User:Native Qazh/Sandbox4: Difference between revisions

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Line 14: Line 14:
| created          =  
| created          =  
| setting          =  
| setting          =  
| ethnicity        = Maskey people
| ethnicity        = 977,864 Maskies
| extinct          =  
| extinct          =  
| era              =  
| era              =  
| speakers        = -
| speakers        = 962,380 (98.4%)
| date            =  
| date            =  
| dateprefix      =  
| dateprefix      =  
Line 127: Line 127:
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}} {{anglebracket|p}}
| {{IPAlink|pʰ}} {{anglebracket|p}}
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}} {{anglebracket|t}}
| {{IPAlink|tʰ}} {{anglebracket|t}}
| {{IPAlink|tsʰ}} {{anglebracket|ts}}
| {{IPAlink|tsʰ}} {{anglebracket|c}}
| {{IPAlink|tɬʰ}} {{anglebracket|tlh}}
| {{IPAlink|tɬʰ}} {{anglebracket|tlh}}
| {{IPAlink|ts̝ʰ}}~{{IPAlink|tʃʰ}} {{anglebracket|ch}}
| {{IPAlink|ts̝ʰ}}~{{IPAlink|tʃʰ}} {{anglebracket|ch}}
Line 136: Line 136:
| {{IPAlink|pʼ}} {{anglebracket|pʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|pʼ}} {{anglebracket|pʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʼ}} {{anglebracket|tʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tʼ}} {{anglebracket|tʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tsʼ}} {{anglebracket|tsʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tsʼ}} {{anglebracket|cʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tɬʼ}} {{anglebracket|tlhʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|tɬʼ}} {{anglebracket|tlhʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|ts̝ʼ}}~{{IPAlink|tʃʼ}} {{anglebracket|chʼ}}
| {{IPAlink|ts̝ʼ}}~{{IPAlink|tʃʼ}} {{anglebracket|chʼ}}
Line 253: Line 253:
|'''Tt'''<br>/tʰ/ || || || ||
|'''Tt'''<br>/tʰ/ || || || ||
|'''T' t''''<br>/tʼ/ || || || ||
|'''T' t''''<br>/tʼ/ || || || ||
|'''Ts ts'''<br>/tsʰ/ || || || ||
|'''C c'''<br>/tsʰ/ || || || ||
|'''Ts' ts''''<br>/tsʼ/ || || || ||
|'''C' c''''<br>/tsʼ/ || || || ||
|-
|-
|'''Tlh tlh'''<br>/tɬʰ/ || || || ||
|'''Tlh tlh'''<br>/tɬʰ/ || || || ||
Line 264: Line 264:
|'''Yy'''<br>/j/ || || || ||
|'''Yy'''<br>/j/ || || || ||
|'''{{color|#6E6E6E|Zz}}'''<br>/z̥~s/ || || || ||
|'''{{color|#6E6E6E|Zz}}'''<br>/z̥~s/ || || || ||
|''' ''''<br>/ʔ~ᵊ◌/{{efn|when {{anglebracket| ' }} is added between sonorants (except semivowels) and read as /ᵊ◌/}}|| || || ||
|''' ''''<br>/ʔ~ᵊ◌/{{efn|when {{anglebracket| ' }} is added between sonorants (except semivowels) and read as /ᵊ◌/ (also in some pronouns)}}|| || || ||
|}
|}
{{notelist}}
{{notelist}}
Line 273: Line 273:
<br>{{color box|#00B400}} - Apears if the word ends/begins in a vowel
<br>{{color box|#00B400}} - Apears if the word ends/begins in a vowel
==Syntax & Syllable structure==
==Syntax & Syllable structure==
SOV
==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==


Line 393: Line 395:
! rowspan="3" | Singular
! rowspan="3" | Singular
! colspan="2" | 1st
! colspan="2" | 1st
| ''ch{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| ''g{{color|#DC0000|i}}''-
| '''ch{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (my face)
| '''g{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (my face)
| '''ch{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu (my food)
| '''g'''inu (my food)
| '''ch''''meti (my comb)
| '''g''''meti (my comb)
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
! colspan="2" | 2nd
Line 414: Line 416:
! Inclusive
! Inclusive
| ''sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| ''sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| '''sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (my face)
| '''sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (our face)
| '''sk{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu (my food)
| '''sk{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu (our food)
| '''sk''''meti (my comb)
| '''sk''''meti (our comb)
|-
|-
! Exclusive
! Exclusive
| ''ask{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| ''ask{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| '''ask{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (my face)
| '''ask{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (our face)
| '''ask{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu (my food)
| '''ask{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu (our food)
| '''ask''''meti (my comb)
| '''ask''''meti (our comb)
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
! colspan="2" | 2nd
| ''lh'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| ''lh'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| '''lh'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk ( face)
| '''lh'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (your face)
| '''lh'sk{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu ( food)
| '''lh'sk{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu (your food)
| '''lh'sk''''meti ( comb)
| '''lh'sk''''meti (your comb)
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |3d
! colspan="2" |3d
| ''d'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| ''d'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| '''d'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk ( face)
| '''d'sk{{color|#DC0000|i}}'''bewtuk (their face)
| '''d'sk{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu ( food)
| '''d'sk{{color|#00B400|'}}'''inu (their food)
| '''d'sk''''meti ( comb)
| '''d'sk''''meti (their comb)
|-
|-
|}
|}
Line 499: Line 501:
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}s{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (with a canoe)
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}s{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (with a canoe)
| maske'''s{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (with a dog)
| maske'''s{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (with a dog)
| salh''''s{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (with a bow)
| salh''''s{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (with a bow)
|-
|-
! Comparative{{efn|When the Comparative case is used with the {{wp|Comparison (grammar)|comparative}} affix, the meaning shifts to "than"}}
! Comparative{{efn|When the Comparative case is used with the {{wp|Comparison (grammar)|comparative}} affix, the meaning shifts to "than"}}
Line 505: Line 507:
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}dlh{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (as a canoe)
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}dlh{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (as a canoe)
| maske'''dlh{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (as a dog)
| maske'''dlh{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (as a dog)
| salh'''dlh{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (as a bow)
| salh'''dlh{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (as a bow)
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| -{{color|#DC0000|a}}m{{color|#0050FA|a}}
| -{{color|#DC0000|a}}m{{color|#0050FA|aa}}
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}m{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (at/in a canoe)
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}m{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (at/in a canoe)
| maske'''m{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (at/in a dog)
| maske'''m{{color|#0050FA|ii}}''' (at/in a dog)
| salh'''m{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (at/in a bow)
| salh'''m{{color|#0050FA|aa}}''' (at/in a bow)
|-
|-
! Allative
! Allative
Line 529: Line 531:
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}r{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' ({{H:title|for the benefit of|for}} a canoe)
| ewak'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}r{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' ({{H:title|for the benefit of|for}} a canoe)
| maske'''r{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' ({{H:title|for the benefit of|for}} a rain)
| maske'''r{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' ({{H:title|for the benefit of|for}} a rain)
| salh''''r{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' ({{H:title|for the benefit of|for}} a bow)
| salh''''r{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' ({{H:title|for the benefit of|for}} a bow)
|-
|-
! Vocative
! Vocative
Line 578: Line 580:
|-
|-
! Distal-demonstrative
! Distal-demonstrative
| uut (that)
| ut (that)
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| '''uut''' selk (that salmon)
| '''ut''' selk (that salmon)
| '''uut''' dlhe (that rain)
| '''ut''' dlhe (that rain)
| '''uut''' baalh (that milk)
| '''ut''' baalh (that milk)
|-
|-
! Partitive
! Partitive
| baw (some)
| ma (some)
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| '''baw''' selk (some salmon)
| '''ma''' selk (some salmon)
| '''baw''' dlhe (some rain)
| '''ma''' dlhe (some rain)
| '''baw''' baalh (some milk)
| '''ma''' baalh (some milk)
|-
|-
! Partitive-Collective
! Partitive-Collective
| doo (most)
| khaw (most)
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| '''doo''' selk (most salmon)
| '''khaw''' selk (most salmon)
| '''doo''' dlhe (most rain)
| '''khaw''' dlhe (most rain)
| '''doo''' baalh (most milk)
| '''khaw''' baalh (most milk)
|-
|-
! Non-Partitive
! Non-Partitive
Line 607: Line 609:
|}
|}
{{notelist}}
{{notelist}}
==Adjective==
They agree with the number of the noun


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
==="be"===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
==Lexicon==
|-
! rowspan="2" | Mood
! colspan="3" | general past
! colspan="3" | unwitnessed past
! colspan="2" | present
! colspan="3" | future
|-
! {{H:title|imperfect|IMPF}}
! {{H:title|perfect|PF}}
! {{H:title|Inchoative|INCH}}
! {{H:title|imperfect|IMPF}}
! {{H:title|perfect, also acts as present perfect|PF*}}
! {{H:title|Inchoative|INCH}}
! {{H:title|imperfect|IMPF}}
! {{H:title|Inchoative|INCH}}
! {{H:title|imperfect|IMPF}}
! {{H:title|perfect|PF}}
! {{H:title|Inchoative|INCH}}
|-
! Indicative
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}d''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}d{{color|#0050FA|a}}s''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}d{{color|#0050FA|a}}m''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}d{{color|#0050FA|a}}'''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}d{{color|#0050FA|a}}'{{color|#0050FA|a}}s''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}d{{color|#0050FA|a}}'{{color|#0050FA|a}}m''
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| -{{color|#DC0000|a}}m
| ''tlhi{{color|#00B400|'}}''-
| ''tlhi{{color|#00B400|'}}''- -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}s''
| ''tlhi{{color|#00B400|'}}''- -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}m''
|-
! Imperative
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}y''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}mi''
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
|-
|}
In past-participle, the verb is made into an adjective, and the verb "be" is used as an auxiliary
{| class="wikitable"
|''khyagad tlh'e'' - "i ate (a) fish"
|→
|''khya'aw seg tlh'e'' - "i have eaten (a) fish"
|}
===Person and Direction===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan="3" | Person & Number
! Subjective
! Objective
|-
! rowspan="3" | Singular
! colspan="2" | 1st
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}g''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}chi''
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}lh''
| -''w{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
|-
! colspan="2" | 3d
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}p'{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
|-
! rowspan="5" | Plural
! rowspan="2" | 1st
! Inclusive
| -''y{{color|#0050FA|a}}g''
| -''y{{color|#0050FA|a}}chi''
|-
! Exclusive
| -''y{{color|#0050FA|a}}'{{color|#0050FA|a}}g''
| -''y{{color|#0050FA|a}}'{{color|#0050FA|a}}chi''
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
| -''y{{color|#0050FA|a}}lh''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}wsk''
|-
! colspan="2" | 3d
| -''y{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}p'{{color|#0050FA|a}}sk''
|-
|}
 
===Copula===
Zero copula appears in the language, commonly copula is used when stressed, or in past participle verbs.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan="3" | Person & Number
! general past {{H:title|was/were|(was)}}
! unwitnessed past {{H:title|was/were apparently|(was)}}
! present {{H:title|am/is/are|(be)}}
! future (will be)
|-
! rowspan="3" | Singular
! colspan="2" | 1st
| ''chid''
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| ''seg''
| ''tlhiseg''
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
| ''lhid''
| ''lhidi'''
| ''selh''
| ''tlhiselh''
|-
! colspan="2" | 3d
| ''ed''
| ''edi'''
| ''se''
| ''tlhise''
|-
! rowspan="5" | Plural
! rowspan="2" | 1st
! Inclusive
| ''yichid''
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| ''seyig''
| ''tlhiyig''
|-
! Exclusive
| ''yichi'id''
| style="background:#F0F0F0" |
| ''seyi'ig''
| ''tlhiyi'ig''
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd
| ''yilhid''
| ''yilhidi'''
| ''seyilh''
| ''tlhiseyilh''
|-
! colspan="2" | 3d
| ''yid''
| ''yidi'''
| ''seyi''
| ''tlhiseyi''
|-
|}
 
==Questions==
===Particle===
affix -{{color|#DC0000|a}}ch-
{| class="wikitable"
|''ya inulug maskesk'' - "to feed(i) the dogs"
|→
|''ya inulug maskesk'''{{color|#DC0000|i}}ch''''' - "do i feed the ''dogs''?"
|''ya inulug'''{{color|#DC0000|u}}ch''' maskesk'' - "do i ''feed'' the dogs?"
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|''shelhip'isk'' - "you took them"
|→
|''shelh'''{{color|#DC0000|i}}ch'''ip'isk'' - "did you ''take'' them"
|''shelhip'isk'''{{color|#DC0000|i}}ch''''' - "did you take ''them''"
|}
<br>
Rhetorical questions can be formed by adding -ma to a question word:
{| class="wikitable"
|''klho, klhe'e'' - "who, when"
|→
|''klho'''ch''', klhe'e'''ch''''' - "i wonder who, i wonder when"*
|}
 
==Derivation==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!Affix
!Affix
!Used to create...
!Used to create:
!Example(s)
!Example(s)
|-
|-
Line 620: Line 798:
| tlh'e (fish) → tlh'e'''kh''' (fisherman)
| tlh'e (fish) → tlh'e'''kh''' (fisherman)
|-
|-
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}wts'{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}wc'{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
|[[wikipedia:collective noun|collective nouns]]
|[[wikipedia:collective noun|collective nouns]]
| dansi'siw (ship) → dansi'si'''''w''ts'{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (navy)
| dansi'siw (ship) → dansi'si'''''w''c'{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (navy)
|-
|-
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}ts{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}c{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
|nouns from verbs
|nouns from verbs
| sa'a (to grow) → sa'a'''ts{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (plant)
| sa'a (to grow) → sa'a'''c{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (plant)
|-
|-
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}l''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}l''
|verbs from nouns
|verbs from nouns
| k'aa (language) → k'aal (to speak)
| k'aa (language) → k'aa'''l''' (to speak)
|-
|-
| -''{{color|#00B400|'}}{{color|#0050FA|a}}w''
| -''{{color|#00B400|'}}{{color|#0050FA|a}}w''
|[[wikipedia:adjective|adjectives]] from nouns/verbs
|[[wikipedia:adjective|adjectives]]/[[wikipedia:adverb|adverbs]] from nouns/verbs
| twa (water) → twa'''{{color|#00B400|'}}{{color|#0050FA|a}}w''' (watery)
| twa (water) → twa'''{{color|#00B400|'}}{{color|#0050FA|a}}w''' (watery)
|-
|-
| -'' ''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}wy{{color|#0050FA|a}}n''
|[[wikipedia:adjective|adjectives]] indicating the lack of something
|[[wikipedia:adjective|adjectives]] indicating the lack of something
|  
| khaylha (home) → khaylha'''wy{{color|#0050FA|a}}n''' (homeless)
|-
|-
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}ky{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}ky{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
Line 644: Line 822:
| tlh'een (barren) → tlh'een'''ky{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (desert)
| tlh'een (barren) → tlh'een'''ky{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (desert)
|-
|-
| -'' ''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}ch{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
|[[wikipedia:adverb|adverbs]] from nouns/verbs
|
|-
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}ch{{color|#DC0000|a}}''
|[[wikipedia:diminutive|diminutives]] of nouns
|[[wikipedia:diminutive|diminutives]] of nouns
|  
| mawca (cat) → mawca'''ch{{color|#0050FA|a}}''' (kitty)
|-
|-
| -''s{{color|#0050FA|a}}w''
| -''s{{color|#0050FA|a}}w''
|[[wikipedia:augmentative|augmentatives]] of nouns
|[[wikipedia:augmentative|augmentatives]] of nouns
| dansi' (boat) → dansi's{{color|#0050FA|i}}w (ship)
| dansi' (boat) → dansi''''s{{color|#0050FA|i}}w''' (ship)
|-
|-
| -'' ''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}lsh{{color|#0050FA|a}}''
|locations (places related to the stem)
|locations (places related to the stem)
|  
| rekhici (trade) → rekhici'''lsh{{color|#0050FA|i}}''' (shop, market)
|-
|-
| -'' ''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}tlh'n''
|inhabitants (of places)
|inhabitants (of places)
|  
| Moshkal'''{{color|#DC0000|a}}tlh'n''' (resident of Moshkal)
|-
|-
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}ch{{color|#0050FA|a}}n''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}ch{{color|#0050FA|a}}n''
Line 672: Line 846:
| Dames'''dw{{color|#0050FA|i}}t''' (child of Dames)
| Dames'''dw{{color|#0050FA|i}}t''' (child of Dames)
|-
|-
| -''k'aa''
| -''{{color|#DC0000|a}}lhk'{{color|#0050FA|aa}}''
|languages/dialects
|Languages
|  
| Khask'''alhk'aa''' (People's language)
|-
|}
 
=Sample text=
UDHR article 1:
{| class="wikitable"
| ''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
|-
|-
| ''Wesc'a khask kha'atyap'ask imatask way pa'ask tlhegekyimi way tookh'skumu. Desk seyi walhalaw ne k'uu way satlh'a, way t'weyi ya shkeyi kad'skilhaywask ne ch'elhiw t'alh.''
|}
|}

Latest revision as of 09:26, 28 January 2022

Maskey
Khaskalhk'aa
Pronunciation/xas.kaɮ̊.k’aː/
Native to Mokhavia
Ethnicity977,864 Maskies
Native speakers
962,380 (98.4%)
Official status
Official language in
 Mokhavia
Language codes
ISO 639-1MSK
ISO 639-2MSK
ISO 639-3MSK
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For a guide to IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Phonology

Labial Alveolar Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
plain sibilant lateral
Plosive /
Affricate 		plain b̥ ⟨b⟩ d̥ ⟨d⟩ d̥z̥ ⟨dz⟩ d̥ɮ̊ ⟨dlh⟩ d̥z̝̊~d̥ʒ̊ ⟨j⟩ g̊ ⟨g⟩ ʔ ⟨ʼ⟩
aspirated pʰ ⟨p⟩ tʰ ⟨t⟩ tsʰ ⟨c⟩ tɬʰ ⟨tlh⟩ ts̝ʰ~tʃʰ ⟨ch⟩ kʰ ⟨k⟩
ejective pʼ ⟨pʼ⟩ tʼ ⟨tʼ⟩ tsʼ ⟨cʼ⟩ tɬʼ ⟨tlhʼ⟩ ts̝ʼ~tʃʼ ⟨chʼ⟩ kʼ ⟨kʼ⟩
Sonorants Fricative s ⟨s⟩ ɮ̊ ⟨lh⟩ s̝~ʃ ⟨sh⟩ x ⟨kh⟩
Nasal m ⟨m⟩ n ⟨n⟩
Approximant /
Tap 		ɾ ⟨r⟩ l ⟨l⟩ j ⟨y⟩ w ⟨w⟩
  • /m/ and /n/ can apear as syllabic
Front Central Back
short long short long short long
High i ⟨i⟩ iː ⟨ii⟩ u ⟨u⟩ uː ⟨uu⟩
Mid ɛ ⟨e⟩ eː ⟨ee⟩ o ⟨o⟩ oː ⟨oo⟩
Low a ⟨a⟩ aː ⟨aa⟩
Harmony i a u
  • short vowels raise up when unstressed (/ɛ/→/e̝~i/;/a/→/ɐ~ə/;/o/→/o̝~u/)
  • the /o/ is sound closer to /o̞/

Writing system

Aa
/a/		 Bb
/b̥/		 Cc
/k~ts/[a]		 Dd
/d̥/		 Dz dz
/d̥z̥/		 Dlh dlh
/d̥ɮ̊/		 Ee
/ɛ/		 Ff
/f/		 Gg
/g̊/		 Hh[b]
(/x/)[c]
Ii
/i/		 Jj
/d̥z̝̊~d̥ʒ̊/		 Kk
/kʰ/		 K' k'
/kʼ/		 Kh kh
/x/		 Ll
/l/		 Lh lh
/ɮ̊/		 Mm
/m/		 Nn
/n/		 Oo
/o/
Pp
/pʰ/		 P' p'
/pʼ/		 Qq
/kʷ/		 Rr
/ɾ/		 Ss
/s/		 Sh sh
/s̝~ʃ/		 Tt
/tʰ/		 T' t'
/tʼ/		 C c
/tsʰ/		 C' c'
/tsʼ/
Tlh tlh
/tɬʰ/		 Tlh' tlh'
/tɬʼ/		 Uu
/u/		 Vv
/w~ʋ/		 Ww
/w/		 Xx
/ks/		 Yy
/j/		 Zz
/z̥~s/		 '
/ʔ~ᵊ◌/[d]
  1. ↑ /ts/ before /i/, /ɛ/ or /j/
  2. ↑ Letter used in multigraphs, and words of foreign origin
  3. ↑ In foreign words
  4. ↑ when ⟨ ' ⟩ is added between sonorants (except semivowels) and read as /ᵊ◌/ (also in some pronouns)

Grammar


  - Vowel Harmony
  - Vowel Harmony, that apears if the word ends/begins in a plosive/stop consonant
  - Apears if the word ends/begins in a vowel

Syntax & Syllable structure

SOV

Pronouns

Person & Number NOM GEN DAT ACC INS COMP INE ALL ABL PROL
Singular 1st ga galh gu gi g'sa gadlha g'ma kaga taga g'ra
2nd lhe welh lhu lhi lh'si lhedhli lh'mi kalhe talhe lh'ra
3d de delh du di d'si deglhi d'mi kade tade d'ra
Plural 1st Inclusive gask gask'lh gasku gaski gask'si gaskadlha gask'mi kagask tagask gask'ra
Exclusive ga'ask ga'ask'lh ga'asku ga'aski ga'ask'si ga'askadlha ga'ask'mi kaga'ask taga'ask ga'ask'ra
2nd lhesk wesk'lh lhesku lheski lhesk'si lheskidlhi lhesk'mi kalhesk talhesk lhesk'ri
3d desk desk'lh desku deski desk'si deskidlhi desk'mi kadesk tadesk desk'ri

Possessive

Person & Number Affix Example: Variant 1 Example: Variant 2 Example: Variant 3
bewtuk (face) inu (food) meti (comb)
Singular 1st gi- gibewtuk (my face) ginu (my food) g'meti (my comb)
2nd lhi- lhibewtuk ( face) lhinu ( food) lh'meti ( comb)
3d ti'- tibewtuk ( face) t'inu ( food) t'meti ( comb)
Plural 1st Inclusive ski'- skibewtuk (our face) sk'inu (our food) sk'meti (our comb)
Exclusive aski'- askibewtuk (our face) ask'inu (our food) ask'meti (our comb)
2nd lh'ski'- lh'skibewtuk (your face) lh'sk'inu (your food) lh'sk'meti (your comb)
3d d'ski'- d'skibewtuk (their face) d'sk'inu (their food) d'sk'meti (their comb)

Nouns

Number

Number Affix Example: Variant 1 Example: Variant 2 Example: Variant 3
Singular -Ø dansi' (boat) thl'a (fish - sin) ch'wen (animal)
Plural -ask dansi'isk (boats) thl'ask (fish - plr) ch'wen'sk (animals)

Cases

Case Affix Examlple: Variant 1 Examlple: Variant 2 Examlple: Variant 3
Nominative -Ø ewak (canoe) maske (dog) salh (bow)
Genitive -alh ewakalh (of a canoe) maskelh (of a dog) salh'lh (of a bow)
Dative -u/w ewaku (to a canoe) maskew (to a dog) salhu (to a bow)
Accusative -i/y ewaki (canoe) maskey (dog) salhi (bow)
Instrumental -asa ewakasa (with a canoe) maskesi (with a dog) salh'sa (with a bow)
Comparative[a] -adlha ewakadlha (as a canoe) maskedlhi (as a dog) salhdlha (as a bow)
Locative -amaa ewakama (at/in a canoe) maskemii (at/in a dog) salhmaa (at/in a bow)
Allative ka'- ka'ewak (to/towards a canoe) kamaske (to/towards a dog) kasalh (to/towards a bow)
Ablative ta'- ta'ewak (from a canoe) tamaske (from a dog) tasalh (from a bow)
Benefactial -ara ewakara (for a canoe) maskeri (for a rain) salh'ra (for a bow)
Vocative -ee
-/oo 		ewakee (canoe!) maskoo (dog!) salhee (bow!)
  1. ↑ When the Comparative case is used with the comparative affix, the meaning shifts to "than"

Comparison

  • Positive - Bassic form of the word: big - saw
  • Negative - Negation of the word: (yo-) "unbig" - yosaw
  • Comparitive - Form for comparison relative to something, used with the Comparative case: (-'alh) bigger - sawalh
  • Superlative - Form showing absolute relative to a group: (-'alhka) bigest - sawalhka

Articles

Type Word Аffix Example: Variant 1 Example: Variant 2 Example: Variant 3
indefinite selk (salmon) dlhe (rain) baalh (milk)
definite -a(ta) selki (the salmon) dlheti (the rain) baalhta (the milk)
Proximal-demonstrative ta (this) ta selk (this salmon) ta dlhe (this rain) ta baalh (this milk)
Distal-demonstrative ut (that) ut selk (that salmon) ut dlhe (that rain) ut baalh (that milk)
Partitive ma (some) ma selk (some salmon) ma dlhe (some rain) ma baalh (some milk)
Partitive-Collective khaw (most) khaw selk (most salmon) khaw dlhe (most rain) khaw baalh (most milk)
Non-Partitive yoklha (no*) yoklha selk (no salmon) yoklha dlhe (no rain) yoklha baalh (no milk)

Adjective

They agree with the number of the noun

Verbs

Mood general past unwitnessed past present future
IMPF PF INCH IMPF PF* INCH IMPF INCH IMPF PF INCH
Indicative -ad -adas -adam -ada' -ada'as -ada'am -am tlhi'- tlhi'- -as tlhi'- -am
Imperative -ay -ami

In past-participle, the verb is made into an adjective, and the verb "be" is used as an auxiliary

khyagad tlh'e - "i ate (a) fish" → khya'aw seg tlh'e - "i have eaten (a) fish"

Person and Direction

Person & Number Subjective Objective
Singular 1st -ag -achi
2nd -alh -wa
3d -ap'a
Plural 1st Inclusive -yag -yachi
Exclusive -ya'ag -ya'achi
2nd -yalh -awsk
3d -ya -ap'ask

Copula

Zero copula appears in the language, commonly copula is used when stressed, or in past participle verbs.

Person & Number general past (was) unwitnessed past (was) present (be) future (will be)
Singular 1st chid seg tlhiseg
2nd lhid lhidi' selh tlhiselh
3d ed edi' se tlhise
Plural 1st Inclusive yichid seyig tlhiyig
Exclusive yichi'id seyi'ig tlhiyi'ig
2nd yilhid yilhidi' seyilh tlhiseyilh
3d yid yidi' seyi tlhiseyi

Questions

Particle

affix -ach-

ya inulug maskesk - "to feed(i) the dogs" → ya inulug maskeskich - "do i feed the dogs?" ya inuluguch maskesk - "do i feed the dogs?"
shelhip'isk - "you took them" → shelhichip'isk - "did you take them" shelhip'iskich - "did you take them"


Rhetorical questions can be formed by adding -ma to a question word:

klho, klhe'e - "who, when" → klhoch, klhe'ech - "i wonder who, i wonder when"*

Derivation

Affix Used to create: Example(s)
-akh agents from verbs/nouns tlh'e (fish) → tlh'ekh (fisherman)
-awc'a collective nouns dansi'siw (ship) → dansi'siwc'i (navy)
-aca nouns from verbs sa'a (to grow) → sa'aca (plant)
-al verbs from nouns k'aa (language) → k'aal (to speak)
-'aw adjectives/adverbs from nouns/verbs twa (water) → twa'aw (watery)
-awyan adjectives indicating the lack of something khaylha (home) → khaylhawyan (homeless)
-akya nouns from adjectives tlh'een (barren) → tlh'eenkyi (desert)
-acha diminutives of nouns mawca (cat) → mawcacha (kitty)
-saw augmentatives of nouns dansi' (boat) → dansi'siw (ship)
-alsha locations (places related to the stem) rekhici (trade) → rekhicilshi (shop, market)
-atlh'n inhabitants (of places) Moshkalatlh'n (resident of Moshkal)
-achan decendents (of people, or nouns/adjectives) shem (bear) → shemchin (of the bear)
-adwat decendents (child of) Damesdwit (child of Dames)
-alhk'aa Languages Khaskalhk'aa (People's language)

Sample text

UDHR article 1:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Wesc'a khask kha'atyap'ask imatask way pa'ask tlhegekyimi way tookh'skumu. Desk seyi walhalaw ne k'uu way satlh'a, way t'weyi ya shkeyi kad'skilhaywask ne ch'elhiw t'alh.
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