|title=Seven decades of bitterness|date=2014-02-13|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-02-11|language=en-GB}}</ref>


==History==
==History==
{{History of Manchuria}}
===Prehistoric and ancient eras===


===Early History===
Several ethnic groups, including the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens, inhabited today's Manjugurun in ancient times. Several Chinese dynasties ruled over parts of Manjugurun at various times throughout the history of the Manjus, usually along the coasts. The Chinese also established tributary relationships with the tribes.


Ancient Manchuria had been home for several ethnic groups such as the [[wikipedia:|Evenki]], the [[wikipedia:|Nanai]], the [[wikipedia:|Ulchs]], the [[wikipedia:|Khitans]], and the [[wikipedia:|Jurchens]]. During various points in Manchu history, several Chinese dynasties controlled portions of Manchuria, usually in the coasts, and the Chinese also set up tributary relations with the tribes. The Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, [[wikipedia:|Gojoseon]], and [[wikipedia:|Buyeo]] also controlled parts of Manchuria. Finnish scientist [[wikipedia:|Juha Janhunen]] also claimed that the Korean kingdoms might have substantial Tungusic-speaking minorities and even have an Tungusic elite. <ref>The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 03: "Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part 1," at 32, 33.</ref>
Manjus was also ruled by the Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo. The Korean kingdoms may feature sizable Tungusic-speaking minorities and perhaps a Tungusic aristocracy, according to Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen. The ancestors of the Jurchens were made to serve as tributaries when the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manjugurun created the Liao empire, which included Northern China and Manjugurun, between the tenth and eleventh centuries.  


Within the 10th to 11th century, the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria forged a state called the [[wikipedia:|Liao]], controlling Northern China and Manchuria, forcing the ancestors of the Jurchens into tributary status. The Khitan empire were the first state to control the entire modern region of Manchuria. <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eTFMPO5NdKgC&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=Ruins+of+Identity:+Ethnogenesis+in+the+Japanese+Islands+control+all+of+manchuria&source=bl&ots=SyoHDbdv9i&sig=SK2vY6jSgM-GMEEaaYew3imVkSs&hl=mn&sa=X&ei=gE3TVKrjHMnmoATuvoHIBQ&ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false Ruins of Identity: Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands By Mark Hudson]</ref><ref>Ledyard, 1983, 323</ref>
By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, a tributary people of the Khitans, had revolted against Liao rule and been replaced by the Jin Dynasty. The Jurchen were able to capture territory in northern China thanks to numerous campaigns against the Song. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty eventually conquered the Jurchens. Manjugurun, along with Northern Korea, was known as Liaoyang during Mongolian rule. Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula in 1375, but his forces were defeated and surrendered. The Nurgan Regional Military Commission was established by Ming Emperor Yongle to consolidate control of the Manju lands.


[[File:Yuan dynasty and Manchuria.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] [[provinces of the Yuan Empire|province]] of [[wikipedia:|Liaoyang]] (Liyoo-a); the province included northern [[wikipedia:|Korea]]]]
Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens, led by Nurhaci, began to consolidate their control of the region in the 1580s. They had to deal with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, who was eventually killed in 1640 and his remaining troops incorporated into the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organisation. During this time, Chinese cultural influence permeated the Manjurian region.
[[File:Qing Empire circa 1820 EN.svg|thumb|250px|The Manchu [[wikipedia:|Manchuria under Qing rule|Qing dynasty]] circa 1820. Manchuria is the homeland of the [[wikipedia:|Jurchens]] and later [[wikipedia:|Manchus]].]]


===Medieval History===
===Qing era===




[[File:Ussuriysk-Stone-Tortoise-S-3542.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A 12th-century [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen]] stone tortoise in today's [[Ussuriysk]]]]
===early 20th century===


By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, one of the tributary peoples of the Khitans rebelled against Liao rule and replaced them with the Jin Dynasty. Numerous [[Jurchen_campaigns_against_the_Song_dynasty|campaigns against the Song Chinese]] enabled the Jurchen to capture territory in northern China. The Jurchens were then conquered in turn by the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty. During Mongolian rule, Manchuria was named as Liaoyang along with Northern Korea.<ref>Patricia Ann Berger – Empire of emptiness: [[Buddhist]] art and political authority in Qing China, p.25</ref>In 1375, [[Naghachu]], a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula, but the [[Ming campaign against the Uriankhai|Ming defeated his forces]] and surrendered. The Ming Emperor [[Yongle]] consolidated control of the Manchurian lands, creating the [[Nurgan Regional Military Commission]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref>
In 1903, Russia established the Viceroyalty of the Far East in Port Arthur, and the Russian government considered the project of securing Manjugurun as " Zheltorossiya", the basis of which was to be the Kwantung Region established in 1899 in the right-of-way of the CER, and the formation of a new Cossack army and settlement by Russian colonists.


Chafing from Ming control, the [[Jianzhou Jurchens]] under [[Nurhaci]] started to consolidate their control of the region starting in the 1580s. They had to contend with the [[Evenki]]-[[Daur]] alliance led by [[Bombogor]], finally killing him in 1640 and incorporating his remaining troops to the [[Eight Banners]], a new Jurchen military organization.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Pamela Kyle |title=A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0520234246 |page=196 |edition=illustrated, reprint |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hbEwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA196}}</ref> During this period, Chinese cultural influence seeped through the Manchurian region and various ethnic groups living there.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=nzhq85nPrdsC&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false Forsyth 1994], p. 214.</ref>
Japan's claims to Manchuria and Korea and the refusal of the Russian Empire to withdraw Russian troops from Manchuria and Korea in violation of the allied treaty led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which was fought in southern Manchuria up to Mukden.


In 1634, Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchens into Manchus, citing the former name as now derogatory.
According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Liaodong Peninsula with the Kwantung region and the Chinese Eastern to Port Arthur went to Japan. Between 1905 and 1925, Japan further strengthened its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic levers like the South Manchurian Railway.


[[File:A Tartar Huntsmen on His Horse.jpg|thumb|left|A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk]]
In 1910-1911, the last major outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in Manjugurun.


In 1644, the Ming dynasty was overthrown by peasant rebels. Ming general [[Wu Sangui]] called the Manchu leadership to assist in seizing Beijing. Using the opportunity of the chaos, the Manchus overthrew the nascent Shun Dynasty and established the Qing Dynasty. It was estimated that twenty-five million people died as a result of the conquest. <ref>{{cite news |title=5 Of The 10 Deadliest Wars Began In China |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/bloodiest-conflicts-in-chinese-history-2014-10 |work=Business Insider |date=6 October 2014}}</ref>
After the Xinhai Revolution and the collapse of the Qing Empire from 1912 to 1932, the territory of Manchuria was controlled by the Fengtian clique, a northeastern grouping of Chinese warlords. By the end of the 1920s, the Chinese government of the Kuomintang established formal control over this territory. In 1929, the Chinese Nationalists attempted to seize the CER, but were defeated by Soviet troops. In 1929-1931, in some areas of eastern Manjugurun, inhabited by Koreans, established an anarchist territory called Korean People's Association until defeated by Chinese and Japanese authorities.
 
===Qing Empire===
 
[[file:清_佚名_《清太祖天命皇帝朝服像》.jpg|thumb|120px|Nurhaci, founder of the Manchu nation and the Qing Dynasty]]
 
After the Manchus conquered China, they built the [[Willow Palisade]] to control Chinese emigration to the ethnic Manchurian lands..<ref>Elliott, Mark C. "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' 59, no. 3 (2000): 603–46.</ref> Only ethnic Manchurians and Chinese bannermen are allowed to settle in Giring and Sahaliyan Ula.
 
During their reign over China, the Manchurians called their state "Dulimbai Gurun" and considered their state to be China.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA117&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=iT7tUsrhM4bhyQH_04HYBg&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Hauer 2007], p. 117.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TmhtAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA80&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-0PtUoKZEKWgyAH8oIHgBQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCTge#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Dvořák 1895], p. 80.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&pg=PA102&dq=Dulimbai+gurun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=m0PtUtv-OIOTyQHX8YCwAQ&ved=0CDAQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=Dulimbai%20gurun&f=false Wu 1995], p. 102.</ref> Their definition of China also included Manchuria, Tibet, and Mongolia as a whole, and the "Chinese language" also refered to Manchu and Mongolian. The Treaty of Nerchinsk stated that the Manchurian lands are considered part of China. <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf Zhao 2006], pp. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.</ref>
 
During the Kangxi and Qianlong eras, Manchurian-ruled China was said to have experienced a golden age. However, many scholars dispute the idea, claiming that literary censorship and political supremacy of the Eight Banners actually hindered its promise. <ref>{{Cite book |author = 刘小萌 |title = 《清代八旗子弟》 |page = 第206页 |publisher = 辽宁民族出版社 |year = 2008年}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author = 周敏（鲁东大学历史与社会学院） |title = 《首崇满洲——清朝的民族本位思想》 |journal =《沧桑》 |year = 2008年 |issue = 2008年第05期}}</ref>
 
As the centuries passed by, Han Chinese both legally and illegally settled to Manchuria, as Manchu banner landlords wanted Chinese labor and pay rent for their land to grow grain. 500,000 hectares of land were cultivated by Han Chinese by the end of the eighteenth century and about 203,583 hectares of Banner-owned lands were inhabited by Han, about 80% in estimate. <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141&lpg=PA141&dq=sedentary+farming+manchu&source=bl&ots=1Ji7L_j2V1&sig=uQGL-sSQn1a2b1y1e5qTYLMMjq8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBmoVChMItoTTucbPxgIVSVseCh3WWgJY#v=onepage&q=sedentary%20farming%20manchu&f=false Richards 2003], p. 141.</ref><ref>{{citation|first =John F.|last = Richards|title=The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&pg=PA141|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23075-0|page=141}}</ref> Many of these Chinese settlers were from North China and were introduced to settle on the Liyoo river to restore the land to cultivation. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=2 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 504.</ref> Farmlands were also created by illegal Chinese settlers along with tenants. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=3 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 505.</ref> Although the Qing Emperor Hungli/[[Qianlong]] repeated issued edicts against Chinese settlement in Manchuria, he later tolerated them as many of the Chinese settlers were suffering from drought. <ref>{{cite journal |last =Reardon-Anderson  |first = James |authorlink = |title =Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia During the Qing Dynasty |journal =Environmental History |volume =5 |issue = 4 |pages =503–509 |date =2000 |language = |jstor = 3985584 |doi = 10.2307/3985584 |ref= harv}}</ref> .<ref>[http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf Scharping 1998], p. 18.</ref> Chinese settlers even claimed land even from the Imperial estates. <ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=5 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 507.</ref> To increase the revenue, the Daoguang Emperor even allowed sale of Banner land to Chinese settlers.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=7 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 509.</ref> Sinicization was accelerated that eighty percent of the population were Chinese.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584?seq=7 Reardon-Anderson 2000], p. 509.</ref>
 
Penetration of Russian influence increased in the early 19th century. After the humiliating loss of the [[Opium Wars]], the Qing were forced to cede eastern parts of Manchuria to Russia in 1857 to 1860 during the Peking Convention. However, Russian-Qing disputes failed to end, as Russia in 1868 tried to expel Chinese prospectors around Vladivostok. Attempts by Russia to occupy Askold Island, supposedly ceded but remained occupied by Chinese, only bore fruit in 1892 when they finally managed to retake the island.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lomanov|2005|pp=89–90}}{{blockquote|Probably the first clash between the Russians and Chinese occurred in 1868. It was called the Manza War, ''Manzovskaia voina''. "Manzy" was the Russian name for the Chinese population in those years. In 1868, the local Russian government decided to close down goldfields near Vladivostok, in the Gulf of Peter the Great, where 1,000 Chinese were employed. The Chinese decided that they did not want to go back, and resisted. The first clash occurred when the Chinese were removed from Askold Island, in the Gulf of Peter the Great. They organized themselves and raided three Russian villages and two military posts. For the first time, this attempt to drive the Chinese out was unsuccessful.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://englishrussia.com/2011/01/25/an-abandoned-island-in-the-sea-of-japan/ |title = An Abandoned Island in the Sea of Japan|date = 2011-01-25}}</ref>
 
In the 1860s, the Qing were beset by weakened economic power, and half-hearted reforms such as the Self-Strengthening Movement failed to address the decline. Foreign companies such as the [[Swire Group]] and [[Jardines]] of the United Kingdom, based in Hong Kong, set up offices in Manchurian cities for trade purposes. From its opening in 1865 to 1891, Manchuria exported soybeans, soybean oil, wild silk, and ginseng. It imported in turn opium, cotton, and consumer goods. Girin Machinery Bureau, constructed in 1882, was the first factory built in Manchuria. It went on to become a machine shop during Japanese rule for Mantetsu rule and a coinage during the communist era.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=东北近代工业的先驱 ――吴大澂与吉林机器制造局|url=http://www.ccda.gov.cn/ccda/ccda/article.asp?secid=102&infoid=1812|accessdate=2019-10-18|author=|date=2006-05-18|format=|work=吉林日报|publisher=长春市档案馆|language=}}</ref>
 
In 1896, Tsarist Russia obtained the privilege of building a railway in Manchuria through the "Sino-Russian Treaty", and in 1898 obtained a lease in Port Arthur (now Tiyeliyan). During this period Japan also gradually strengthened its expansion to Manchuria. In 1904, the [[Russo-Japanese War]] broke out and Russia was defeated and forced cede its sphere of influence to Japan. Since then, Japan, Russia and China have all accelerated the development of Manchuria. In 1907, the Qing court converted the Manchurian territories into full provinces. Japan established the [[South Manchuria Railway Company]] in 1906 to implement a colonial strategy in Manchuria and encouraged Korean immigration. In 1909, Japan gave back to China Yeonbyeon in exchange for concessions. <ref>https://www.economist.com/special-report/2007/03/31/history-wars</ref>
 
An outbreak of bubonic plague occured in Manchuria in 1910-11, killing about 50,000 to 60,000 people in Harbin alone. <ref>''"[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxFC5ynXN2YC&pg=PA68&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false Memories of Dr. Wu Lien-teh, plague fighter]"''. Yu-lin Wu (1995). [[World Scientific]]. p.68. {{ISBN|981-02-2287-4}}</ref> While the plague was contained, the high number of deaths forced Chinese and Manchurian officials to initiate stricter health measures, and shortly after the overthrow of the Qing, the North Manchurian Plague Office was established to combat outbreaks.
 
===Fengtian Era===
 
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, [[Zhang Zuolin]] took over the administration of the Manchurian lands. In 1920, he then set reforms that enabled Manchuria, then known as the Three Eastern Provinces, to be relatively unscathed by the chaos of the warlord era in China. Although Manchuria remained officially a part of China, it was effectively isolated from China and protected by Zhang's {{W|Fengtian Army}}, and its naval and air forces are considered advanced compared to the other Chinese states. He tolerated the Japanese presence in Manchuria but is said to be losing patience at their control of Kwantung and the South Manchurian railroad.
 
Zhang Zuolin was later killed in the [[Huanggutun Incident]] on 2 June 1928, allegedly on the orders of the Kwantung Army due to the latter perceiving him as a traitor. [[Zhang Xueliang]] took his place, then allied himself with the advancing Kuomintang to prevent conquest.
 
A month after the reunification with the KMT, Zhang attempted to establish control over the [[Chinese Eastern Railway]] causing a [[Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)|armed skirmish]] with the Soviet Union. Zhang was now the ''de facto'' dictator of Manchuria, although he remained officially loyal to the Kuomintang supporting the nationalist government in the [[Central Plains War]]. However Chinese-Japanese relations were quickly deteriorating with Japan trying to exert more influence in Manchuria.


===Manchukuo===
===Manchukuo===


In 1931, the Japanese forces in Manchuria seized the country from the Chinese, creating a satellite state called [[Manchukuo]] a year later. The Japanese installed [[Pu Yi]] as a figurehead leader while real power is in the hands of the Japanese advisers. Several anti-Japanese Manchurian commanders such as [[Tong Linge]] (Tunggiya Linge) joined Kuomintang forces in China, with several of them being killed in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|title=基督徒将军佟麟阁：抗战殉国的第一位高级将领|last=李|first=世峥|date=1 September 2010|website=中国民族报|access-date=4 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524080749/http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/85038/12603327.html|archive-date=24 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://kknews.cc/zh-my/history/5axe29k.html |title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领 |date=27 May 2017 |website=每日头条 |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|title=佟麟阁中国抗日战争牺牲的第一位高级将领|date=27 May 2017|website=每日头条|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524004216/http://www.qulishi.com/news/201507/40821.html|archive-date=24 May 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Manchuria was used as a buffer state between Japan and the Soviet Union as both countries clashed twice in 1938 and 1939. <ref>{{cite book|last1=Coox|first1=Alvin D.|title=Nomonhan : Japan against Russia, 1939 |date=1990 |publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, Calif.|isbn=978-0804718356|page=841|edition=1st}}</ref> It was said that Japanese control of the resources in Manchuria enabled it to execute the [[Attack of Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] bombing and initate a conquest of [[Southeast Asia]] and the [[Western Pacific]]. <ref>Edward Behr, ''The Last Emperor'', 1987, p. 202</ref>
===Communist era===
 
Several anti-Japanse Manchu leaders like [[Zhao Shangzhi]], [[:zh:陈翰章|Chen Hanzhang]], and [[Yang Jingyu]] fled to the Soviet Union and Mongolia and established a government in exile. A rift between Zhao Shangzhi and the Yanan leadership was only temporarily healed and Zhao decided to separate and rename his Northeast Anti-Japanese Army into the Manchurian People's Army and finally advocate a separate Manchurian communist state to "defend itself from Kuomintang" machination. A large number of former Northeast Anti-Japanese Army soldiers are of ethnic Manchu descent and Zhao who was mixed Chinese and Manchu wanted an "ethnic revival" of the Manchus and thus ordered Manchu-language education.
 
A coup by secretly communist Manchukuo officers during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria declared the establishment of the Manchu Republic. This was led by Zhang Xueming, Zhang Xueliang's brother, who secretly fled from Mainland China, and used the flag of the Fengtian Clique. However, in September 1, 1945, he had to cede power to Zhao Shangzhi, who secretly promised that Manchuria would never be sold out to either Chiang or Mao, in exchange of Xueming returning to China. The Kwantung Army, already battered by the atomic bombing of Japan, surrendered in droves. <ref name=Butow1954>[[Robert Butow]], ''Japan's Decision to Surrender'', Stanford University Press, 1954 {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0460-1}}.</ref><ref name=Frank2001>[[Richard B. Frank]], ''Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire'', Penguin, 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-14-100146-3}}.</ref><ref name=Maddox2007>[[Robert James Maddox]], ''Hiroshima in History: The Myths of Revisionism'', University of Missouri Press, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-8262-1732-5}}.</ref><ref name=Hasegawa2006>[http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/hasegawa.htm Tsuyoshi Hasegawa], ''Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan'', Belknap Press, 2006 {{ISBN|0-674-01693-9}}.</ref>Pu Yi escaped to Japan, but was captured by the Americans and made witness to the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal. He was imprisoned by the Soviet Union until released to live his exile to Japan.{{sfn|Behr|1987|p=285}} The majority of the Japanese settlers were either deported back to Japan or were kept as "hostages" by Zhao Shangzhi to elicit Japanese goodwill. Many of them only were able to return in the 1960s. <ref>Paul K. Maruyama, ''Escape from Manchuria'' (iUniverse, 2009) {{ISBN|978-1-4502-0581-8}} (hard cover), 9781450205795 (paperback), based on the earlier books in Japanese by K. Maruyama (1970) and M. Musashi (2000) and other sources</ref>
 
===Manchu People's Republic===
 
[[File:Zhao Shangzhi.jpg|thumb|Zhao Shangzhi, early Manchurian People's Republic leader.]]
 
During the final days of [[World War II]], the Soviet Army in the Far East attacked Manchuria and together with the [[Mongolian People's Army]] and the Manchurian People's Army, and occupied the former state of Manchukuo. It was said that the Chinese refusal to hand over [[Inner Mongolia]] to the [[Mongolian People's Republic]] spurred the Mongolian dictator Choibalsan to declare that the former Manchukuo should be handed over to Zhao's government in exile. Chiang Kai-shek replied that both Mongolia and Manchuria should remain under Chinese control, which angered Zhao. Tensions flared, the Nationalist and Communist Chinese were prohibited by the MPA and Mongolian forces from occupying the former Manchukuo. .<ref name="Borisov">Borisov, O. (1977). ''The Soviet Union and the Manchurian Revolutionary Base (1945–1949)''. Moscow, Progress Publishers.</ref>With the former Manchukuo Army soldiers being integrated to the Manchurian People's Army, Manchuria declared independence in February 1, 1946.
 
[[File:Otkrytie pamyatnika bortsam s kominternom.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops in Harbin, 1946]]
 
In exchange of recognizing independence, the main [[Chinese Communist Party]] forced Manchuria to accept Guan Xiangying, an ethnic Manchurian, as President, as well as Gao Gang as Chinese ambassador, in exchange of independence. However, Guan died in 1947, and Gao Gang had at point had eased himself with the main Manchu leadership headed by Zhao Shangzhi and Zhou Baozhong as figurehead President.
 
During the Korean War, Manchuria entered the war on the side of North Korea along with the People's Republic. A "People's Support Army" was sent by Manchuria alongside China's "People's Volunteer Army". Zhao reluctantly entered the war to both secure his southern border and to prevent China from occupying it as a pretext for inaction. 83,400 Manchurians were killed in action among 300,000 Manchurian soldiers who fought in the "War to Aid Korea and Resist America."
 
However, the high cost of the war and the defeat of North Korea had angered many Manchurian officials, and Zhao Shangzhi once considered resignation; he was retained at the request of the communist party. Yang Gingioi and Jeo Baojung were removed for disagreeing with Zhao about the conduct of the war; Zhao formally became president in 1956. They both left for China, never returning to Manchuria again. Jeo Baojung later became governor of Yunnan, while Yang Jingyu went back to Yenan province, quietly dying in 1965.
 
Zhao initiated the so-called "Sahaliyan Ula Protocol" in 1960, as a response to China's more aggressive stances. It aims to usurp China's place as the leading Asian communist power by using internal reform within party and government, publicly allying with the Soviet Union but at the same time maintaining its independence, and with prime minister Sheng Shicai, broadened their relations with the West. Thousands of pro-unification PRC Manchurians were jailed or executed. Zhao while publicly reforming the internal structure of the government, remained powerful. Unlike his neighbors, however, Zhao remained comparatively "moderate".
 
In 1956, Manchuria started a nuclear program, intended at first for peaceful purposes. However, the government believed that Manchuria would also need to use the nuclear program to create atomic weapons. Soviet documents revealed that the rationale is to prevent both American and Chinese aggression. Seeing Manchuria as too big for the Soviet Union to be brought into heel, Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] tacitly allowed Manchuria to develop its own nuclear weapon, who is suffering with the fallout from Mao Zedong during the [[Sino-Soviet Split]]. Soviet scientists helped Manchurian scientists in the development of nuclear weapons, detonating it in 1972 with widespread condemnation. This encouraged the USSR to tacitly allow most Warsaw Pact countries with the specific exception of East Germany to develop their own arsenal; [[East Germany]] later procured their own arsenal and was inherited and kept by the present unified government of Germany.
 
In 1970, Zhao Shangzhi died, replaced by Chen Hanzhang as President and Sakda Cunrun (Li Chunrun), Zhao's preferred successor, as General Secretary. Sakda had to inherit the worsening border clashes within China due to the Cultural Revolution; already, Zhao was denounced in China for his failure to incorporate Manchuria to the PRC. Red Guards trying to infiltrate Manchuria were "killed on the spot". Soviet forces in Tiyeliyan and the Chinese-Manchurian border also engaged in [[Sino-Soviet Border Conflict | border clashes]]. <ref name="Phoenix">Wang, Zhen 王楨. Huángpái dàfàngsòng 皇牌大放送, "Duóbǎo bīngyuán——ZhōngSū Zhēnbǎo dǎo chōngtú 45 zhōunián jì" 奪寶冰原——中蘇珍寶島衝突45周年記 [Fighting for the treasure on icefield—Sino-Soviet Zhenbao Island conflict 45th anniversary]. Aired 5 April 2014 on Phoenix Television. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtzIuc5FIMk</ref>
 
Manchuria was denied by the Republic of China from admission into the United Nations due to its claims, even though it acquiesced in its admission of Mongolia in 1961. .<ref name="unveto">{{cite web| url=http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| publisher=聯合國| script-title=zh:因常任理事国投反对票而未获通过的决议草案或修正案各段| language=Chinese| url-status=live| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140323133412/http://www.un.org/zh/sc/meetings/veto/pdf/a58_47_p2.pdf| archivedate=March 23, 2014| df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="bbcveto">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|title=The veto and how to use it|work=BBC News Online|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726080318/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2828985.stm|archivedate=July 26, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="gpveto">{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|title=Changing Pattern in the Use of Veto in the Security Council|publisher=Global Policy Forum|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508103405/http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/102/32810.html|archivedate=May 8, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> (see [[China and the United Nations]])
In 1971, the People's Republic in an overture to improve Manchuria-China relations, approved of Manchuria's entry to the United Nations.
 
===Modern Manchuria===
[[File:Události na náměstí Tian an men, Čína 1989, foto Jiří Tondl.jpg|thumb|Protesters against the communist regime in 1990]]
 
By 1990, Manchuria's economy started to decline; many people felt that the communists have long outlasted them. Chinese exiles after the 1989 protests aided the pro-democracy protesters. After much hesitation, Ligiya Joolin resigned and a more moderate leader, Liu Binyan, took over.
 
After the fall of Communist regime in Manchuria, the government in Changchun feared that China will attempt to overthrow their government by force, as Chinese people who fled the [[Tiananmen Square]] protests in 1989 were allowed refuge by the Manchurian government. Also the border clashes with Korea have put into question Manchuria's peaceful intentions. <ref>Kwak, Tae-Hwan; Joo, Seung-Ho (2003). ''The Korean peace process and the five powers''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3653-3}}.</ref><ref>DeRouen, Karl; Heo, Uk (2005). ''Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies''.ABC-CLIO.</ref>.
 
==Government and Politics==
 
Manchuria is officially a unitary semi-presidential parliamentary republic with a unicameral legislature.<ref name="Draft">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=September 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-status= |journal=Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archivedate=August 19, 2008 |pages= |access-date=21 February 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Dual">{{cite journal |last=Shugart |first=Matthew Søberg |author-link=Matthew Søberg Shugart |date=December 2005 |title=Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |url=http://www.palgrave-journals.com/fp/journal/v3/n3/pdf/8200087a.pdf |journal=French Politics |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=323–351 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |access-date=21 February 2016 |quote=Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger’s sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia,'''Manchuria''', Poland, and Senegal. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053112/http://www.palgrave-journals.com/fp/journal/v3/n3/pdf/8200087a.pdf |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>The non-governmental organization Freedom House consider Manchuria as ''Partially Free''.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FITW_Report_2016.pdf|title = Freedom in the World, 2016|date = |access-date = 30 January 2016|website = |publisher = Freedom House|url-status=live|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205095411/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FH_FITW_Report_2016.pdf|archivedate = February 5, 2016|df = mdy-all}}</ref>
 
However, it can be said that Manchuria is technically both a republic and a monarchy; the constitution officially recognizes the chief of the Aisin Gioro family "as part of Manchuria's intangible heritage and a symbol of the state and the unity of the people";his official title is called the [[Founder]] (Yuwanjun) by the government. Even then, he is still unofficially referred to as the Emperor, and has similar role as his Japanese counterpart. The Founder performs the rituals for the state. It was said that this role was a replacement for the ranking of General Secretary of the Manchu Communist Party which is deemed the highest office during the Communist era, but today the Founder serves as figurehead. His official residence is the Salt Palace.
 
[[File:The Puppet Manchukuo government's State Department 伪满洲国务院.jpg|thumb|220px|National Assembly Building.]]
 
The [[President]] (Beliihitiyande) is the technical and actual head of state of the country; he is elected by the populace for a five-year term renewable only once in a re-election. He appoints the [[Prime Minister]] (Dorgi Yamun I Da) who heads the cabinet and the Legislative Assembly; he must be the leader of the party that receives the most votes in the house. The so-called "Joogiya's Mansion", the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era, was converted for the President's use.
 
[[File:Professor Chunli Bai ForMemRS.jpg|thumb|President Baigiya Cunli|100px]]
 
The [[Constitution|Constitution of Manchuria]] serves as the supreme law of Manchuria, which established clear separation of powers. However, for the most part of its history Manchuria was under autocratic rule. From 1945 Manchuria was ruled as a Communist single-party state that ended in 1991 following the Sorghum Revolution. In 1990 Manchuria adopted its current constitution, becoming a liberal democracy. Nevertheless former members of the Communist Party of Manchuria are still prominent and active in politics.
 
==Foreign Relations==
 
Manchuria's foreign affairs is conducted by its [[Wikipedia:Foreign Ministry]]. Its key foreign policy is to retain its relative military power among other Asian nations, especially that along with China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan, possess nuclear weapons in the Eastern Asia region. It pursues an independent foreign policy but has been notably close to Russia since 1945. However, Manchuria also pursued warmer relations with Western countries particularly the United States.
 
Manchuria is a member of several organisations such as the [[United Nations]], [[G-20]], [[WTO]], [[APEC]], [[IMF]], [[WBG]], [[ADB]], [[East Asia Summit]], [[ACD]], [[PEMSEA]], [[Non-Aligned Movement]], [[Group of 15]], and the [[Group of 24]].
 
During the Cold War, it traditionally supported the Soviet Union until its demise in 1991. During the Manchukuo era, the Soviets opened consulates in Harbin. After the war, the Soviet Union upgraded their full relations with the new Manchurian communist government. Manchuria continues its relations with Russia amicably, and is viewed as Manchuria's traditional ally, and a special relationship with Russia emerged. <ref>[http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp Генеральное консульство СССР в Харбине] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318211826/http://www.knowbysight.info/6_MID/03792.asp |date=18 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>[[Igor Ivanov|Ivanov, Igor]] (2002). ''Outline of the History of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia''. In Russian. OLMA Media Group, p. 219</ref><ref>[http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm Chronology of China in the 1940s] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023023540/http://www.law.osaka-u.ac.jp/~tanakahi/china40s/data/E-CH.htm |date=23 October 2014}}. [[Osaka University]] School of Law. Retrieved 29 December 2017.</ref><ref>K. A. Karayeva. [http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf МАНЬЧЖОУ ГО (1931–1945): «МАРИОНЕТОЧНОЕ» ГОСУДАРСТВО В СИСТЕМЕ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ НА ДАЛЬНЕМ ВОСТОКЕ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903140739/http://elar.urfu.ru/bitstream/10995/4839/2/uv-2005-08.pdf |date=3 September 2014}}. [[Ural Federal University]] archives.</ref> Manchuria has a neutral position on the Crimea problem, insisting that all problems should be solved by peaceful means if possible. Manchuria has amicable relations with all the other post-Soviet republics, especially [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uyghuristan]].
 
Manchuria also has traditionally warm relations with [[India]], as Manchuria provided material for India's [[India_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Nuclear_weapons|nuclear weapons program]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mea.gov.in/mystart.php?id=50049826 |title=Sorry for the inconvenience. |publisher= |accessdate=21 February 2015}}</ref>
 
As Mongolia second-largest trading partner, Manchuria enjoy excellent relations with its western neighbor. There are issues being tackled including emigration of Mongols to Manchuria.<ref name="mfat">{{cite web|url=http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en |title=LIST OF STATES WITH DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade |accessdate=26 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722215952/http://www.mfat.gov.mn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=70&Itemid=83&lang=en|archivedate=22 July 2011}}</ref>
 
Manchuria's relations with the West increased considerably. There is steady immigration to the United States, but as these emigrants tend to be Chinese-speaking Manchurians, until recently they are considered as Chinese.
 
It was with its immediate neighbors that Manchuria has difficulty in maintaining good relations. Mao's acceptance of Manchurian independence was said by him to have been made with "great reluctance." Even though Manchuria and China fought on the same side with North Korea during the Korean War, China tried and failed to use the war as leverage to re-incorporate Manchuria. During the Sino-Soviet Split and the Cultural Revolution, Manchuria had to fend off border incursions by China with Soviet help. Only after the Sino-Vietnamese War and China's market reforms did Manchuria-Chinese relations improve, and even then, the Second Korean Conflict and the fall of the communist regime in Pyongyang was "never forgotten" by Beijing and Manchuria's role with it was used as a sticking point.
 
Manchurian-Korean relations are friendly despite the Second Korean War. Sticking points include the necessity of sending reparations to Korea and claims by Manchurian historians that Korea deliberatedly whitewashed the history of [[Goguryeo]] to erase the Manchurian origin of the kingdom, causing protests and counter-protests from both sides.<ref>[http://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/texts/Gries2005KoguryoEAIQ.pdf 02Gries.pmd<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="news.naver.com">Donga Monthly. http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=037&aid=0000006961</ref> <ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite news |url= http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html |title=Asia Times&nbsp;– News and analysis from Korea; North and South |work=Asia Times |location =Hong Kong |date=September 11, 2004 |accessdate=April 25, 2010}}</ref>. As of 2018, Manchuria is now Korea's largest trading partner, accounting for 46 percent of the trade.<ref name="auto3">{{cite web |url= https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/kor/ |title=South Korea Country Profile |work=MIT |date=March 10, 2018}}</ref>
 
While Manchurian-Japanese relations are now better than before, their background was also complex. Manchurian politicians occasionally request compensation from Japan, in which Japan said it already made apologies. Japanese politicians in turn decry Manchuria's sidestepping in its roles in anti-Japanese pogroms in 1946. Nevertheless, Japanese-Manchurian relations are cordial and compared in the past, now done in an equal basis; anime and manga are regularly being shown in Manchuria with a large fandom in Manchuria itself, and Manchurian light novels and visual novels recently provide material for new Japanese animated series. Many Japanese people retire to Manchuria and younger Manchurians emigrate to Japan. Manchuria's embassy in Japan was still the one used by the former Manchukuo regime. 30% of the Chinese diaspora in Japan are of Manchurian origin.<ref>[http://jp.changchun.gov.cn/japan/whys.aspx?ID=3|http://jp.cangcon.gov.mj/japan/whys.aspx?ID=3| 満州・長春の民俗文化]</ref>
 
==Military==
 
{{Main|Manchukuo Imperial Army}}
 
[[File:Su-27SM3 flight, Celebration of the 100th anniversary of Russian Air Force.jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian Su-27.]]
 
[[File:North_Korea_Victory_Day_122_(9465927866).jpg|150px|thumb|Manchurian tanks in a military parade.]]
 
The Manchurian Armed Forces is the second largest armed forces after China.
 
The Armed Forces is composed an army, navy, and air force. The MAF has the second largest army in East Asia in active forces (1,228,300), though its paramilitary forces called the Green Standard Corps (9,320,000) when added make it the largest military force in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2010 |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies |authorlink=International Institute for Strategic Studies |editor-last=Hackett |editor-first=James |date=3 February 2010 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=[[London]] |isbn=978-1-85743-557-3 |ref=IISS2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217230331/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_arm_per_percap-military-army-personnel-per-capita |archivedate=17 February 2007 |title=Army personnel (per capita) by country |accessdate=1 August 2007 |year=2007 |work=NationMaster}}</ref> Manchuria has the largest special force and submarine force in the world. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|pp=288–293}}
 
In addition, a separate armed force called the Banner Guard Corps directly reports to the Founder, and serves as his bodyguard. The Banner Guard Corps is focused on unconventional warfare.
 
The President of Manchuria is the commander-in-chief of the MAF, which answers to the [[Ministry of Defence]]. The Chief of Staff of the Manchurian Armed Forces is a professional soldier with a four-star rank. The military's influence in civilian life had been shaped by its role by throwing its support behind the protesters in the 1991 anti-communist revolution. {{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=247}}
 
The predecessor to the MAF, the [[Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army|Manchurian People's Army]], primarily received military equipment from the Soviet Union. The MAF's foreign weaponry are largely Soviet or Eastern Bloc in design if not in manufacture, and many of the weaponry made in Manchuria are of East Bloc heritage as well. Recently Manchuria has started purchasing weaponry and equipment from Germany and Japan. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |title=Worls militaries: K |publisher=soldiering.ru |accessdate=23 May 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006112837/http://www.soldiering.ru/country/guide2003/army-09.php |archivedate=6 October 2014 }}</ref>
 
Manchuria possesses nuclear weapons. <ref name="economist-armied" /><ref>{{cite book|url=http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|title=The Korean Military Balance|author=Anthony H. Cordesman|date=21 July 2011|publisher=Center for Strategic & International Studies|isbn=978-0-89206-632-2|page=156|quote=The DPRK has [[Nuclear weapon design|implosion fission]] weapons.|accessdate=28 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011185007/http://csis.org/files/publication/110712_Cordesman_KoreaMilBalance_WEB.pdf|archivedate=11 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The nuclear weapons program were built in the 1960s as an anti-Chinese deterrent, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, it was rumored that the Soviets actually sold some of their newer weapons to Manchuria in exchange not to sell Manchurian weapons to countries Russia disapproved of. Manchuria signed the [[Nuclear Proliferation Treaty]] in a new revised form; it also signed the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] in 1987.{{Sfn|Country Study|2009|p=260}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |title=New Threat from N.Korea's 'Asymmetrical' Warfare |publisher=The Chosun Ilbo (English Edition) |work=English.chosun.com |date=29 April 2010 |accessdate=13 December 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224190403/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/04/29/2010042901362.html |archivedate=24 December 2010 }}</ref>
 
[[conscription|Patriotic Civil Service]] is the term called for conscription; all males at the age of 18 are considered recruits; people who had disabilities are granted honorary ranks but are only allowed to participate in civil relations. Refusal to serve is considered a capital punishment during early communist times which meant automatic death penalty; this was reduced and concentious objectors are sentenced to hard labor camps, which were still criticized. After the fall of the Communist system, conscientious objection is no longer punished; "equivalent civilian work" or heavier taxation were used instead.
 
Internal security is provided by the [[Police|Giyarici]].
 
==Geography==
 
{{wp|main|Manchuria#Geography_and_climate}}
 
[[File:Photo by Xundaogong 巡道工出品 报恩寺海浪河大弯道K1452 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Hailang River|Mederi Bolori River]] near Ninguta City]]
 
The territory within Manchuria lies within the northern part of the [[North China craton]], which is an area of [[Precambrian]] rocks over 100 million hectares. Manchuria is traditionally divided into three geographic regions: the Hingan mountains, the Manchurian plain, and the [[Changbai Mountains|Golmin Shanggiyan Mountain]] region. The Hinggan mountains are a Jurassic mountain range<ref>Bogatikov, Oleg Alekseevich (2000); ''Magmatism and Geodynamics: Terrestrial Magmatism throughout the Earth's History''; pp. 150–151. {{ISBN|90-5699-168-X}}</ref>, stemming from a collision between the North China craton and the Siberian craton.
 
Manchuria was never glaciated during the Quartenary period, but the fertile soils of the lower-lying areas indicate movements from the western mountains in Asia such as the Himalayas and the Tien Shan mountains, and also the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts.<ref>Kropotkin, Prince P.; "Geology and Geo-Botany of Asia"; in '''Popular Science''', May 1904; pp. 68–69</ref>
 
In the middle between the Hinggan Range and the Golmin Sanggiyan Mountains is the Manchurian plain, also known as the Dongbei plain in Chinese or the Sungari-Liyoo Plain, with the [[Sungari]], [[Nen River|Non]], and [[Liao River|Liyoo]] Rivers running through the plain. Here is the area where widespread cultivation takes place. Majority of the soybean, millet, wheat, and rice are being planted in this region. The area is connected to the North China plain to the south-west.
 
===Climate===
 
Manchuria's climate provided contrasts, with very Arctic-like winters and hot, tropical summers. The position of Manchuria between the Eurasian landmass and the Pacific Ocean contribute to this climactic situation. Due to being in the border region of Eurasia and the Pacific, the climate triggers monsoonal wind reversal.
 
[[File:Koppen-Geiger_Map_Eastern_Asia_present.svg|thumb|left|Koppen map of East Asia.]]
 
[[File:China april 7 2001 0245Z.jpg|thumb|left|Manchuria is vulnerable to dust storms, as seen in this satellite map dating April 2001.]]


The dominant climate type according the Koppen scheme is the hot-summer dry continental, especially in the plain. In the far north, dry-winter subarctic climate prevails, and in the west, pockets of cold semiarid climate persist. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |title=Average Annual Precipitation in China |accessdate=2010-05-18 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602163920/http://www.amlinkint.com/English/travel-to-china/images/about-china-annual-precipit.jpg |archivedate=2 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
===Modern Era===


Temperatures during the winter are usually cold due to the [[Siberian High]], ranging from -5 °C (23°F) to -30°C (-22°F), depending on latitude, which is considered colder when further north. <ref>Kaisha, Tesudo Kabushiki and Manshi, Minami; '''Manchuria: Land of Opportunities'''; pp. 1–2. {{ISBN|1-110-97760-3}}</ref> The Siberian winds are relatively dry, however, and the snow is rarely heavy. <ref>Kaisha and Manshi; '''Manchuria'''; pp. 1–2</ref>  Thus Manchuria, despite being colder than North America, never glaciated due to the strong westerly winds from western Eurasia. <ref>[http://www.eas.slu.edu/People/KChauff/earth_history/4EH-posted.pdf Earth History 2001]{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (page 15)</ref>
Manjugurun was struck by the {{W|Covid-19 Pandemic}}, and was criticized for strict lockdowns. However, the Manjurian government also criticized the Chinese government for failing to stop the spread of the virus.


In contrast, during summer, moist, southwestern winds bring thunderstorms, usually bringing 400 to 1150 mm of rain depending on the area; the area around the east receives more rain.
==Geography==


==Administative Divisions==
The climate of Manjugurun spans the mid-temperate zone and the cold-temperate zone from south to north. There are four distinct seasons, with hot weather in summer and cool weather in winter. Precipitation drops from 1000mm down to below 300mm annually as you go northwestward across this humid area, semi-humid area, arid region, and high forest coverage rate region. This contributes to agricultural development (due to prolonged melting time on ice) as well as forestry ( due to storage capacity of trees).
Manchuria is organized into provinces (golo, голо), subdivided into leagues (culgan, чулган), banners (guusa, гөса) and towns (sumu, суму). Leagues only exist for legislative purposes. Certain cities such as the capital Cangcon, Halbin, Mukden, and Tiyeliyan having provincial status, but lack the league divisions and is treated as one level. Instead of banners and towns, cities with provincial status have wards and districts on their stead.
[[File:Map of Manchukuo divisions zh-hans.svg|thumb|Administrative divisions of Manchuria]]
<br />


{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;" align="center"
==Government==
|-
! #
! Name
! Administrative<br />Seat
! Manchu
! Chinese
! Population
! Area<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! Flag
|-
|1
|Huleigiolo
|Hailar
|Hулеигиоло;
ᡭᡠᠯᡝᡳᡤᡳᠣᠯᠣ
|呼伦贝尔;Hūlúnbèi'ěr
|2,549,278
|263,953
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|2
|Sahaliyan Ula
|[[Heihe|Aigun]]
|Сахалиян Ула;ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ
|黑龙江;Hēilóngjiāng
|2,623,541
|10,414.94
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|3
|Liyoo Ning
|[[Yingkou|Išangga Gašan]]
|Лиёо Нин<br />ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᠨ᠋ᡳᠩ
|辽宁;Liáoníng
|3,044,641
|19,698.00
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|4
|Halhuun Ula
|[[Chengdu|Erdemu be Aliha]]
|Халхун Ула<br />ᡭᠠᠯᡥᡡᠨ ᡡᠯᠠ
|熱河;Rèhé
|1,819,339
|10,354.99
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|5
|Girin
|[[Jilin City|Girin Ula]]
|Гирин ᡤᡳᡵᡳᠨ
|吉林;Jílín
|8,106,171
|12,860.00
| [[File:ROC_CSF_Commander-in-Chief's_Flag_(1958).svg|border|50px]]
|-
|6
|Hinggan
|Jerim
|Хинган ᡥᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ
|興安;Xīng'ān
|1,858,768
|4,743.24
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|- bgcolor="#00FFFF"
|7
|Yeonbyeon
|Yongil
|Янбиян ᠶᠠᠨᠪᡳᠠᠨ
|延边;
|2,271,600
|43,509
| [[File:Flag_of_the_Sinŭiju_Special_Administrative_Region.svg|border|50px]]
|- bgcolor="#98FB98"
|8
|Tiyeliyan
|Tiyeliyan
|Тиелиян ᡨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ
|
|1,392,493
|6,690,432
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|- bgcolor="#00B60F"
|9
|Niyengniyeltu
|Cangcon
|Ниыенгниыелту
ᠨᡳᠶᡝᠩᠨᡳᠶᡝᠯᡨᡠ
|
|6,690,432
|12,573.85
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|10
|Nemeri Ula
|Cicigar
|Немери Ула
ᠨᡝᠮᡝᡵᡳ ᡠᠯᠠ<br />
|
|2,444,697
|67,034
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|11
|Acan Ula
|Giyamusi
|Ачан Ула<br />ᠴᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ
|
|1,709,538
|62,482
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|- bgcolor="#98FB98"
|12
|Mukden
|Mukden
|Мукден<br />ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ
|
|2,138,090
|11,272.00
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|13
|Liyoo Dergi
|Hetu Ala
|Лиёо Дерги
ᠯᡳᠶᠣᠣ ᡩᡝᡵᡤᡳ
|
|10,007,000
|68,303
| [[File:No_flag.svg|border|50px]]
|- bgcolor="#98FB98"
|14
|Halbin
|Halbin
|Халбин<br />ᡥᠠᠯᠪᡳᠨ
|
|3,386,325
|14,382.34
| [[File:Flag_of_the_City_of_Harbin.svg|border|50px]]
|-
|}


== Cities with urban area over one million in population ==
Manjugurun is a unitary semi-presidential republic. Manchuria is classified as partially free by the non-governmental organisation Freedom House.
: Independent cities in '''bold'''.
The President (Beile) is the country's recognised head of state; he is elected by the people for a five-year term that can be renewed only once in a re-election. He chooses the Prime Minister (Ejen) who is the head cabinet minister. The President's personal residence is the so-called "Joogiya's Mansion," the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:90%;"
!#!!City!!style ="background-color: #aaaaff;"|Urban area<ref name ="2010Manchuriacensus"/>!!style ="background-color: #aaffaa;"|District area<ref name ="2010Manchuriacensus"/>!!style ="background-color: #ffaaaa;"|City proper<ref name ="2010PRCcensus">{{cite book |editor1=国务院人口普查办公室 |editor2 = 国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司 |year=2012 |script-title=zh:中国2010年人口普查分县资料 |location=Cangcon |publisher=Manchurian Statistics Press |page= |isbn=978-7-5037-6659-6 }}</ref>!!Prov.!!Census date
|-
|1||'''[[Shenyang|Mukden]]'''||5,718,232||6,255,921||8,106,171||MK||2010-11-01
|-
|2||'''[[Harbin|Halbin]]'''||4,933,054||5,878,939||10,635,971||HL||2010-11-01
|-
|3||'''[[Dalian|Tiyeliyan]]'''||3,902,467||4,087,733||6,690,432||TY||2010-11-01
|-
|4||'''[[Changchun|Cangcon]]'''||3,411,209||4,193,073||7,674,439||CC||2010-11-01
|-
|5||[[Anshan|Engemer Alin]]||1,504,996||1,544,084||3,645,884||LN||2010-11-01
|-
|6||[[Jilin City|Girin]]||1,469,722||1,975,121||4,413,157||GR||2010-11-01
|-
|7||[[Daqing|Sarhu]]||1,433,698||1,649,825||2,904,532||SU||2010-11-01
|-
|8||[[Fushun|Hetu Ala]]||1,318,808||1,431,014||2,138,090||LN||2010-11-01
|-
|9||[[Qiqihar|Cicigar]]||1,314,720||1,553,788||5,367,003||SU||2010-11-01
|-
|10||[[Benxi|Bengsi]]||1,000,128||1,094,294||1,709,538||LN||2010-11-01
|}


==Economy==
==Economy==


Manchuria has a economy that is measured to be the 15th largest in the world by 2018, at US$989 billion. Manchuria has been one of the strongest in the Asia-Pacific region and is considered an honorary Asian Tiger. The service industry is smaller compared to the other East Asian countries. Manchuria was the richest East Bloc country in Asia and was second only to Japan.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Luo |first1=Weiteng |title=Unlocking the paradox of nation's 'eldest son' |url=https://www.chinadailyhk.com/articles/254/3/20/1577416086129.html |accessdate=February 27, 2020 |agency=China Daily |date=December 27, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |title=Edit/Review Countries |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=14 September 2006 |accessdate=27 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111209145442/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2001&sg=All+countries |archive-date=9 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>Even after the fall of communism, Manchuria is the richest former communist country when measured by its GDP per capita.
==Agriculture==
 
During the Qing period, Manchuria was one of the most industrialized parts of the Chinese Empire, and its coal deposits made it a highly-urbanized country. During the Manchukuo era until 1945, Manchuria was considered more industrialized than China and even Japan; Japanese investment has expanded Manchukuo industries.<ref>{{cite news|title =The Unquiet Past Seven decades on from the defeat of Japan, memories of war still divide East Asia|newspaper =The Economist|date =12 August 2015|url =https://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|accessdate =9 September 2015|url-status =live|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20150906053333/http://www.economist.com/news/essays/en/asia-second-world-war-ghosts|archivedate =6 September 2015|df =dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |language=zh-hans |url=http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |title=东北1945年工业规模亚洲第一 |publisher=深圳新闻网 |date=July 7, 2009 |accessdate=July 28, 2011  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020150957/http://www.sznews.com/culture/content/2009-07/01/content_3879949_3.htm |archivedate=2011-10-20 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |title=The New Imperialism and the Post-Colonial Developmental State: Manchukuo in comparative perspective |author=Prasenjit Duara |accessdate=25 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616115234/http://japanfocus.org/-Prasenjit-Duara/1715 |archive-date=16 June 2010 |url-status=live  }}</ref> Indeed, China refers to Manchuria as the "Eldest Son" of industrialized communist countries in Asia. After the fall of communism, Manchuria struggled to keep its industry as it stagnated, prompting the government to diversify its economic structure.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chan |first1=Elaine |title=China’s Northeastern rust belt was once ‘eldest son’, now struggling as runt of the litter |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3008778/chinas-northeastern-rust-belt-was-once-eldest-son-now |accessdate=June 5, 2019 |work=China Economy |agency=South China Morning Post |date=June 5, 2019}}</ref>
 
In 1991, Manchuria's GDP shrunk in 1993 to the level it achieved in 1976, and considered a "national scandal". President [[Tian Fengshan|Tiyan Fengsan]] of the People's Party then installed new economic policies and copied the economic system instituted by Japan in the 1950s and South Korea in the 1960s. Instead of privatization of state-owned companies, Tiyan encouraged businessmen to set up their own businesses to augment the economy. Manchuria managed to keep the majority of its labor-intensive manufacturing from being transferred to the neighboring PRC keeping unemployment at bay, although pay was low compared to Korea. There are calls for the government to abandon state-owned enterprises altogether as they are a remnant of communist and Manchukuo era policies.<ref name="Caixin92415">{{cite news |author = Li Yongfeng |title = Central Planning Got Manchuria in Trouble – and Won't Save It |url = http://english.caixin.com/2015-09-24/100856216.html |accessdate = 24 September 2015 |work=Caixin |date = 24 September 2015}}</ref>It was said that Manchuria's explosive economic growth after the Financial Crisis was due to Tiyan's reforms; however, inequality in income increased. It's petroleum and shale oil industry, enabled Manchuria to increase its economic clout; also, its economic penetration to Eastern European markets and West Asian markets had been credited to Manchuria's rise as one of the world's largest economies.
 
[[File:Shenyang montage.jpg|thumb|left|Mukden, financial center of Manchuria.]]
 
Manchuria's economy still remains industrial, with steel, automotive, rail, aircraft, and shipbuilding industry predominating. Manchuria also has coal and petroleum industry and has several petroleum refinery facilities. The appliance industry has also been booming since the 2010s, and Manchuria's software production has been ramped up since 2005.
 
Despite decline of agriculture due to industrialization, it remains important. Fishing is important on the coasts and rivers, while farming is dominant in the south with corn, wheat, soya, and sorghum commonly cultivated there. Animal husbandry is also common, with cattle, pigs, horses, and sheep being raised.
 
===Agriculture===
 
Agriculture still plays a vital role in the Manchurian economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Nai-Ruenn |url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/1152906|title=Agricultural Productivity in a Newly Settled Region: The Case of Manchuria |journal=Economic Development and Cultural Change |date=October 1972 |volume=1 |issue=21 |pages=87-95 |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref> In the northern cold regions, corn, wheat, sorghum, flax, potatoes and sunflowers are grown. In the center, soybeans are planted; Manchuria is the chief source for US soybean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Freese |first1=Roseanne |title=This is Northeast China |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |accessdate=February 27, 2020}}</ref>  In the east, rice is grown especially in Yanbiyan, whereas in the south, corn, sorghum, cotton, and soybeans are cultivated. The south is also where Manchuria's fruit industry dominate. Herding is also common, with pigs, cows, and horses predominating; the dairy industry also supplies all of Manchuria's yearly needs. Sheep farming is common in Baicheng.
 
Manchuria's agriculture has undergone a shift after 1990. Prior to 1990, all farming are done within collective farms confiscated from the Manchukuo government and Japanese companies, with 50 families inhabiting a farm called [[collective farm|Concentrated Agricultural Farm]]. The collective farms have moderate to high production rates but needed subsidies for technology. In 1990 collective farms remain but as their subsidies were cut off, many failed and shuttered. Conversion to co-operative farms alleviated the situation. Private plots, de-facto recognized by 1971, were legalized by 1990.
 
===Currency===
 
The currency is known as the [[Manchukuo yuan|Jiha]], divided into 100 Menggun. It is issued by the [[Central_Bank_of_Manchou|Manchurian Central Bank]]. Manchuria copied Singapore's example of allowing its [[exchange rate]] to fluctuate within an undisclosed trading band.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-13/this-central-bank-doesn-t-set-interest-rates|title=This Central Bank Doesn't Set Interest Rates|date=13 April 2015|work=Bloomberg}}</ref>
 
===Industry===
 
Manchuria's industry has developed considerably, both light and heavy industrial products. In the late 1990s, Manchuria attempted to curry foreign investment, including those of Korea, China, and Japan, and Western countries, and there was a boom in manufacturing, however, Russian and East European industries took up the bulk of foreign investment. However, it is still a major production base for heavy industry. Many companies have origins in the Manchukuo era and nationalized by communists; the saying that "Manchuria X Corporation" owns everything in Manchuria is still evident, as these state-owned industries control 25 percent of the economy. Others are dominated by so-called "Ulinhala" or "Wealth clans", analogous to the [[Zaibatsu]]/[[Keiretsu]] of Japan and the [[Chaebol]] of Korea.
 
In 2012, President Liyoo Siaobo initated the Revitalize Manchuria program to enhance the industrial situation in the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Central Area Revitalization Plan (2012)|url=http://www.gov.mj/gzdt/2007-08/20/content_721632.htm|publisher=Manchuria State Council|accessdate=31 August 2013|language=mnc}}</ref> While it saw moderate success, Liyoo's untimely death and political infighting hampered its implementation.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=27756425|title=Assessing the "Revive Manchuria" Programme: Origins, Policies and Implementation|last1=Chung|first1=Jae Ho |first2=Hongyi|last2=Lai|first3=Jang-Hwan|last3=Joo|journal=[[The China Quarterly]]|publisher=Cambridge University Press|issue=197|date=March 2009|page=113}}</ref> In addition, remnants of the old communist bureaucracy was still largely in charge of Manchuria's economy, prompting government leaders to encourage private enterpeneurships without government spurring.
 
There are three industrial zones in Manchuria: Mukden-Tiyeliyan Industrial Zone, Cangcon-Girin Industrial Zone, and Halbin-Sartu Industrial Zone. Two major urban agglomerations have been formed: the central and southern Liaoning urban agglomeration and the Hachang urban agglomeration. The main industrial cities are [[Mukden]], [[Dalian|Tiyeliyan]] ,[[Anshan|Engemer Alin]], [[Benxi|Bensi]], [[Fushun|Fusi Hecen]], Girin, Cangcon, and Halbin.
 
===Transportation===
 
[[File:Manchukuo Railmap en.png|thumb|Manchurian railways by 1945.]]
 
Transportation in Northeast China is dominated by railways, with roads coming in second and air and sea transport not falling behind.
 
==== Railway network ====
 
Manchuria's railways, owned by the [[Manchukuo National Railway|Manchurian National Railway]], are one of the world's busiest. High-speed rail in Manchuria is common; as the matter of fact, the first railway system to be called "high-speed" was created during the Manchukuo era.
 
The late Qing's Dong Qing Railway and the South Manchurian Railway constitute the "D" word Manchurian Railway. While serving Russian and Japanese interests, it also promoted the development of the country. Harbin, as the intersection of two railways, replaced Qiqihar and became the major city in North. During the Manchukuo era, the Japanese expanded the railway network, which is not much different from the current form.
 
In recent years, high-speed railway lines such as the Qingdao-Liyooning Passenger Railway, the Hal-Tiyelian High-speed Railway, the CangGirin InterCity, the HaJi Railway, and the MukDan Railway have also been completed and opened to traffic.
[[File:Trams in Changchun 900 series (1).JPG|thumb|Cangcon tram.|80px]] <br>[[File:201605 G1359 at Jinhua Station.jpg|thumb|Cangcon Railway Vehicle high speed train in Mukden.|80px]]
 
==== Highway ====
Manchuria has an extensive highway system. The Tiyeliyan-Mukden Superhighway was opened in 1990, shortly before the fall of the Communist regime. <ref>https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf</ref>
 
==== Shipping ====
 
Manchuria's major port is Tiyeliyan, with Huludao as second. Tiyeliyan's port handles the bulk of shipping in Manchuria.<ref name="大连港集团">[http://www.portdalian.com/webcms/english/page2.htm 大连港集团<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>During 1973, Tiyeliyan handled 23.1 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/review/CHN_Port_of_Dalian_238.php|title=Port of Dalian|website=World Port Source|access-date=2017-08-30}}</ref>By 2015, this now stands to 555 million tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2017-06/14/content_29736814.htm|title=Liaoning to set up integrated port operating platform  - Business - Chinadaily.com.cn|last=宋静丽|website=www.chinadaily.com.cn|access-date=2017-08-30}}</ref>Tiyeliyan is the world's seventeenth-largest port in 2012. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130827191609/http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world-container-ports|website=Worldshipping|access-date=2020-02-12}}</ref>
 
==== Aviation ====
 
[[File:沈阳桃仙国际机场第三航站楼登机口.jpg|left|thumb|Mukden Airport.]]
 
There are currently 22 major civil airports, including international airports: [[Shenyang Taoxian International Airport|Mukden International Airport]]<ref>https://worldaerodata.com/wad.cgi?id=CH73366&sch=ZYTX</ref>, [[Harbin Taiping International Airport|Halbin International Airport]], Ice Hoton New International Airport, Tiyeliyan International Airport, Hailar Airport, Yanji Airport, Mudanbira Airport, Yingkou Airport, Dandong Airport and Giyamusi Airport. The first four airports have flights globally, while the rest are concentrated on neighboring Asian countries. The Ilan-Ula (Sanjiang) Plain is has many airports. [[Manchuria Aviation Company|Manchurian Airlines]]<ref>Francis Clifford Jones: ''Manchuria since 1931''. Royal Institute of International Affairs, London 1949, S. 120.</ref><ref>Philip S. Jowett: ''Rays of the Rising Sun. Armed Forces of Japan's Asian Allies 1931-45. Volume 1: China & Manchukuo.'' Helion & Company Ltd., Solihull 2004, {{ISBN|1-874622-21-3}}, S. 90.</ref><ref>Togo Sheba (Hrsg.): ''The Manchoukou Year Book 1941.'' The Manchoukou Year Book Co., Hsinking 1941.</ref> has been the flag carrier of Manchuria since 1931.
 
===Energy===
 
The slim majority of Manchuria's energy resources are being based on fossil fuels; they have been replaced by nuclear energy and hydroelectric energy. Coal is being steadily replaced due to being used as shale oil for export. Manchuria also shies from using petroleum as fuel for power plants, preferring it to be used as fuel for vehicles and petrochemicals instead. Renewable energy like solar and wind power had been limited due to lack of funds and overabundance of energy supply.
 
==Demographics==
 
===Languages===
 
The official language is the Manchu language, which came to mean both the Tungusic [[Manchu]]-[[Sibe]] language and the [[Mandarin Chinese]] spoken in Manchuria. While the majority of the population of Manchuria are proficient in Chinese or "Guanhua" as it was called (65%), most of the native-speakers of Manchu (28%) are ethnically Manchurians or Sibe people; the rest speak it as a second language and is the lingua franca of the government and the military. The near-exclusive use of Manchu in the military and the government, mandated in the communist era, which employed universal conscription was cited as a reason in the Manchu-language revival. Manchu-Sibe as it was called is written in the Cyrillic script introduced in 1949, although the older vertical traditional Manchu script is being slowly re-introduced.<ref>[http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html Liaoning News: 29 Manchu Teachers of Huanren, Benxi Are Now On Duty (simplified Chinese)] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130102104216/http://www.ln.chinanews.com/html/2012-03-20/457675.html |date=2 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.chinanews.com/edu/2011/10-29/3423577.shtml |script-title=zh:辽宁一高中开设满语课 满族文化传承引关注|author=chinanews |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://edu.sina.com.cn/zxx/2012-03-22/1435332134.shtml |script-title=zh:满语课首次进入吉林一中学课堂(图) |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref> Manchurians also conduct free language sessions throughout the country to make the Manchurian people proficient in the language, and there are even Manchu language classes in neighboring China.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.mzb.com.cn/zgmzb/html/2011-07/29/content_78793.htm |script-title=zh:中国民族报电子版 |publisher =  |accessdate = 18 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://big5.ifeng.com/gate/big5/news.ifeng.com/gundong/detail_2011_12/12/11251077_0.shtml|title=iFeng: Jin Biao's 10-Year Dream of Manchu Language (traditional Chinese)|author=|date=|website=ifeng.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://i.syd.com.cn/content/2011-12/05/content_25882720.htm|title=Shenyang Daily: Young Man Teaches Manchu For Free To Rescue the Language (simplified Chinese)|author=|date=|website=syd.com.cn}}</ref><ref>[http://bjwb.bjd.com.cn/html/2012-03/03/node_17.htm Beijing Evening News: the Worry of Manchu language (simplified Chinese)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513105009/http://bjwb.bjd.com.cn/html/2012-03/03/node_17.htm |date=13 May 2013 }}</ref>It was said that the communist government deliberately revived the Manchu language to differentiate itself from China and to reduce illiteracy among the population.
 
Other languages are Korean, spoken in [[Yeonbyeon]], Japanese in Tiyeliyan and isolated southern communities, Mongolian, Orochon, and Daur in the west, and Russian in the border areas and in Halbin.
 
=== Ethnic Groups ===
 
{{Pie chart
|caption = Ethnicity in Manchuria ([[China Family Panel Studies|Manchuria Statistics Office]] 2014)
|label1 = [[Han Chinese|Nikan]]
|value1 = 45
|color1 = red
|label2 = [[Manchu people|Manchu]]
|value2 = 42
|color2 = yellow
|label3 = [[Koreans in China|Korean]]
|value3 = 6
|color3 = Cyan
|label4 = [[Mongolians in China|Mongolian]]
|value4=  2
|color4 = DodgerBlue
|label5 = Japanese
|value5 = 1.6
|color5 = Purple
|label6 = Hui
|value6 = 1
|color6 = Green
|label7 = Other (Russian, Evenki, Nanai, Daur, etc.)
|value7 = 2.4
|color7 = Gray
}}
 
===Religion===
{{Pie chart
|thumb=left
|caption = Ethnicity in Manchuria ([[China Family Panel Studies|Manchuria Statistics Office]] 2014)
|label1 = [[Manchu people|Manchu]]
|value1 = 42
|color1 = yellow
|label2 = [[Han Chinese|Nikan]]
|value2 = 38
|color2 = red
|label3 = Russian
|value3 = 7
|color3 = orange
|label4 = [[Koreans in China|Korean]]
|value4 = 6
|color4 = Cyan
|label5 = [[Mongolians in China|Mongolian]]
|value5=  2
|color5 = DodgerBlue
|label6 = Japanese
|value6 = 1.6
|color6 = Purple
|label7 = Hui
|value7 = 1
|color7 = Green
|label8 = Other (Evenki, Nanai, Daur, etc.)
|value8 = 2.4
|color8 = Gray
}}
 
===Fertility Rate===
 
Manchuria has the lowest fertility rate in the world.<ref>{{cite news |title=Northeast China has the world’s lowest fertility rate |url=https://asiatimes.com/2018/07/northeast-china-has-the-worlds-lowest-fertility-rate/ |accessdate=February 25, 2020 |date=July 25, 2018}}</ref> It was estimated that in 2015, Manchuria's fertility rate was 0.55 percent, even lower than Japan, which already have a low fertility rate.
 
==Society and Culture==
 
===Education===
 
Manchuria inherited from Manchukuo and Communist times an efficient educational system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hawkins |first1=Everett D. |title=Education in Manchuria |journal=Far Eastern Survey |date=March 12, 1947 |volume=Vol. 16 |issue=No. 5 |pages=52-54 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3021748 |accessdate=February 24, 2020}}</ref> Manchuria's government had established numerous universities and schools. City universities tend to be of better quality than provincial schools, a problem acknowledged by the government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |title=Educational themes and methods |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |accessdate=23 June 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121212124233/lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0056) |archivedate=12 December 2012 }}</ref> Literacy rates have been on an all-time high of 98.5 percent, with most illiteracy coming from the western rural areas of Manchuria.
 
Manchuria's education system is divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Facilities are either maintained by both private and public schools under the Ministry of Education. The ministry also sets a National Curriculum that provides guidelines for teachers; it is always regularly updated. Private schools may adopt a modified version of the National Curriculum provided it did not conflict with the government's policies.
 
All education is compulsory in primary and secondary. Subsidies remain for these schools; most tertiary school subsidies ceased after the fall of the communist regime.
 
Prior to formal education, children are educated in kindergartens. By the time they reached five, they are enrolled in primary schools until the age of eleven. In elementary school, the children by learning Manchu-Sibe, Chinese, mathematics, science and physical education.
 
Manchurian schools usually conduct school festivals, a trait inherited from the Manchukuo and communist eras. <ref name="Japan Focus">[http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 Japan Focus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051026150022/http://japanfocus.org/article.asp?id=330 |date=26 October 2005 }</ref>
 
Like its fellow East Asian countries, Manchuria's education system has been criticized due to pressures given to its students and also due to being behind its neighbors, even China's. Rote memorization are also seen as problems.
 
===Culture===
 
Manchurian culture is a mix of traditional Manchu culture, Manchurian Chinese influences, and input from its neighbors and conquerors.
 
===Cuisine===
 
Manchurian cuisine (Manju sogi) is a amalgamation of ethnic Manchu, Chinese, Korean, Mongolian, and European influences. They are often hearty, with meats being roasted and seasoned with cumin and garlic and salt. The Man-Han Imperial Feast was known in Asia as a court dish during Qing times, modified in the present-day to suit modern tastes and only using domesticated meat. <ref>https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=This%20is%20Northeast%20China_Shenyang_China%20-%20Peoples%20Republic%20of_12-30-2016.pdf</ref>
 
[[File:Suan cai pork stew.jpg|thumb|Gidaha Lafu Pork Stew.]]
 
Manchurian cuisine is concentrated on grains, vegetables, and meat. Wheat, sorghum, soybean, and rice are commonly used as staple grains, with potatoes and corn becoming common in the late 20th century. Gidaha Lafu, or [[Suancai]] in Chinese, is fermented cabbage similar but not identical to the Korean Kimchi, and is commonly used in dishes. Bairou Xuechang is a famous pork and cabbage dish, as well as ludagun.
 
===Sport===
 
Manchuria's national sports are said to be ice hockey, football, basketball, and the indigenously developed sport of Pearlball.
 
Manchuria's football association is founded during the Manchukuo era.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com/footbook/2010/10/post-bfa7.html |title=満州国の国技は"蹴球"－読売新聞記事より : 蹴球本日誌 |work=fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com |date=1 October 2010 |accessdate=10 September 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927144028/http://fukuju3.cocolog-nifty.com/footbook/2010/10/post-bfa7.html |archivedate=27 September 2015  }}</ref> While it is a competitive team in the Asian championships, it was only able to enter the [[FIFA World Cup]] twice in 1966 and in 2010, in the latter's case defeating Cote d'Ivoire's national football team but in turn defeated by both Portugal and Brazil.
 
[[File:延辺スタジアム.jpg|thumb|A stadium in Yongil.]]
 
Manchuria was supposed to compete in the Summer Olympics in 1932, but its only candidate, [[Liu Changchun]], defected to the [[Republic of China]] and became the first Chinese Olympic representative. Attempts to join the 1936 Olympics in Berlin were frustrated by the [[International Olympic Committee]]'s decision not to allow unrecognized states in the Olympics. Manchuria was to join the 1940 Summer Olympics but [[World War II]] prevented its entry<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mangan|first1=J. A.|last2=Collins|first2=Sandra|last3=Ok|first3=Gwang|title=The Triple Asian Olympics - Asia Rising: The Pursuit of National Identity, International Recognition and Global Esteem|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-GEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119|year=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-71419-2|page=119}}</ref> Instead, it sent atheltes to the [[1940]] [[Far East Games]] organized by Japan. <ref name=1940j>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Sandra|title=1940 TOKYO GAMES – COLLINS: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic Movement|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317999669|pages=179–180}}</ref> It was only able to compete in 1952 in Helsinki due to Finnish invitation, and as the Manchurian-Chinese delegation at the insistence of the Republic of China. By 1956, it was able to compete under its own name since. Manchuria is more successful in Winter Games, primarily due to the country's climate.
 
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*{{cite book|title=American Diplomacy Concerning Manchuria|first=Chao-ying|last=Pʻan|volume=|edition=|year=1938|publisher=The Catholic University of America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AC6tAAAAMAAJ|isbn=|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=Tumen Jalafun Jecen Akū Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary|editor1-first=Alessandra|editor1-last=Pozzi |editor2-first=Juha Antero |editor2-last=Janhunen|editor3-first=Michael|editor3-last=Weiers|others=Contributor: Giovanni Stary |volume=Volume 20 of Tunguso Sibirica|year=2006|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=344705378X|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Pozzi|2006}} }}
* {{cite journal|jstor=3985584|title=Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty|last=Reardon-Anderson|first=James|date=October 2000|volume= 5|number=4|journal=Environmental History|pages=503–530|publisher=Forest History Society and American Society for Environmental History|doi=10.2307/3985584}}
*{{cite book|title=Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928|first=Edward J. M.|last=Rhoads|volume=|edition=|year=2011|publisher=University of Washington Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tgq1miGno-4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0295804125|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite journal |last= Scharping |first= Thomas |date= 1998 |title= Minorities, Majorities and National Expansion: The History and Politics of Population Development in Manchuria 1610–1993 |url= http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf |journal=Cologne China Studies Online – Working Papers on Chinese Politics, Economy and Society (Kölner China-Studien Online – Arbeitspapiere zu Politik, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas) |publisher=Modern China Studies, Chair for Politics, Economy and Society of Modern China, at the University of Cologne |volume= |issue=  1 |pages= |doi= |accessdate=14 August 2014}}
* Tamanoi, Mariko Asano. ''Crossed Histories: Manchuria in the Age of Empire'' (2005)
*{{cite book|title=Japan at the Millennium: Joining Past and Future|first=Bill|last=Sewell|editor-first=David W.|editor-last=Edgington|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2003|publisher=UBC Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=El9Lj_EKzBAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0774808993|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=Intoxicating Manchuria: Alcohol, Opium, and Culture in China's Northeast|series=Contemporary Chinese Studies Series|first=Norman|last=Smith|volume=|edition=illustrated|year=2012|publisher=UBC Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2pjbx91hb_gC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=978-0774824316|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=  The Russian Far East: A History |first= John J. |last=Stephan|volume=|edition=illustrated, reprint|year=1996|publisher=Stanford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Jce4rBWjG5wC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0804727015|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}
*{{cite journal|jstor=2658656|doi=10.2307/2658656|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|title=Knowledge, Power, and Racial Classification: The "Japanese" in "Manchuria"|last=Tamanoi|first=Mariko Asano|volume= 59|number=2|date=May 2000|pages=248–276|publisher=Association for Asian Studies}}
*Tao, Jing-shen, ''The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China''. University of Washington Press, 1976, {{ISBN|0-295-95514-7}}.
*KISHI Toshihiko, MATSUSHIGE Mitsuhiro and MATSUMURA Fuminori eds, 20 Seiki Manshu Rekishi Jiten [Encyclopedia of 20th Century Manchuria History], Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 2012, {{ISBN|978-4642014694}}
*{{cite book|title=Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717 – 1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao|first=Shuhui|last=Wu|volume=Volume 2 of Tunguso Sibirica|edition=reprint|year=1995|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zqVug_wN4hEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=3447037563|accessdate=10 March 2014| ref = {{harvid||}} }}
*{{cite book|title=The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective: World War Zero, Volume 2|editor1-first=David|editor1-last=Wolff|editor2-first=John W.|editor2-last=Steinberg|volume=Volume 2 of The Russo-Japanese War in Global Perspective|year=2007|edition=illustrated|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004154162|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xlg0lM8f9Y4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=1 April 2013| ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
*{{cite journal | jstor = 20062627 | doi = 10.1177/0097700405282349 |url= http://mcx.sagepub.com/content/32/1/3.abstract |archivedate = 25 March 2014 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140325231543/https://webspace.utexas.edu/hl4958/perspectives/Zhao%20-%20reinventing%20china.pdf |title= Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century| journal = Modern China |last1= Zhao|first1=Gang |volume= 32 | pages = 3–30 |number=  1 |date= January 2006|publisher= Sage Publications|accessdate=}}
{{refend}}
 
 
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Latest revision as of 01:23, 18 December 2022

Republic of Manjugurun
Манҗу Гурун
Flag of Manjugurun
Flag
Emblem of Manjugurun
Emblem
Anthem: 

File:Manchukuo National Anthem 1933.mid
location of Manchuria in green
location of Manchuria in green
CapitalCacungga
Largest cityMukden
Official languagesManchu (official and national), Kyowa-go, Mandarin, Russian, Korean, Japanese, Mongolian
Official scriptsManchu Cyrillic
Manchu script
Ethnic groups
(2010)
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary state
• President
Baigiya Dorolon
Citela Sucun
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
formed 1115
formed 1636
• Manchukuo
1932
• Manju People's Republic was established
February 1, 1946
• Sorghum Revolution
October 3, 1990
• Current Constitution
March 1, 1991
Area
• Total
1,260,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi) (18th)
• Water (%)
5.4
Population
• 2017 estimate
121,163,770 (134th)
• Density
96.1/km2 (248.9/sq mi) (67th)
GDP (PPP)2019 estimate
• Total
$4.50 trillion
• Per capita
$37,084
GDP (nominal)2019 estimate
• Total
$4.06 trillion
• Per capita
$33,493
Gini (2013)36.5
medium
HDI (2015)Increase 0.765
high
CurrencyMuheren (MNM)
Time zoneUTC+9
Date formatyyyy.mm.dd (CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+976
ISO 3166 codeMN
Internet TLD.mj, .ман


Manjugurun is an independent state located in East Asia. It is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by Mongolia, on the southwest by China, and on the southeast by Korea. Cacungga is the capital, and Mukden, the former capital, is the largest city. It has one of the world's largest populations, with 121,204,300 people. Manjugurun is a country formed by numerous ethnic groups such as the Sarpi, the Khitans, and the Jurchen which became the Manchus. After invading China in the 1600s, it established the Qing Dynasty until 1911. It fell under Japanese domination in 1932 and a puppet state was established there. After the Second World War, it became a Soviet satellite and after the fall of communism in 1991, it adopted representative democracy amid a tumultous end to the 20th century.

History

Prehistoric and ancient eras

Several ethnic groups, including the Evenki, the Nanai, the Ulchs, the Khitans, and the Jurchens, inhabited today's Manjugurun in ancient times. Several Chinese dynasties ruled over parts of Manjugurun at various times throughout the history of the Manjus, usually along the coasts. The Chinese also established tributary relationships with the tribes.

Manjus was also ruled by the Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Gojoseon, and Buyeo. The Korean kingdoms may feature sizable Tungusic-speaking minorities and perhaps a Tungusic aristocracy, according to Finnish scientist Juha Janhunen. The ancestors of the Jurchens were made to serve as tributaries when the Khitans of Inner Mongolia and Manjugurun created the Liao empire, which included Northern China and Manjugurun, between the tenth and eleventh centuries.

By the early 12th century, the Jurchens, a tributary people of the Khitans, had revolted against Liao rule and been replaced by the Jin Dynasty. The Jurchen were able to capture territory in northern China thanks to numerous campaigns against the Song. The Mongolian Yuan Dynasty eventually conquered the Jurchens. Manjugurun, along with Northern Korea, was known as Liaoyang during Mongolian rule. Naghachu, a Mongolian Yuan official in Liaoyang, attempted to conquer the rest of the Ming-held Liaodong peninsula in 1375, but his forces were defeated and surrendered. The Nurgan Regional Military Commission was established by Ming Emperor Yongle to consolidate control of the Manju lands.

Chafing from Ming control, the Jianzhou Jurchens, led by Nurhaci, began to consolidate their control of the region in the 1580s. They had to deal with the Evenki-Daur alliance led by Bombogor, who was eventually killed in 1640 and his remaining troops incorporated into the Eight Banners, a new Jurchen military organisation. During this time, Chinese cultural influence permeated the Manjurian region.

Qing era

early 20th century

In 1903, Russia established the Viceroyalty of the Far East in Port Arthur, and the Russian government considered the project of securing Manjugurun as " Zheltorossiya", the basis of which was to be the Kwantung Region established in 1899 in the right-of-way of the CER, and the formation of a new Cossack army and settlement by Russian colonists.

Japan's claims to Manchuria and Korea and the refusal of the Russian Empire to withdraw Russian troops from Manchuria and Korea in violation of the allied treaty led to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which was fought in southern Manchuria up to Mukden.

According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Liaodong Peninsula with the Kwantung region and the Chinese Eastern to Port Arthur went to Japan. Between 1905 and 1925, Japan further strengthened its influence in Inner Manchuria, relying on economic levers like the South Manchurian Railway.

In 1910-1911, the last major outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in Manjugurun.

After the Xinhai Revolution and the collapse of the Qing Empire from 1912 to 1932, the territory of Manchuria was controlled by the Fengtian clique, a northeastern grouping of Chinese warlords. By the end of the 1920s, the Chinese government of the Kuomintang established formal control over this territory. In 1929, the Chinese Nationalists attempted to seize the CER, but were defeated by Soviet troops. In 1929-1931, in some areas of eastern Manjugurun, inhabited by Koreans, established an anarchist territory called Korean People's Association until defeated by Chinese and Japanese authorities.

Manchukuo

Communist era

Modern Era

Manjugurun was struck by the Covid-19 Pandemic, and was criticized for strict lockdowns. However, the Manjurian government also criticized the Chinese government for failing to stop the spread of the virus.

Geography

The climate of Manjugurun spans the mid-temperate zone and the cold-temperate zone from south to north. There are four distinct seasons, with hot weather in summer and cool weather in winter. Precipitation drops from 1000mm down to below 300mm annually as you go northwestward across this humid area, semi-humid area, arid region, and high forest coverage rate region. This contributes to agricultural development (due to prolonged melting time on ice) as well as forestry ( due to storage capacity of trees).

Government

Manjugurun is a unitary semi-presidential republic. Manchuria is classified as partially free by the non-governmental organisation Freedom House. The President (Beile) is the country's recognised head of state; he is elected by the people for a five-year term that can be renewed only once in a re-election. He chooses the Prime Minister (Ejen) who is the head cabinet minister. The President's personal residence is the so-called "Joogiya's Mansion," the former Kwantung Army commander's mansion during the Manchukuo era.

Economy

Agriculture

Industry

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