Northian nouns: Difference between revisions

Jump to navigation Jump to search
 
(243 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
'''Northian nominals''' are the nouns, adjectives, and some adverbs of the [[Northian language]].
'''Northian nominals''' are the nouns, adjectives, and some adverbs of the [[Northian language]].


==Nouns==
==History==
===Obstruent stems===
The Northian noun classes were named by Praetorianus of Duuora (c. 950? – 1027) in his studies on Galic language.  Praetorianus was descended from [[Æþurheim|Æþurian]] settlers who populated the north of the modern [[Northern States]] in the course of the 8th and 9th centuriesFrom a family seeking to build relations with the more southerly cities of Northian heritage, he was sent to take holy orders in the city of Cleiden at the age of 16; he first spent four years acquiring the Galic language before joining the order of training-priests and then graduating to an under-priest in 978, the first firm date of his biography.  He celebrated his promotion as plenary priest in 993 with a large banquet for over 100 guests.
The category of consonant-stems consist only of those that end in -p and -k, while resonant- and vowel-stem root nouns are discussed in their own categories, whether suffixed or not, as the phonological processes that apply to them generate similar resultsThe obstruents p- and k- are rarely subject to alteration, except before the nom. sing. ending -s where they become fricativized to f- and x-, respectively.


The noun ''āfš'' < PEE *h₂ēp-s "river" is often the poster-boy of the Northian nouns due to its straightforward stem and clear ablaut alteration between ā ~ a. ''ap'' "force" is used for neuter nouns, displaying PEE e ~ Ø ablaut > Galic o ~ Ø.  Both these nouns are of the OX type, displaying an accented genitive ending in -ō < PNN *-os.
Later in life, he published in West Nordic on his priestly career, in which a full third was spent describing the way the language was taught in Cleiden.  He engaged in an early form of comparative linguistics and identified many cognate words in Elder Nordic and Galic Northian. For example he said ''sunuz'' was the same as ''huiiuš'' and furthermore all genitives ending in -auz in Nordic ended in -ō in Northian.  He did not discover any evolutionary principles between the two languages, considering them the same language, and instead attributed the difference to speech speed, as according to him, -auz spoken quickly was the same as -ō.  In his effort to describe Northian, he summarized the various noun paradigms under the heading of an exemplar, which is still followed in modern education and called elsewhere the Praetorianian caput.
 
The pre-praetorianian method of language instruction followed the order of words in which they were encountered in the Gales, which intermixed the different parts of speech.
 
==Stem types==
{| class="wikitable"
!  !! -C !! -t !! -m !! -n !! -r !! -s !! -i !! -u !! -ī !! -ū !! -H !! -r/n !! -nt 
|-
!OX-B
|{{maybe|About 80 root nouns and suffixed nouns in -k, -l, -ns, -d, etc., ''fos'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "foot", ''xō'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "heart"}}|| {{maybe|A few in -ōs, ''nepōs'' "child"; -it ''melit'' "honey"; -ut ''xaput'' "head"}} || {{maybe|About 20 feminine, in -ō or -am, ''xay-ō'' "winter"}} || {{maybe|Many, in -ō and -ə̄, often binds m-, s-, t-, i-, u-, H-, ''θxām-ō'' "human"}} || {{maybe|''haz-r'' "arm" and personal, feminizing suffix -ez-r}} || {{maybe|A handful in -ā̊, ''awšt-ā̊'' "dawn"; the perf. act. ptcpl. ''wayδuš'' "knowing"}} || {{maybe|Some in -ō and -iš, ''hak-ō'' "friend, ally", ''ow-iš'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "ewe"; neuter var. in -ai, ''oxϑ-ay'' "finger"}} || {{maybe|A few dozen in -ōš or -uš, ''han-uš'' "jaw"}} || {{maybe|Some in -ī, ''wrk-ī'' "wolfess"}} || {{maybe|A handful in -ū, ''ϑen-ū'' "body"}} || {{maybe|''fənδōy'', "path"}} || {{maybe|Derived coll. of heteroclitics, in -r ~ n-, ō-grade in nom. > -ā̊}}  || {{maybe|A few in -āṯ, ''dāṯ'' <nowiki>=</nowiki> "tooth"}}  
|-
!OX-A
| {{no}} || {{yes|Productive suffix -tāt-, ''āβr-tās'' "immortality" and -tūt-, ''wəš-tūs'' "moistness"}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Productive, in -ṓ and -ā̊}} || {{yes|Productive through agentive -ter, ''duhiϑ-ṓ'' "daughter"}} || {{yes|Productive, comparatives in -yā̊- ''maz-yā̊'' "bigger", perf. act. ptcpl. in -wā̊-, ''βeβiž-wā̊'' "trusting"}} || {{yes|Verbal nouns, middle, in -doi, ''št-oi'' "an eating"}} || {{yes|Certain denominal nouns, in -ṓ, ''piϑr-ṓ'' "uncle"}} || {{yes|Non-ablauting feminine derivatives in -ī́}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Certain nouns in -dōy, ''žβā-dōi'' "libation-giver"}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Productive pres. aor. act. ptcpl. of thematic verbs, in -ās ''hadáʸy-ās'' "sitting"}}
|-
!PX
|{{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{yes|Productive, neuter var. of OX n-stems, exhibiting same bound suffixes}} || {{maybe|yāϑr, "husband's sister"}} || {{yes|Productive, neuter var. of OX s-stems, in -ō; ''neβ-ō'' "cloud", ''xrat-ō'' "power"}} || {{yes|Productive, animate in -iš, action nouns -tiš, ''zāt-iš'' "a step"; neuter in -i, ''mər-i'' "sea"}} || {{yes|Productive, animate in -uš, ''wiš-t-úš'' "witness"; neuter in -ū, ''oii-ū'' "life"}}  || {{yes|Proliferate suffix deriving feminines in -ī; ''geniϑr-ī'' "genitrix"}} || {{maybe|Same as -ī but more common in adjectives, in -ū; ''hozr-ū'' "mother-in-law"}} || {{maybe|''bā̊'' "wife"}} || {{maybe|Neuter, in -r ~ n- suffix, ''yaH-arə'' "year"; more in -tr, -mr, -zr}}|| {{no}} 
|-
!PP
|{{maybe|About 30 root and suffixed nouns in obstruent stems}} || {{maybe|''nox-ṯ'' "night", ''haš-ṯ'' "bed", ''xom-d'' "hand"}} || {{maybe|''tā̊'' "house"}} || {{maybe|Extended with -n-s, ''maHā'' "moon"}} || {{maybe|''māϑ-r'' "mother", ''βrāϑ-r'' "brother"}} || {{maybe|''zraw-š'' "gore"}} || {{maybe|''aŋhi'' "serpent"}} || {{maybe|Neuter nouns in -ū, ''gon-ū'' "knee", ''wəšt-ū'' "settlement"}} || {{maybe|Feminine pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, ''déδāṯīš'' "of the giveress"}} || {{no}} || {{maybe|A few, particularly neuter in -i, ''ošti'' "bone"}}|| {{maybe|A few, in -r ~ n-, ''f-ō'' "shrine"}} || {{maybe|A few nouns; pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, ''déδāṯ'' "giving"}}
|}
 
As appears from this schematic, most suffixes are associated with more than one accentual pattern.  But even in Galic, the majority of suffixes have only one productive accentual pattern or separate productive patterns associated with masculine-feminine gender and neuter gender (the case of the n-stems and s-stems).  Additionally, some suffixes are only productive through petrified compounds, which tended to be hysterokinetic and have invariant stems, such as the comparative in -yā̊- and perfect active participle in -wā̊-; otherwise, the s-stems in amphikinetic is non-productive.
 
Where there are multiple productive accentuation patterns, neuter nouns are almost always identified with the proterokinetic pattern, and masculine-feminine with the hysterokinetic or amphikinetic.  The exception is for i-stems and u-stems, wherein proterokinetic accentuation is standard, and particularly productive through the compound with -t.
 
As is generally observed across all the Erani-Eracuran daughter languages, the suffixes ending in resonants and semivowels, i.e. n-, i-, and u-stems, tend to be productive over the suffixes in stops.  There is some speculation why this is the case, one theory being the resonants were able to be vocalized as syllables and thus did not produce illegal clusters of consonants, given the tendency to delete vowels in unaccent positions.  It is argued that the compound suffixes, which often mix one stop and one resonant are the results of transferrals from suffixes in stops to those in resonants; if so, these transferrals must have occurred quite early, as their older siblings in stops generally do not leave visible remnants in attested languages.
 
Unlike verbal formations, where suffixes often have specific meanings and exist as part of the standard morphology of verbs, the meanings of noun suffixes are barely if at all recoverable.  Synchronically, there is no obvious meaning to most of the suffixes present in Galic, even the productive ones, above a rudimentary association with certain parts of speech from which a noun is derived.  For example, the -tiš nouns most often are ''nomina actionis'' derived from verbs, -tuš having a similar function, -tāt and -tūt deriving states of being, but there is no comparable explanation for their common constituent -t-, which appears as an independent suffix in nouns like ''haš-t'' and ''nep-ot''.
 
==Root nouns ending in stops==
The category of consonant-stems consist only of those that end in -p and -k, and all are root nouns, as apparently the parent language did not have any suffixes that ended in *-p or *-k, with one exception for the adjective ''meraxš'' "soft".  There are two ablaut-cum-accent patterns attested in these nouns: one is static on the root syllable, and another shifts to the ending in oblique cases.  The static accent is generally (but not universally) seen with the lengthening of the root syllable in direct cases.  Phonetically, the obstruents p- and k- are rarely subject to alteration, except before the nom. sing. ending -s where they become fricativized to f- and x-, respectively.
 
The noun ''āfš'' < PEE *h₂ēp-s "river" is often the poster-boy of the Northian nouns due to its straightforward forms and clear ablaut alteration between ā ~ a. Here we also encounter the first diachronic variation: in the Didaskalic Material (noted in small type {{small|{{smallcaps|'''dm'''}}}}) the long grade is deployed only in the nominative singular, since the long grade was more typically associated with that desinence by way of the much commoner amphikinetic and hysterokinetic nouns.  Theoretically, given this tendency, we should also expect the DM to yield nom. du. *apa with the short grade of the stem, but that cannot be confirmed either way as it is not attested there (also noted for interest).  In the plural, there is attested a separate collective ''apō'' "the divine waters", which has singular number and no separate accusative form.
 
''ap'' "force" is used for neuter nouns, displaying PEE e ~ Ø ablaut > Galic o ~ Ø.  Forms with initial b- are due to vocalization of initial *p-.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā āfš, "river" !!colspan="3"|θaṯ ap, "force"  
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā āfš, "river" !!colspan="3"|θaṯ op, "force"  
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
Line 14: Line 47:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| āfš ||rowspan="3"| āpōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| āpiš
| āfš ||rowspan="3"| āpi<br> {{small|{{smallcaps|'''dm'''}} ?}} ||rowspan="2"| āpaŋhā
| rowspan="3"|ap ||rowspan="3"| apī ||rowspan="3"| apa
| rowspan="3"|op ||rowspan="3"| opī ||rowspan="3"| opi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
Line 21: Line 54:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| āpam ||  āpaṇġ
| āba <br> {{small|{{smallcaps|'''dm'''}} apa}}|| abā̊  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| apōḫ || apōš || apõ
| afš || apuš || apõm
| bōḫ || bōš ||
| ||rowspan="2"| bōš || bõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| api || apō || apšo
|rowspan="2"| api || apū || apšū
| api || bō || fšu
| opi || fštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| apei̯ ||rowspan="2"| apmō ||rowspan="2"| apmuš
|rowspan="2"| afma || afmuš
| bei̯ ||rowspan="2"| bmō ||rowspan="2"| bmuš
| ||rowspan="2"| βmō || βmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| apōi̯
| api || {{small|{{smallcaps|'''dm'''}} aōβiiōḫ}}
| bōi̯
| bōi || βžβiiōḫ
|}
|}


===t-stems===
==t-stems==
===Ablauting nouns===
The stems ending in -t comprise both of root nouns and suffixed nouns.  They are underlyingly the same as other obstruent stems but are distinguished in that final -s is preserved in the nominative case, at the expense of *-t-.  t-stems not part of a compound suffix such as -tāt- and -tūt- are rare and are descended mainly from the amphikinetic ablaut type.
The stems ending in -t comprise both of root nouns and suffixed nouns.  They are underlyingly the same as other obstruent stems but are distinguished in that final -s is preserved in the nominative case, at the expense of *-t-.  t-stems not part of a compound suffix such as -tāt- and -tūt- are rare and are descended mainly from the amphikinetic ablaut type.


''nēpōs'' "grandchild" has the stem nep-ot-, where the suffix undergoes ablaut to zero grade in the oblique cases as *nep-t- > nef-θ-.
''nēpōs'' "grandchild" has the stem nep-ot-, where the suffix undergoes ablaut to zero grade in the oblique cases as *nep-t- > nef-θ-.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha nēpōs, "grandchild"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha nēpōs, "grandchild"
Line 51: Line 85:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| nēpōs ||rowspan="3"| nepotōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| nepotiš
|rowspan="2"| nēpōṯ ||rowspan="3"| nepotōi ||rowspan="2"| neptaHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| nepotam || nefθā̊
| nepotā || neptā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| nefθōḫ || nefθōš || nefθõm
| āptō ||rowspan="2"| neptō || neptõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| nepoti || nefθō || nefšu
| nepeti || nefšu
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| nefθei̯ || rowspan="2"| nefθmō ||rowspan="2"| nefšmuš
| neptā || rowspan="2"| neptmō ||rowspan="2"| nepšmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| nefθa
| nepti
|}
|}


The PEE suffix *-teh₂ts created nouns of states of being.  Inherited examples are mainly of hysterokinetic origin, which had the zero grade of the root, but later creations may bind the full grade.  The suffix is non-ablauting and takex oxytone endings.  The following example has many cognates in EE languages and is from a common root *n̥-mr̥teh₂ts > PNN *ummurtāts > Galic ''āmmərətās''.
===Non-ablauting animates===
{| class="wikitable"
The PEE suffix *-teh₂ts created nouns of states of being.  Inherited examples are mainly of hysterokinetic origin, which had the zero grade of the root, but later creations may bind the full grade.  The suffix is non-ablauting and takex oxytone endings.  The following example has many cognates in EE languages and is from a common root *n̥-mr̥teh₂ts > Galic ''āmarətāṯ''.
 
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā āmmərətās, "immortality"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā āmarətāṯ, "immortality"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| āmmərətās ||rowspan="3"| āmmərətātōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| āmmərətātiš
|rowspan="2"| āmarətāṯ ||rowspan="3"| āmarətāϑōi ||rowspan="2"| āmarətāϑaHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| āmmərətāṯ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| āmmərətātam || āmmərətātā̊
| āmarətāϑa || āmarətāϑā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| āmmərətātōḫ || āmmərətātōš || āmmərətātõ
| āmarətāϑō || rowspan="2"| āmarətāϑō || āmarətāϑõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| āmmərətāti || āmmərətātō || āmmərətāššu
| āmarətāϑi || āmarətāštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| āmmərətātei̯ ||rowspan="2"| āmmərətāsmō ||rowspan="2"| āmmərətāθmuš
| āmarətāϑā ||rowspan="2"| āmarətāsmō ||rowspan="2"| āmarətāsmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| āmmərətāta
| āmarətāϑōi
|}
|}


===nt-stems===
===Neuters===
The nt-stems are very closely associated with the formation of the present active participle in -nt-. But while participles have distinct masculine, feminine, and neuter forms, nt-stem nouns have the form of the masculine participle and a lexical gender (that is, the noun can have feminine gender but will always have the same inflectional endings as the masculine participle).  
This group of neuter nouns combines suffix -t with a semivowel (-it or -ut) or resonant (-n̥t). Neither the stem nor suffix displays ablaut, and accent is persistent over the root.


Morphologically, the accusative forms have -nδ- in the suffix due to contamination with the final resonant, while the other forms have -nt-.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha dōs, "tooth"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā melit, "honey"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| dōs ||rowspan="3"| dóntōi ||rowspan="2"| dóntiš
| rowspan="3"| melit ||rowspan="3"| melitī ||rowspan="3"| meliti
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| doṇṯ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| donδəm || dónδā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| dātōḫ || dātōš || dātõm
| melitō ||rowspan="2"| melitō || melitam
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| dónti || dātō || dāśū
| melit || melištū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| dātai || rowspan="2"| dāśmō ||rowspan="2"| dāśmuš
| melitā ||rowspan="2"| melismō ||rowspan="2"| melismuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| dāta
| meliti
|}
|}


===m-stems===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
This class is known from only a few but important nouns, e.g. ''ϑām'' "earth" and ''gaiiō'' "winter", as well as from the root, ''dā̊'' "house".  All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only a few examples, this may not be a rule in the proto-language. 
 
Outside of nouns, it is also known in numerals for 1, 7, and 10—''hā̊ hafθam dekam''—and the solitary adjective ''meram'' "particulate, ground up".  Some authorities believe many m-stems may have, during the time of the proto-language, been either remade to thematic neuters by the insertion of the theme vowel *e ~ o or had an additional *-n appended after *m-, giving rise to the multitude of n-stems of the -mn- type, wherein the -m- is of otherwise unexplained origin.  But both hypotheses suffer from the mismatch of grammatical gender—virtually all m-stems in Erani-Eracuran languages are attested as feminine in gender, not neuter.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā gaiiō, "winter" = ''hiemps''
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā kaput, "head"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| gaiiō ||rowspan="3"| giyamōi ||rowspan="2"| giyaēmiš
| rowspan="3"| kaput ||rowspan="3"| kaputī ||rowspan="3"| kaputi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| gaiiõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| gaiiā̊ || gimā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| gimōḫ || gimōš || gimõm
| kaputō ||rowspan="2"| kaputō || kaputam
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| giyaēmi || gimō || giṃśū
| kaput || kapušū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| gimāi̯ ||rowspan="2"| gimmō || gimmuš
| kaputā ||rowspan="2"| kapusmō ||rowspan="2"| kapusmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| gimō || gimβiiōḫ
| kaputōi
|}
|}


Most suffixed nouns with OX inflection have a long o-grade suffix in the nominative singular, cf. ''gaiiō'', and there they are akin to the n-stems.  Indeed, given phonetic change, *-ōm and *-ō(n) cannot be told apart, so it is possible this ending has been transported from the n-stems or generalized in the proto-language or later.  Yet in the nom. sing. ''ϑām xmōḫ'' "earth" has a short ultima reflecting a zero grade as in *dʰégʰ-m̥, since the long /a/ in ''ϑām'' must represent /ϑaHam/, with similar vowels eliding the intervening guttural consonant; otherwise, Northian does not permit long vowels in final, closed syllables.  Had the second vowel been a typical long o-grade, it would have become *ō and would not elide the guttural consonant, giving *ϑáɣō.
The term ''ezat'' has the zero-grade of the stem *-nt. This word is an apparent exception to Cloverdale's law, as the suffix always appears written short, regardless of the quantity of the preceding vowel.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
In the accusative, the sequence *-em-m̥ in the proto-language resolves prehistorically to *-ēm via {{wp|Stang's law}} and appears in Northian as -ā̊, while the equivalent sequence for n-stems *-en-m̥ yielded Northian -əm-əm, with assimilated stem. 
|-
 
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā ezat, "food"
Note that the full grade in the accusative plural ''ϑágmā̊'' reverts to the root syllable; the suffix is in zero grade.  I-mutation affects the locative singular and nominative plural in the usual manner.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā ϑām, "ground, earth" = χθών
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="2"| ϑām ||rowspan="3"| ϑāmōi
| rowspan="3"| ezat ||rowspan="3"| ezatī ||rowspan="3"| kaputi
!rowspan="2"|  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| xā̊ || ϑāxmā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| xmōḫ || xštą̄ōš
| ezatō ||rowspan="2"| ezatō || ezatam
!
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| xštémi || xštą̄ō || xštə̄ṃśū
| ezat || ezašū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| xmai ||rowspan="2"| xštą̄mō
| ezatā ||rowspan="2"| ezasmō ||rowspan="2"| ezasmuš
!
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| xmōi
| ezatōi
!
|}
|}


To this table above must be subjoined that ''xā̊'' < *ǵʰḗm < *dʰǵʰém-m̥ is only found in a handful of instances in Galic Period I, and even there it is not exclusive.  The proto-form of the accusative is uncertain, since many authorities predict this word should have a full-grade root syllable, which should result in dysyllabic *θaɣā̊.  But the form actually found is monosyllabic, which could only come from a zero-grade root.  If the oblique stem *dʰǵʰm- was later introduced to replace the nominative stem, the resulting form would have been expected ''xam'', with the *m of the stem probably vocalized as short by position.
===''hašt'' and non-ablauting items===
 
These are t-stem nouns with acrostatic inflectionThe nominative was evidently asigmatic < *ses-t, from *ses- "to rest".  The genitive ''haš'' must represent *has-t-s, the final consonant cluster being resolved in favour of *s.   
===n-stems===
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
This group of nouns, all with a stem ending in -n, had numerous subtypesSome of them were proliferate in Northian, while others were vestigial.  Their phonetic outcomes can be quite different due to vocalization rules.
 
====-mn-====
A common subtype of the n-stems is through the suffix *-mn-, which is common in Northian.  The OX pattern was normal for animate nouns, and the PX in neuter nouns.  Items with this inflection can further be divided into sub-classes: some are of amphikinetic origin like ''fraṓmō'' in the following example, while others are of hysterokinetic origin.  Those of amphikinetic origin have an accented root syllable and a uniform ending of -ō, and those of hysterokinetic
 
In ''fraōmō'' "breath", the nom. singular ending -ō (which occludes the shape of the stem) arises due to the effects of a PEE sound law that deleted any resonants in the environment of *-ōR in auslaut.  Ablauting nouns in this class will have an accented root in the direct cases and accented ending in oblique cases, except in the locative singular where the accented suffix is attested.
 
Depending on the exact phonetic environment, the -m- of the suffix may be vocalized in different waysSee the notes above for the formation of the zero-grade in Northian, which are unusually sensitive to phonetic environment.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha fraṓmō, "lung"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā hašt, "bed"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| fraṓmō ||rowspan="3"| fraṓmanōi ||rowspan="2"| fraṓmaēnis
|rowspan="2"| hašt ||rowspan="3"| hašti ||rowspan="3"| haštā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| fraṓman 
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| fraṓmənəm ||  fraṓmanā̊
| hašta
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| furuvąnōḫ || furuvąnōš || furuvąnõm
| haš || haštuš || haštõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| frumen || furuvąnō || furuvaŋhū
| rowspan="3"| hašti || haštū || hašū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| furuvąnai ||rowspan="2"| furuvąnmō ||rowspan="2"| furuvąnmuš
| rowspan="2"| haštmō ||rowspan="2"| haštmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| furuvąna
|}
 
Interestingly, the dual ''hašti'' is more frequent than singular ''hašt'' and has singular meaning.  It is possible that the singular had the sense of a bed-end rather than the entire bed.
 
The very well-attested word ''nōxt'' "evening, night" is usually thought to be a root noun with persistent accent on the initial syllable at the Proto-Erani-Eracuran level, but some authorities consider the root to be *(d)negʷ-, extended by the suffix -t-.  Whatever the case in the parent language, the -t- never takes full grade even in the nom. du. and pl.  Thus its behaviour is identical to that of ''hašt''.  ''xašt'' "hunger" is another word which is acrostatically accented; the expected form is *xošt, but the attested vowel is /a/, which may signify a (very) early borrowing from another Erani-Eracuran language that is not attested.
 
The word for "ten" in compounds of multiple of ten, e.g. twenty, thirty, etc. displays the zero grade and is apparently extended by suffix *-t, ''-tkaṯ'' < *-dḱm̥-t.
*''θrítkaṯ'' < *tri-dḱm̥-t, "thirty"
*''kóswr̥tkaṯ'' < *kʷetwr̥-dḱm̥-t, "forty"
*''patótkaṯ'' < *pn̥kʷe-dḱm̥-t, "fifty"
*''xšwáxštkaṯ'' < *ksweks-dḱm̥-t, "sixty"
*''háptatkaṯ'' < *septm̥-dḱm̥-t, "seventy"


|}
==nt-stems==
The nt-stems are very closely associated with the formation of the present active participle in -nt-.  But while participles are adjectives that have distinct gendered forms that agree with their principals, nt-stem nouns have the form of the masculine participle and a lexical gender (that is, the noun can have feminine gender but will always have the same inflectional endings as the masculine participle). In the following example, the oblique stem is from *h₁dn̥t-; as the vocalic *n̥ indeed follows two consonants, it is short by Cloverdale's law. In the {{smallcaps|acc pl}}, the -ā ending is for *-ah, which is regular following two consonants, disclosing the strong stem ending in *ent- that has been replaced by the oblique in at-.


''fnaōmin'' "breath" is an ablauting mn-stem noun with PX inflection.  Owing to its semantic connection with ''fraōmō'' "lung" as well as the shape of the oblique stem under the influence of u, the alternate spelling ''fraōmin'' is also seen, for example G.Nr. 1477 ''mōi βā θxámin apū fraōmíñīḥ fərəuuātōs dito'' "By the Earth, let therefore not [his] breaths be given away from his two lungs". But these two words are from etymologically unrelated roots.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ fnaōmin, "breath"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā dənt, "tooth"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| fnaōmin ||rowspan="3"| fnaōmíñīḥ ||rowspan="3"| fnaōmō
|rowspan="2"| dənt<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} dən ||rowspan="3"| dəntōi ||rowspan="2"| dəntaHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| dənta || datā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| frumaṇġ || frumeθuš || frumenõm
| datō ||rowspan="2"| datō || datām
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
|rowspan="2"| frumíñi || frumeθū || frumáŋhū
| dənti<br>{{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} dati || daśtū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
|rowspan="2"| frumenma ||rowspan="2"| frumenmuš
| datā || rowspan="2"| daśmō ||rowspan="2"| daśmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| frumena
| datōi
|}
|}


There are also n-stems not part of a compound suffix like *-mn-. They are rarer and sometimes emphasized as "bare" n-stemsThey are of two types, distinguished in the nom. sing., those with -ō and those with -ā̊Though less common, they are typical of adjectival origin and often family names; the Venetian name Cato is a cognate example, < *kat-ōn "the smart one".
==m-stems==
This class is known from only a few but important nouns, e.g. ''ϑázā'' "earth, ground" and ''xaō'' "winter".  All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only a few examples, this may not be a rule in the proto-language. The later the time period, the more the m-stem group tended to become merged with the n-stems, usually thought to be due to assimilation in some case-forms and the common irregular accusative that occurs in both groups and then generates similar results.
 
As Proto-Erani-Eracuran had a strict rule against geminates, the accusative morpheme *-m causes a geminate to occur in m-stems in both the singular and the plural. In the singular, the long vowel accusative results, while in the plural the sequence of *CVC-em-ms generated -ōi. This also happens to be evidence that the {{smallcaps|acc pl}} was originally a case with the ''strong'' stem, even though all attested m-stems terms have weak stem: only a full-grade suffix in this position could generate the required *-ē > -ōi.
 
===''ziiō''===
Outside of nouns, it is also known in numerals for 1, 7, and 10—''hā̊ hafθa tezā''—and the solitary adjective ''mərā'' "particulate, ground up"Some authorities believe many m-stems may have, during the time of the proto-language, been either remade to thematic neuters by the insertion of the theme vowel *e ~ o or had an additional *-n appended after *m-, giving rise to the multitude of n-stems of the -mn- type, wherein the -m- is of otherwise unexplained origin.  But both hypotheses suffer from the mismatch of grammatical gender—virtually all m-stems in Erani-Eracuran languages are attested as feminine in gender, not neuter.


In ''uə̄rštā̊'' "male of an animal", of the type ending in -ō, PNN stems are ablauting *uors-on- and *uərəs-n-.  In the nom. sing. the root vowel is lengthened, occasioning the loss of the root-final resonant prehistorically.  As it will appear, the stem-final -n- is vocalized if the ending begins with a consonant; the gen. and loc. du. begin with the prehistoric laryngeal, which still trigger vocalization and are reflected as Galic hiatus and quantitative and qualitative alteration.  After *r and its vocalized allophone, *s obligatorily becomes š, which cannot precede a vowel directly and to which a t is added.  However, this addition is chronologically late and therefore applicable to the loc. and gen. du. forms, even though earlier they were considered to begin with consonants and trigger vocalization.
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā uə̄rštā̊, "male of an animal"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā ziiō, "winter" = ''hiemps''
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| uə̄rštā̊ ||rowspan="3"| uə̄rštinōi ||rowspan="2"| uə̄rštiniš
| ziiō ||rowspan="3"| ziiamōi ||rowspan="2"| ziiamaHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| uə̄rštin
| ziiam
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| uə̄rštinəm || uə̄rštinā̊
| xaiiā̊ || xaiiōi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| uərəšnōḫ || uərəšta·ā̊š || uərəšnõm
| ximō ||rowspan="4"| ximō || ximām
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| uərəšténi || uərəšta·ā̊ || uərəštāhū
| ximām || xīsū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| uərəšnei̯ ||rowspan="2"| uərəštāmō ||rowspan="2"| uərəštāmuš
| ximā || ximuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| uərəštā
| ximōi || ximβiyō
|}
|}


''yəuuə̄'' "youth" < *h₂yéwHō has the same suffix as above underlying, but preceded by a laryngeal that colours the *-en- to *-on-.  As a result, the rule that deletes final resonants following lengthened *-ō comes into play and produces the same ending as the animate mō-stems (but in this example it is altered to ə̄ following w-)But here in the gen. and loc. du. it is the suffix *-n- that becomes vocalized when followed by a consonantThe resulting vowel is shortened on account of the preceding laryngeal, with regular alterations of quality and quantity to surrounding vowels.
===''ϑázā''===
{| class="wikitable"
Most suffixed nouns with OX inflection have a long o-grade suffix in the nominative singular, cf. ''xaiiō'', akin to the n-stemsIndeed, given phonetic change, *-ōm and *-ōn cannot be told apart, so it is possible this ending has been transported from the n-stems or generalized in the proto-language or laterYet in the nom. sing. ''ϑázā xmō'' "earth" has an ultima reflecting a zero grade as in *dʰégʰ-m̥. Had the second vowel been a typical long o-grade, it would have become *ō and would not elide the guttural consonant, giving *ϑáɣō.   
 
In the {{smallcaps|acc}}, the sequence *-em-m̥ in the proto-language resolves prehistorically to *-ēm via {{wp|Stang's law}} and appears in Galic as -ā̊, while the equivalent sequence for n-stems *-en-m̥ yielded Northian -əmā.  
 
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha yəuuə̄, "youth"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā ϑázā, "ground, earth" = χθών
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| yəuuə̄ ||rowspan="3"| yəuuənōi ||rowspan="2"| yəuuiñiš
| rowspan="2"| ϑázā ||rowspan="3"|
!rowspan="2"|  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| yəuuən
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| yəuuənəm || yəuuənā̊
| xōi || {{smallcaps|'''lg'''}} ϑámō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| yūnōḫ || yuụa·ā̊š || yūnõm
| xmō ||  
!
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| yəuuəni || yuụa·ā̊ || yuụahū
| xšam || ||  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| yūnai ||rowspan="2"| yuụamō ||rowspan="2"| yuụamuš
| xmā ||rowspan="2"|  
!
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| yūna
| xmōi
!
|}
|}


===r-stems===
To this table above must be subjoined that ''xā̊'' < *ǵʰḗm < *dʰǵʰém-m̥ is only found in a handful of instances in Galic Period I, and even there it is not exclusive.  The proto-form of the accusative is uncertain, since many authorities predict this word should have a full-grade root syllable, which should result in dysyllabic *θaɣā̊But the form actually found is monosyllabic, which could only come from a zero-grade root. If the oblique stem *dʰǵʰm- was later introduced to replace the nominative stem, the resulting form would have been expected ''xam'', with the *m of the stem probably vocalized as short by position.
''dugitṓ'' "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in *-tērThey are recognizable by their zero-grade nom. endings and full-grade -ō endings in gen.  An alternate form ''zuuóhitār'' is seen in the epithet ''δaēuuōiiaz-uuóhitār'' "Celestial Daughter" applied to Dawn, reflecting *dʰwégh₂-tr̥.
 
==n-stems==
This group of nouns, all with a stem ending in -n, had numerous subtypes.  Some of them were proliferate in Northian, while others were vestigial.  Their phonetic outcomes can be quite different due to the paradigmatically irregular vocalization of resonants, which are particularly common because the resonant suffix is often attached to another resonant.  It appears the suffix -n could be attached to nearly all other suffixes at some point in the prehistory of the language, with only the combination of *-r-n- being unattested.  The common feature of all n-stem nouns is that the primary ablauting element is the syllable containing -n-, with or without the root syllable also participating; all other suffixes do not ablaut when followed by the -n suffix.


{| class="wikitable"
As a general observation, most n-stems can be divided into those of amphikinetic origin and those of hysterokinetic origin.  Only the latter are productive in the recent prehistory of Northian.  Amphikinetic nouns, e.g. ''laēmō'' "lake", always have an accented root in the nominative singular and more often than not lose the final *-n there; the {{wp|kʷetwóres rule}} applies to them in the accusative singular, as the shape of the stem is always *CéC-on- > *CeC-ón, e.g. ''limōi''.  Hysterokinetic nouns have accented suffixes and endings, while the root is never accented.  Amphikinetic nouns are actively transferred into the hysterokinetic paradigm during the historical period and thereby acquire an invariant root, which may retain the full grade or receive the zero grade instead.
 
===mn-stems===
A common subtype of the n-stems is through the suffix *-mn-, which is common in Northian.  The OX pattern was normal for animate nouns, and the PX in neuter nouns.  Items with this inflection can further be divided into sub-classes: some are of amphikinetic origin like ''asmō'' in the following example, while others are of hysterokinetic origin.
 
In ''ā́smō'' "life", the nom. singular ending -ō (which occludes the stem consonant) arises due to the effects of a sound law that deleted final *-n in the environment of *-ōn, though some related languages have either retained or restored this stem final *-n.  A few ablauting nouns in this class have an accented root in the direct cases and accented ending in oblique cases, except in the locative singular where the accented suffix is attested (note that "ablauting nouns" in Northian usually refers to root-ablauting nouns, rather than suffix-ablauting nouns, as these are regular).
 
In the accusative singular and plural the deletion of geminate consonants operates after adjacent nasals assimilate in early Northian history, causing compensatory lengthening of the suffix syllable *-en- in each case the ending *-m disappears.
 
There are two phonologically-regular oblique stems arising conditionally: where the ending began with a vowel, the *m part of the suffix -mn- was vocalized, and where it began with a consonant, *n was vocalized instead. Thus, the {{smallcaps|gen sing}} is ''tanō'' and {{smallcaps|gen du}} ''smaHō'', given the presence of a laryngeal in the latter.  Yet it should be noted that such a regular application of the vocalization rule is exceptional. Most nouns have generalized the vocalization pattern of *-m̥n- rather than *-mn̥-, possibly because the commonly-used cases tended to begin with vowels and trigger *-m̥n-.
 
Owing to the presence of an o-grade following an e-grade in a three-syllable word, the {{wp|kʷetwóres rule}} intervenes in the {{smallcaps|nom pl}} and shifts the accent to the suffix syllable. The apparent e-grade is considered an analogy to the en-stems. The rule does not operate regularly in case the final syllable is long, but here the final syllable actually reflects short *-eH, which entertains the rule and also shifts the accent to the o-grade.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā dugitṓ, "daughter"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha ā́smō, "life"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"|dugitṓ ||rowspan="3"| dugiterōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| dugitériš
| ā́smō ||rowspan="3"| āsmә́nōi ||rowspan="2"| āsmә́naHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| ā́smən 
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| dugiterəm || dúgiδrā̊
| ā́smōi || smə̄ŋh
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| duxθrōḫ || dugitarṓš || duxθrõm
| tanō || rowspan="2"| smaHō || tanõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| duxθrai || dugitarṓ || duhitušštū
| smən || smahū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
|rowspan="2"| duxtərəmṓ || duxtərəmō
| tanā ||rowspan="2"| smamō || tanuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| duxθrōi̯ || duxθəramβiiōḫ
| tanōi || smaβiiō
|}
|}


''mātar'' "mother" represents the group with inherited acrostatic pattner, whose accent persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade. ''βrātar'' "brother" is declined in like manner.
''fnaōmin'' "breath" is an ablauting mn-stem noun with PX inflection.  Owing to its semantic connection with ''fraōmō'' "lung" as well as the shape of the oblique stem under the influence of u, the alternate spelling ''fraōmin'' is also seen, for example G.Nr. 1477 ''mōi βā xšəm apū praōmənō praōmən dite'' "By the Earth, let therefore not [his] breaths be given away from his two lungs". But these two words are from etymologically unrelated roots.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā mātar, "mother"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ϑaṯ ϑərma, "edge"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| mātar ||rowspan="3"| māδəra ||rowspan="2"| māδriš
|rowspan="3"| ϑərma ||rowspan="3"| ϑә́ranī ||rowspan="3"| ϑərmā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| māδrəm ||  māδərą̄s
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| māδərəš || māδərouš || māδrõm
| ϑarəmáŋh || ϑarəmә́nuš || ϑarəmә́nõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| māδri || mātəroū || māδərəštū
|rowspan="3"| ϑarəmә́ni || ϑarəmənū || ϑarəmāhū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
|rowspan="2"| māδərəma || māδərəmuš
|rowspan="2"| ϑarəmә́nō || ϑarəmāmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| māδəra || māδərəβiiōḫ
| ϑarəmāβiiō
|}
|}
Gen. ''māδərəš'' < *meh₂tr̥s.  The acc. pl. ''māδərą̄s'' seems to reflect PEE *meh₂tr̥ns (for expected *meh₂tern̥s), while other Nordic languages reflect *meh₂tern̥s.  The form is a deviation from the general rule of resonant vocalization, but the vocalization of *r̥ could have been carried over from the gen. sing., where it is the only resonant that could be vocalized; moreover, it is a perfect match with Xevdenite ''mātərąs'', hinting that the vocalization of -n̥s was not (yet) a firm rule in the proto-language.  In Galic, ''māδra'' "two mothers" is often an ellipsis for "mother and father".


There is also
===''apṓ''===
{| class="wikitable"
''apṓ'' "holy waters" < *h₂ep-Hō(n) has the same suffix, but preceded by a laryngeal that colours the vowel.  As a result, the rule that deletes final resonants following lengthened *-ō comes into play and produces the same ending as the animate mō-stems.  But here in the gen. and loc. du. it is the suffix *-n- that becomes vocalized when followed by a consonant.  The resulting vowel is short on account of the preceding laryngeal, with regular alterations of quality and quantity to surrounding vowels.
 
{{smallcaps|voc sing}} ''ápan'' has regular recessive accent for vocatives; otherwise accent is regularly on the suffix syllable. {{smallcaps|acc pl}} requires the weak stem of *h₂ep-Hn-m̥s. Under Cloverdale's law, interconsonantal laryngeals count as consonants, which means the word is underlyingly scanned as *h₂epH-nm̥s; thus the vocalized *m̥ will be short and produce *-ah > -āʰ.  In some Early Galic phrases, this word was indeed only dysyllabic and not trisyllabic as the orthography suggests, recovering the extreme antiquity of the scansion of -i- as a laryngeal consonant.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā yatar, "husband's brother's wife"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā apṓ, "holy waters"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| yatar ||rowspan="3"| yatiri ||rowspan="2"| yatiriš
| apṓ ||rowspan="3"| aponōi ||rowspan="2"| apə̄naHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| ápən
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| yaδrəm ||  yaterā̊
| apə̄nā ||  apnā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| yatās || mātərouš || māδrõm
| apnō ||rowspan="2"| apə̄nō || apnõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| yatiri || mātəroū || mātərəšū
| apə̄n || apšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
|rowspan="2"| māδərəma ||rowspan="2"| mātərəmuš
|rowspan="2"| apnā ||rowspan="2"| apmō ||rowspan="2"| apmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| yatiri
|}
|}


===s-stems===
===''xaēñin''===
The s-stem nouns can be divided into two classes, more numerous, neuter nouns like ''xrétōḫ'' and animate nouns like ''aōštā̊''.  The former suffix exhibits qualitative ablaut from *-os ~ es-, while the second class has a more conventional, quantitative -os ~ s- pattern.
This group of nouns had the compound suffix *-i-n- and showed no ablaut, irrespective of gender.


The os/es-stems are a class of very common neuter nouns in Northian and are directly cognate to those found in Nordic languages, where the ablaut surfaces as -az ~ iz-. Though in Galic times and later only the PX pattern is productive, there a few common s-stem nouns exhibiting an original acrostatic accent.  In this class, the root was consistently accented.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
 
In PX the nom. sing. ended in -ōḫ; this *-os is a bare stem.  The suffix ablauted to -es- for all oblique cases, but here the ending once again acts prominently on the suffix.  If the ending began with a vowel, the final -s of the suffix would be intervocalic and become -h, which colours any neighbouring /e/ to /a/.  As a result, the gen. ended in -ah-āḫ < *-es-os.  If the ending began with a consonant, the -s remained and the unaccented /e/ usually became /i/.  The gen. and loc. du. endings began with a laryngeal consonant, not vowels.  When the /s/ comes into contact with a vowel with the loss of the laryngeal, an epenthetic /t/ was added at the same time for the conservation of euphony.  The lack of accent causes the ins. pl. also to end in -βiiāḫ < *-bʰyos.
 
The gen. sing. has an allomorph ''xrétahas'' that often appears before compounds and enclitics, e.g. ''xrétahás-ka'' "and of power".  It is uncertain if this form may reflect the alternate genitive ending *-es in the proto-language, which would be coloured to -as following /h/, or if it is merely a regular development from the familiar ending -os when unaccented.  However, the enclitic should regularly accent this syllable.  Additionally, the early literature has the combining form ''xrétahós-ka'', showing the regular retention of *-os in accented position, though these can be editorial alterations, as changes would affect neither metre nor rhyme.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ xrétōḫ, "intellect, power"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha xaēnin, "girl"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| xrétōḫ ||rowspan="3"| xrétahāḥ ||rowspan="3"| xrétā̊
|rowspan="2"| xaēnin ||rowspan="3"| xaēninōi ||rowspan="2"| xaēninaHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| xaēninā ||  xaēninā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| xrétahōḫ <br>{{small|xrétaŋhas-}} || xrétištuš || xrétahõm
| xaēnī || rowspan="2"| xaēninō || xaēninõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| xrétāḫ || xrétištū || xrétišštū
| xaēnini || xaēnaŋhū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| xrétahai ||rowspan="2"| xrétišma ||xrétišmuš
| xaēninā ||rowspan="2"| xaēninmō ||xaēninmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| xrétahōi || xrétižβiiāḫ
| xaēninōi || xaēnimβiyō
|}
|}


The noun ''aōštā̊'' "dawn" has feminine gender and therefore a distinct accusative.  The noun had three basic stems: the strong stem which appears in the sing. nom. and voc. comes from PEE *h₂eu̯s-os-, with regular lengthening of the final syllable anticipating a zero nominative ending; the middle stem appears in the other direct cases and is from *h₂us-es-; the weak stem appears in all other cases and is from *h₂us-s-, with full-grade endings as expected in oxytone words.  Note the singular voc. ended in *-os which became *-oh and then -ōḫ in Galic; the final *-h is lost except before enclitics and compounds, where it can condition phonetic changes.  The effects of the former *-h is denoted orthographically as <ḫ> but is otherwise silent.
===''xrauuštō'', ''anžiiō''===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
Also presented is ''βiịā̊'' "fear", from PEE *bʰeyh₂-os, of masculine gender.  The nom. sing. stem has been replaced by zero-grade PNN *bihₐ-.  The stem ending in laryngeal will have as its residual effect the colouring of the oblique alloform of the suffix *-es- to -as-.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā aōštā̊, "dawn" !!colspan="3"|ha βiịā̊, "fear"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha xrauuštō, "reputation, honour"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| aōštā̊ ||rowspan="3"| uštištōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| uštahāḫ
| xrauuštō ||rowspan="3"| xrauuštenōi ||rowspan="2"| xrauuštónaŋhāʰ
| βiịā̊ ||rowspan="3"| βii̯ahōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| βii̯ahāḫ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|βoc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| aōštōḫ
| xrauuštan
| βii̯ōḫ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| uštóziiam || uštahā̊
| xrauuštṓnəm || xrauužnā̊
| βiyáziiam ||  βi̯ahahā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| ušštōḫ || ušštōs || ušštõm
| xrauužnōḫ || xrauužnōš || xrauužnõm
| βišštōḫ || βišštōs || βišštõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| uštišti || ušštō || ūšštū
| xrauuštan || xrauužnō || xrauužnū
| βištišti || βišštō || βišštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| ušštei̯ ||rowspan="2"| uššmō ||rowspan="2"| uššmuš
| xrauužnai ||rowspan="2"| xrauužnmō ||xrauužnmuš
| βišštei̯ ||rowspan="2"| βiššmō ||rowspan="2"| βiššmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| ušštōi̯
| xrauužnōi || xrauužāβiiōḫ
| βišštōi̯
|}
|}


The word ''mūš'' "mouse" is a non-ablauting s-stem noun. 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|sā mūš, "mouse, small rodent"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha yaoxštō, "team of draft animals"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| mūš ||rowspan="3"| mūštōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| mūštiš
| yaoxštō ||rowspan="3"| yaoxštenōi ||rowspan="2"| yaoxštonaŋhāʰ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| mūš
| yaoxštan
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| mūštam || mūštā̊
| yaoxštinąm || yaoxštanā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| mūštōḫ || mūštōs || mūštõm
| yāoxnōḫ || yāoxnōš || yāoxnõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| mūšti || mūštō || mūšštū
| yaoxštan || yāoxnō || yāoxnū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| mūštei̯ ||rowspan="2"| mūšmō ||rowspan="2"| mūšmuš
| yāoxnai ||rowspan="2"| yaoxštmō ||yāoxāmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| mūštōi̯
| yāoxnōi || yāoxzāmβiiōḫ
|}
|}


===i-stems===
===''hmərun''===
The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period.  In the proto-language, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all ways, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite differentAccordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.
There is some debate over the origin of this class of nouns that seemed to be rare otherwise in the other daughter languages, as there are few comparanda.  Such a conspicuous absence of comparanda could very well indicate this type was young or even arose after Northian had split off from the parent language.  In support of that chronologization, all members of this class had completely non-ablauting roots with accented full grade, and an invariant suffix in zero-gradeThe stem nevertheless exhibits inverse vocalization patterns depending on the vocalism of the ending, which means it must at least predate the vocalization of syllabic resonants.


The PX pattern of the i-stems gained primacy early in Northian history, and these nouns proliferated, being built to a variety of roots. These nouns usually show no root ablaut, but the example provided here doesWhere the root did not show ablaut, the accent was presistent on the suffix, even in zero-gradeThe other forms require little comment, other than the gen. and loc. du. and gen. pl. where the suffix *-i is consonantal before endings beginning with a vowel, which here triggers the palatalization of preceding *-t.
A few members of this class are also neuter in gender, which are declined with the same apophonic pattern, except with accusatives identical to the nominative; some of them are associated with the acrostatic u-stem, e.g. ''hánun'' "knee"It has been noted this entire declensional pattern reminiscs of the old acrostatic neuter pattern ending in *-u, only enlarged with a suffix *-n of unclear functionThat connection is mooted by a unique, newly-identified (2020) instance of {{smallcaps|gen sg}} ending -ū in G.Nr. 1127 ''hánū'', which by that analysis represent the zero-grade genitive ending in *-un-s.  Such a form would be difficult to ascribe as a recent innovation.  As yet, it is not agreed which type was the older or if they share a common origin; the more prevalent view regards the neuter type as the original, and the non-neuter type as secondary to other nouns.


Of the neuter nouns in -i, only one example can be considered original to the parent language, that being ''mori'' "sea".  Most other neuter nouns can be shown to be petrified neuter forms of adjectives in i-stem.
The Nordic scholar Havarsson has connected this suffixal *-n to the Nordic weak noun declension, which were n-stems in the ancestral language, saying "this mysterious Galic word could bear witness to the ancient origin of the weak nouns, hitherto believed to be a young and deviant noun type."  Yet he also provides that since ''hanun'' is a ''hapax legomenon'' and is glossed as an equivalent to {{smallcaps|nom sg}} ''hánū'' "knee", it would be most difficult to explain functionally how these formations are alike in origin.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="6"|ho hmərun, "bone marrow"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā menδiš, "thought" !!colspan="3"| θaṯ mori, "sea"
! {{smallcaps|sing}} !! {{smallcaps|du}} !! {{smallcaps|pl}}  
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| meṇδiš ||rowspan="3"| meṇδaiia ||rowspan="2"| meṇδaiiāḫ
| rowspan="2" style="width:7em"| hmərun ||rowspan="3" style="width:7em"| hmərunōi ||rowspan="2" style="width:7em"| hmərunaHā
|rowspan="3"| mori ||rowspan="3"| morai ||rowspan="3"| morō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| meṇδi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| meṇδim || mātī
| hmərum || hmərū
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| hmərunō || rowspan="2"|hməruuaHō || hmərunam
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| menδō || māčiiū || mātištū
| hməruni || hməruuāhū
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| mātaiš || māčiiuš || māčiiõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| mātaiiai ||rowspan="2"| mātima || mātimuš
| hmərunā || rowspan="2"| hməruuāmō ||hməruuāmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| mātīḥ || mātiβiiōḫ
| hmərū || hməruuāβiiō
|}
|}


The OX pattern of the i-stems was only moderately productive in Galic times and not productive by later agesIn the nominative du. and pl., the suffix is in long o-grade; the suffix consonantal *-i is lost. The provenance of this form has not been entirely made clear, since if the suffix did contain -i in final position, it should have survived in NorthianNevertheless, the same deletion corresponds exactly with forms found in archaic grammars in Syaran and Tennite languages, so the dropping of final -i is likely to have been old.  Some phonetic change akin to {{wp|Stang's law}} may be responsible for its deletion either after a long vowel or before putative ending *-s.
===bare n-stems===
There are also n-stems not part of a compound suffix like *-mn-They are rarer and sometimes emphasized as "bare" n-stems. They are of two types, distinguished in the nom. sing., those with -ō and those with -ā̊Though less common, they are typical of adjectival origin and often family names; the Venetian name Cato is a cognate example, < *kat-ōn "the smart one".


Perhaps owing to the phonetic similarity between the dual and plural nom. forms, *-ē > -ōi̯, which is not expected after i-, often displaces the expected -āḥHowever, there is also a ''hapax'' of short -e found in Galic, which suggests the -ōi̯ may be a late alteration, inserted after -āḥ had ceased to be distinguishable in regular speech from pl. -āḫ.
In ''uə̄rštā̊'' "male of an animal", of the type ending in -ō, PNN stems are ablauting *uors-on- and *uərəs-n-.  In the nom. sing. the root vowel is lengthened, occasioning the loss of the root-final resonant prehistorically.  As it will appear, the stem-final -n- is vocalized if the ending begins with a consonant; the gen. and loc. du. begin with the prehistoric laryngeal, which still trigger vocalization and are reflected as Galic hiatus and quantitative and qualitative alterationAfter *r and its vocalized allophone, *s obligatorily becomes š, which cannot precede a vowel directly and to which a t is addedHowever, this addition is chronologically late and therefore applicable to the loc. and gen. du. forms, even though earlier they were considered to begin with consonants and trigger vocalization.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
This pattern has a neuter equivalent that ended in -ai < *-ei̯ in the nominative; otherwise, oblique cases inflect identicallyThis neuter pattern is very rare and only present in a few examples like ''óxϑai'' "palm", whose archaic dual form ''óxϑō'' means "eight"This suggests that the ordinary neuter nominative dual ending -īḥ < *-ih₁ may have originated in the i-stems and displaced an earlier ending of *-h₁; logically the earlier ending would have been preserved after an i-stems, where the composite form would be redundant.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha hokō, "friend, ally" = ''socius'' !!colspan="3"| θaṯ óxϑai, "palm"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ho uxšō, "bull"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| hokō ||rowspan="3"| hokoiiāḥ <br>{{sup|hokoiiōi}} ||rowspan="2"| hokoiiāḫ
| uxšō ||rowspan="3"| uxšənōi ||rowspan="2"| uxšənā
|rowspan="3"| óxϑai ||rowspan="3"| óxϑayīḥ ||rowspan="3"| óxϑaiiāḫ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| hoki
| uxšən
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| hokā̊ || hokoiiā̊
| uxšənā || uxnā
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| uxnō || rowspan="2"|uxšənō || uxšənõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| hokai || škiyō || škištū
| uxšəni || uxšahū
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| śxiiōḫ || škiyōš || śxiiõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| śxiiai ||rowspan="2"| škimō || škimuš
| uxnā<br>uxšənā ||rowspan="2"| uxšamō ||uxšamuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| śxiiō || škiβiiōḫ
| uxnōi || uxšaβyō
|}
|}


===u-stems===
==r-stems==
The u-stems of Northian reflect three ablaut patterns, and excepting the acrostatic they are both attested abundantly in the Galic languageThe PX pattern from the proterokinetic nouns of the parent-lanugage is the most common.
===''duxiϑṓ''===
{| class="wikitable"
''duxiϑṓ'' "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in *-tēr.   
 
Similarly inflected: ''fϑō piϑrō'' "father", ''nomina agentis'' in -ā̊ and -ō.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha huiiuš, "child" = υἱύς !!colspan="3"| θaṯ oiiū, "life, generation"  
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā tuxiϑṓ, "daughter"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| huiiuš ||rowspan="3"| huiiáuua ||rowspan="2"| huiiáuuāḫ
|rowspan="2"|dukiϑṓ ||rowspan="3"| dukitərōi ||rowspan="2"| dukitəraHā
|rowspan="3"| oiiū ||rowspan="3"| oiiāu̯ ||rowspan="3"| oiiō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| huiiaō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| huiium || huiiūš
| duxiϑərā || dúxiϑrā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| duxiϑəri || rowspan="2"| duxiϑarHṓ || duxiϑrštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| huiiōš || huiiūš || huiiuõm
| duxiϑrō  || duxiϑrõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| huiiau̯i || huiiū || huiiuštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| huiiuma || huiiumuš
| duktrā ||rowspan="2"| duxiϑrmṓ || duxiϑrmō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| huiiū || huiiumβiiōḫ
| duxiϑrōi || duxiϑrβiyōḫ
|}
|}
The PX pattern in u-stem nouns is very prolific in both the Galic and Epic languages.  Many are abstract nouns with the ending -tuš.  The nom. ended in -uš.  While some nouns would show root ablaut, the example provided above does not and therefore has all components in zero grade in the nom; the hypothetical forms *haōiiuš or *hōiiuš might be expected based on the general ablaut tendencies, but it is in fact the proto-form of ''huiiuš'' that is attested in all Erani-Eracuran languages, showing that the spread of the zero-grade root probably occurred in the proto-language.  The gen. ended in *-ou̯-s, whence -ōš.  All the other oblique cases show *-eu̯- or *-u- in the suffix.


The gen. du. has -ūš, rather than the expected *-umβuš < *-u[w]us, which must reflect *-u-HusThe loc. du. has -ū, from *-u-u. The nom. pl. and acc. have the expected forms, with PNN *-uns > Galic -ūš. All other forms in the plural are straightforward and have the zero-grade suffix -u-.
===''mā̊tar''===
''mā̊tar'' "mother" represents the group with inherited acrostatic pattern, whose accent persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade''βrātar'' "brother" is declined in like manner.
 
{{smallcaps|gen.sg}} ''mā̊tarəš'' from *meh₂tr̥s. {{smallcaps|nom.pl}}, aside from more frequent ''mā̊traHā'', has alloforms ''mā̊traH ~ mā̊traHaH'' preserved in Old Material, in {{wp|spondee}} and {{wp|bacchius}} positions; these attested to the more archaic simplex {{smallcaps|nom.pl}} ending *-es as well as complex *-eses. The bacchius reading precedes another word that beings with *s-, whereby degemination between words caused the ending to lose its final consonant.


The neuter version of the PX u-stems, in contradistinction to the animate ones, often displays root ablaut, which alternates strong and weak stems. The strong has o-grade from PEE *h₂ói̯-u > unchanged Galic ''oiiū'', save the regular lengthening of final *-u. The oblique stem is from PEE *h₂i̯-eu̯-s > also unaltered Galic ''yaōš''.
The {{smallcaps|acc.pl}} ''mā̊tərā'' seems to reflect PEE *meh₂tr̥n̥s (for expected *meh₂tern̥s), while most daughters reflect *meh₂tern̥s. The form is a ''prima facie'' deviation from the general rule of resonant vocalization, but the vocalization of *r̥ could have been carried over from the gen. sing., where it is the only resonant that could be vocalized; moreover, it is a perfect match with Xevdenite ''mātərąs'', hinting that the vocalization of -n̥s was not a firm rule in the proto-language.  Perhaps the lack of vocalization here could also be explained by analogy to the acc. sing., where the -m is never vocalized.


{| class="wikitable"
In Galic, ''mā̊tar'' "two mothers" is often an ellipsis for "mother and father".
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā génōš, "jaw" = jaw
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā mā̊tar, "mother"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}  
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| génōš ||rowspan="3"| genauuə̄ ||rowspan="2"| genauuāḫ
|rowspan="2"| mā̊tar ||rowspan="3"| mā̊tar ||rowspan="2"| mā̊traHā<br>~ mā̊traHaH<br>~ mā̊traH
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| génaō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| genā̊ || genuuā̊
| mā̊tra || mā̊tərā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| jñuuōḫ || gnuōš || jñuuõm
| mā̊tarəš || mā̊taruš || mā̊tram
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| jñaō  || gnuō || gnuštū
| mā̊tar || mā̊tarū || mā̊tərəšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| jñuuōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| gnumō ||rowspan="2"| gnumuš
| mā̊tri ||rowspan="2"| mā̊tərəmō || mā̊tərəmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| jñuua
| mā̊trōi || mā̊tərəβiiō
|}
|}
The OX pattern had a nom. sg. ending in PEE *-ou̯-s, which regularly gave Galic -ō-š.  The gen. and dat. reflects PEE *-u-os and *-u-ei̯ as expected in a hysterokinetic pattern.  The dual behaves as expected.  The acc. is on account of the deletion of resonants before a syllabic nasal, ''genā̊'' < *gen-ēm < *gen-eu̯-m̥. 


Note in this word some oblique forms have the stem jñuu-, which is an altered form of *gnw-.  Northian generally permits up to three consonants (or four, if beginning with s-) in anlaut, but only if they contain no stops; if they do, stops are altered to fricative counterparts.  This rule is not in effect for sequences of only two members in anlaut, hence the conserved gn- when the following *w is vocalized.  Note also, the genitive and dative dual endings begin with a (lost) laryngeal, triggering the vocalization of *w.
===''yāϑr''===
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
===ī-stems===
|-
The ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns.  This suffix showed ablaut from full grade *-ieh₂ ~ -ih₂ > Northian -iiā ~ ī.  Inherited nouns have a root that participated in ablaut, so the root was in full grade and suffix in zero grade in the direct cases, and ''vice versa'' in oblique cases. 
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā yāϑr, "husband's brother's wife"
 
|-
In the example ''geniθrīḥ'' "genitrix", the nom. is asigmatic.  Notice that, in the gen. ''jñiδriiā̊'', the laryngeal is syllabified with the preceding vowel and causes it to lengthen, but in the dat. ''jñiδriiayi'' it syllabifies with the ending -i and does not lengthen the suffix; in both cases, though, the suffix vowel is coloured. The regular syllabification is only attested in Galic; by Didaskalic and Epic times, the dative was remade according to the genitive and has the ending -iiā-yi.
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
 
The -o- in the gen. and dat. du. forms is a Runic orthographic insertion done to prevent the incorrect scansion of dysyllabic /a.us/ as monosyllabic /aws/; the -o- is spurious and silent.  It is not present in all texts: monumental inscriptions usually omit it.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā genθrīḥ, "genitrix" = ''genitrix''
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| genθrīḥ ||rowspan="3"| genθrīya ||rowspan="2"| genθriyāḫ
|rowspan="2"| yāϑr ||rowspan="3"| yaϑəra ||rowspan="2"| yaϑeraŋhāʰ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| genθrī || genθrīyā̊
| yaϑram || yāϑrā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| jñiδriiā̊ || jñiδriiāouš || jñiδri̯aõm
| yaϑōs || yaϑəruš || yaϑrõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| jñiδriiayi || jñiδriiaoū || jñiδriiāhū
| rowspan="2"| yaϑéri || yaϑərū || yaϑrštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| jñiδriiāma ||rowspan="2"| jñiδriiāmuš
|rowspan="2"| yaϑərma || yaϑərmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| jñiδriiaā̊
| yaϑəra  || yaϑərβyōḫ
|}
|}


The main points of contrast to those in PX are that the nom. singular is sigmatic and that the nom. dual ends in -ii̯āḥ, rather than PX -īi̯a; for the same reason why in PX the gen. and dat. sing suffix vary in quantity, in this ending in OX the laryngeal scans as part of the following syllable, with the pre-forms *stérih₂eh₁ > *stériā, and thus leaves the preceding *-i- short.  In the dat. singular the ending becomes an offglide because it was not separated from the suffix by a laryngeal, with the preform *stérih₂e-i.
===Feminines in -zarə===
{| class="wikitable"
Certain Northian nouns formed feminine counterparts with the suffix *-sr.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā šterīḥ, "heifer"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā hwózr, "sister"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| šterīḥ ||rowspan="3"| šteriyāḥ ||rowspan="2"| šteriyāḫ
|rowspan="2"| hwózr ||rowspan="3"| hwozórōy ||rowspan="2"| hwózoraŋhāʰ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| šterī
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| šterī || šteriyā̊
| hwozóram || huzrā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| huzrōʰ ||rowspan="2"| huzrōʷ ||huzrõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| šterī || štrīyō || štrīštū
| rowspan="2"| huzeri || huzrštū
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| štriyōḫ || štrīyōš || štriyõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| štriyai ||rowspan="2"| štrīmō ||rowspan="2"| štrīmuš
|rowspan="2"| huzrma || huzrmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| štrī
| huzra  || huzrβyōḫ
|}
|}


==-stems===
==l-stems==
The ū-stems were exactly parallel to the ī-stems at the PEE and PNN levels, but due to phonetic changes have become quite different.  The nom. sing. of hysterokinetic stems had accented root syllable and an ending in PEE *-uh₂-s > *PNN *-ūs > Galic *-ūš.  The acc. requires a proto-form *-ueh₂-m, but already has simplified to *-u̯ām > PNN *-u̯ą̄m.  In the oblique cases, the stem ended in -ū-, to which full-grade endings were addedThe zero-grade stem has replaced the original full-grade one in the dual nom. such that it projects the (implausible) PEE form *tn̥-uh₂-h₁. 
There are a few nouns which anciently had an ablauting stem ending in -l, the most important being ''āuuarə'' "Sun", ''nəmβar'' "navel", ''naōgar'' "nail", ''əṇgar'' "coal-fire", and ''abar'' "apple"Aside from ''nəmβar'', a feminine noun, all attested l-stems are neuter heteroclitics that attest a stem in -n in oblique cases.


{| class="wikitable"
For the most part, l-stems are indistinguishable from r-stems since the two sounds merge completely in Northian, but traces of their former existence can be seen. Since the parent language prohibited geminates, the sequence of {{smallcaps|nom.sg}} *CVr-r̥ would simplify to *CVr-, which appears endingless and is indeed found in that shape in Northian. But if the suffix had been *-l̥, this sound does not degeminate and surfaces in Northian as CVr-r instead, as in ''pərarə'' "a type of food-offering", reflecting *per-l̥; this forms, indeed, a minimal pair with ''pər'' < *per(-r̥) "mountain".
 
==s-stems==
The s-stem nouns can be divided into two classes, more numerous, neuter nouns like ''xrétō'' and animate nouns like ''awšā̊''.  The former suffix exhibits qualitative ablaut from *-os ~ es-, while the second class has a more conventional, quantitative -os ~ s- pattern.
 
===xrétō===
The os/es-stems are a class of very common neuter nouns in Northian and are directly cognate to those found in Nordic languages, where the ablaut surfaces as -az ~ iz-.
 
In PX the {{smallcaps|nom sing}} ended in -ō < *-os, a bare stem.  The suffix ablauted to -es- for all oblique cases, but here the ending once again acts prominently on the suffix.  If the ending did not begin with a voiceless stop, the -s- of the suffix disappeared or become -H- intervocalically and coloured any neighbouring /e/ to /a/.  As a result, the gen. ended in -aHā < *-es-es.  If the ending began with a voiced consonant, the -s- elided and caused compensatory lengthening to the preceding *e-, which surfaced as -aē- instead.  The {{smallcaps|gen loc du}} endings began with a laryngeal consonant, which assimilated with the preceding -s- and was deleted. 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā θánūḥ, "body"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ xrétō, "intellect, power"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| θánūḥ ||rowspan="3"| θánuuoōi ||rowspan="2"| θánuuaāḫ
|rowspan="3"| xrétō ||rowspan="3"| xrétaHā <br> {{smallcaps|'''e'''}} xrétā ||rowspan="3"| xrétā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| θánū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| θánuuā̊ || θnuvā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| θnuvōḫ || θnūvōš || θnuvõm
| xrétaHā<br> {{smallcaps|'''e'''}} xrétā || xrétaHuš <br> {{smallcaps|'''e'''}} xrétōš|| xrétaHam <br> {{smallcaps|'''e'''}} xrétām
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| θnuuā || θnūvō || θnuŋhū
| xrétā || xrétaHū <br> {{smallcaps|'''e'''}} xrétō|| xrétahū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| θnuvai ||rowspan="2"| θnūmō || θnūmuš
| rowspan="2"|xrétaHā <br> {{smallcaps|'''e'''}} xrétā||rowspan="2"| xrétaēmō ||xrétaēmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| θnuvōi || θnūmβiiōḫ
| xrétaēβiyō
|}
|}


===r/n-stems===
===''aōšā̊''===
The r/n-stems, or heteroclitics, continue a class of EE nouns that had different suffixes for direct and oblique stems.  Excepting productive derivative suffixes *-tr̥ and *-mr̥, they are all neuter nouns with fundamental meanings and show PPX inflection in the singular and dual. Many did not take plural but collective endings, which are OX and combine singular endings the nom. and plural endings in oblique forms. In the Epic language, many heteroclitics also formed ordinary plurals from the zero-grade stem, which agree with singular verbs and have meanings different from those of their collective forms.
The noun ''aōšā̊'' "dawn" has feminine gender and therefore a distinct accusative.  The noun had three stems: the strong stem which appears in the sing. nom. and voc. comes from PEE *h₂eu̯s-os-, with regular lengthening of the final syllable anticipating a zero nominative ending; the middle stem appears in the other direct cases and is from *h₂us-es-; the weak stem appears in all other cases and is from *h₂us-s-, which dissimilated to ušt- in Northian, with full-grade endings as expected in OX nounsThe acc. sing. shows elision of *z and compensatory lengthening.  The *z was generated before a syllabic nasal *m̥.  
 
In the Galic language, many heteroclitic nouns have opaque forms owing to their short stem and susceptibility to ablaut, vocalization, and internal sandhi.
 
''yō·ərə'' = /yō.r̥/ "year", is from *yoh₁-r̥.  Proto-form of gen. *yoh₁-n̥-s or *yeh₁-n̥-s should anticipate a PNR form like *yā-āh, but nowhere is this found or metrically allowed; instead, one finds monosyllabic ''yā̊'', which according to Krueger may be an ''ad hoc'' replacement for *i-āh, logically assumed to be from < *ih₁-n̥-sHowever, the contraction of syllables is very rare in Northian, so this explanation has not achieved agreement by authorities.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| θaṯ yō·ərə, "year" = ὥρα
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā aōšā̊, "dawn"  
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| yō·ərə ||rowspan="3"| yōrī ||rowspan="3"| ya·ō
| aōšā̊ ||rowspan="3"| ušaHā ||rowspan="2"| ušáHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| aōšō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| ušézā || uštā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| yā̊ || yānuš || īyõm
| uštō ||rowspan="2"| uštō || uštām
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
|rowspan="2"| yiñi || yānū || īštū
| ušā || ūštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| yāŋma ||rowspan="2"| īmuš
| uštā ||rowspan="2"| ušmō || ušmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| yān 
| uštōi || užβiyō
|}
|}


''fāuuərə'' "fire" has PX inflection, with accented suffix in the oblique cases. In the nom. sing. the proto-form was from *péh₂wr̥; the final -ərə is paedagogically taught as /ara/, but as it is a single long syllable and not two short as the orthography implies, authorities concur it probably represents a preserved, tautosyllabic -R-r̥ sequenceThis ending also occurs with the *-mr̥ compound suffix, but not *-tr̥Oblique stem is from *ph₂wén- > *fiwen > Galic fūvon-.  The collective form is ''fūvə̄'', which is presumably from *ph₂wṓ, showing the replacement of full-grade root by zero-grade that is common in derived OX nouns, cp. direct cognate in Elder Nordic ''fōr''.
==i-stems==
===''mātiš''===
The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In the proto-language, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all ways, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different.  Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.
 
The PX pattern of the i-stems gained primacy early in Northian history, and these nouns proliferated, being built to a variety of roots.  These nouns usually show no root ablaut, but the example provided here doesWhere the root did not show ablaut, the accent was presistent on the suffix, even in zero-gradeThe other forms require little comment, other than the gen. and loc. du. and gen. pl. where the suffix *-i is consonantal before endings beginning with a vowel, which here triggers the palatalization of preceding *-t.


{| class="wikitable"
Of the neuter nouns in -i, only one example can be considered original to the parent language, that being ''məʸri'' "sea".  Most other neuter nouns can be shown to be petrified neuter forms of adjectives in i-stem.  It is assumed that the neuter i-stems would have formed a collective in the same way as the u-stems, but such is not attested.
 
{| class="wikitable"style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| θaṯ fāuuərə, "fire" = πῦρ
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā mātiš, "thought" !!colspan="3"| ϑaṯ məri, "sea"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| fāuuərə ||rowspan="3"| fūvórīḥ ||rowspan="3"| fūvə̄
| mātiš ||rowspan="3"| mātī ||rowspan="2"| mātaiiā
|rowspan="3"| məri ||rowspan="3"| ||rowspan="3"|  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|rowspan="2"| māti
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| mātī
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| mātō || mātaiiō || mātišū
!colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| fūvə̄ṇġ || fūvonuš || fūnõm
| mātaiiuš || mātaiiõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| fūvon || fūvonū || fūvoni
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| fūvoni || rowspan="2"| fūvonma ||rowspan="2"| fūnmuš
| mātaiiā ||rowspan="2"| mātimō || mātimuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| fūvona
| mātī || mātiβiiō
|}
|}


Other common heteroclitic nouns include:
===''ākō''===
*PX ''azar azā̊'' "day"
The OX pattern of the i-stems was moderately productive in Galic times and less so by later ages.  In the nominative du. and pl., the suffix is in long o-grade; the suffix consonantal *-i is lost.  The same deletion corresponds exactly with forms found in archaic grammars in Syaran and Tennite languages, so the dropping of final -i is likely to have been old. 
*PX ''fetar fθā̊'' "feather"
 
*PP ''woδar woθā̊'' "water" < PEE *wodr̥ *wodn̥s
Perhaps owing to the phonetic similarity between the dual and plural nom. forms, *-ē > -ōi, which is not expected after i-, often displaces the expected -ā.  However, there is also a ''hapax'' of short -e found in Galic and in final position, which suggests the -ōi may be a late alteration, inserted after {{smallcaps|du}} *-aH had ceased to be distinguishable in speech from {{smallcaps|pl}} *-ah.
*PP ''ferərə ferūš'' "mountain"  
 
*PP ''fō ferā̊'' "house"
This pattern has a neuter equivalent that ended in -ā < *-ei̯ in the nominative; otherwise, oblique cases inflect identically.  This neuter pattern is very rare and only present in a few examples like ''óxϑā'' "palm", whose archaic dual form ''óxϑō'' means "eight"


===ā-stems===
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
The main point of interest in this paradigm is in the genitive and locative dual forms, where the form ''mizraaōš'' suggests the e-grade *-ew- instead of the anticipated zero grade -u-.  Nowhere else in Northian or other Erani-Eracuran languages does this ending take the e-grade.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā mizrā, "mist"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ho ākō, "friend, ally" = ''socius'' !!colspan="3"| θaṯ óxϑā, "palm"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| mizrāḥ ||rowspan="3"| mizrayīḥ ||rowspan="2"| mizraā̊ḫ
|rowspan="3"| ākō ||rowspan="3"| hokoiiā <br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''dm'''}} hokoyōi}} ||rowspan="2"| hokoiiā
|rowspan="3"| óxϑā ||rowspan="3"| óxϑō ||rowspan="3"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| mizra
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| mizrā̊ || mizrā̊
| hokiiā
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| hokā || rowspan="2"|škiHō || škišū
!rowspan="4" colspan="3"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| mizraā̊ḫ || mizraaōš || mizraą̄̊m
| hiiō || hiiõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| mizrayi || mizraaō || mizrāŋhū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| mizraai || rowspan="2"| mizrāmō ||rowspan="2"| mizrāmuš
|rowspan="2"| hiiā ||rowspan="2"| škimō || škimuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| mizraāi
|škiβiiō
|}
|}


===o-stems===
==u-stems==
The thematic declension in o-stem could be divided into two subclasses that arose on account of the position of the accent, without which the short *o became /a/.
===Ablauting u-stems in PX===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha θūmōḫ, "smoke" !!colspan="3"| θaṯ yuɣõm, "yoke"  
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| etó hūiiuš, "child" = υἱύς !!colspan="3"| etóṯ oiiū, "life, generation"  
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}  
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| θūmōḫ ||rowspan="3"| θūmṓḥ ||rowspan="2"| θūmā̊
| hūiiúš ||rowspan="3"| hūiiū ||rowspan="2"| hūiiáuuā
|rowspan="3"| yuɣõm  ||rowspan="3"| yuɣṓ(yīḥ) ||rowspan="3"| yuɣāḥ
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"| oiiū ||rowspan="3"| oiiō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| θūmi
| hūiiū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| θūmõm || θūmə̄ṇġ
| hūiiúm || hū́iiū <br> '''var.''' həruuā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| θūmōiiō || θūmōš || θūmõm
|rowspan="3"| hūiiō || hūiiáuuō || hūiiauuam
! colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
! colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"|θūmōi || θūmō || θūmohū
| hūiiū || hūiiušū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| θūmoma ||θūmomuš
| rowspan="2"| hūiiumō || hūiiumuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| θūmō || θūmomβiiōḫ
| hūiiū || hūiiumβiiō
|}
|}
The PX pattern in u-stem nouns is very prolific in both the Galic and Epic languages.  Many are abstract nouns with the ending -tuš, though combinations with -m- and -s- are also seen. 
The nom. ended in -uš.  While many Northian nouns showed root ablaut, none of the nouns in the pattern of ''hūiiúš'' do and therefore have all components in zero grade in the {{smallcaps|nom sing}}; the hypothetical forms *haōiiuš < *sewHyus or *sowHyus might be expected based on general ablaut tendencies, but it is in fact the phonological pre-form of ''hūiiúš'' that is reflected in all Erani-Eracuran languages, showing, if once these nouns had a full-grade root, that the spread of the zero-grade root probably occurred in the proto-language.  Yet it is also suspected this pattern only became productive after root ablaut ceased to be productive, as suffix ablaut is aberrant compared to other stem types (viz. below).
Note the {{smallcaps|voc.sing}} form ''hūiiū'' which contrasts with {{smallcaps|acc.pl}} ''hū́iiū'' only by accent.


Where the accent was not on the thematic vowel the rules of unaccented vowel alteration come into playLong vowels and those in final position nasalized by -m are never altered, which means neuter nouns with non-oxytone accent will still end in -õm and not *-am.
The gen., dat., and loc. forms are all ''hūiiō'' in the oldest texts, but they have different sources.  The gen. ended in *-ou̯-s, where *-s has dropped after the final resonant, giving *-ōu̯, which changed to -ō in Northian in final position.  In the dat. and loc. the final *-i is lost after the stem resonant.  But the stem-final -u̯ lingers as a spectre in sandhi: a following *-kʷe delabializes and becomes -xa < *-ke.  In the later Gales, a final -s is often restored to the genitive unless prohibited by metre.  In this instance, Northian presents the most archaic forms and demonstrates that widespread {{wp|compensatory lengthening}} had indeed occurred prior to analogical restoration, which in all other branchs obscured the outcome of the sound changeThe Northian restoration of -s must be later than the period when -s is retroflexed after *-w, as it is written -s.
{| class="wikitable"
 
The nom. du. has the ending -ū, which is from *-u-h₁, and then the gen. has -áuuō < *-ew-ow; both have unexpected ablaut grades.  It has been suggested the full grade in the gen. could have been introduced from the singular; if so, it must have been before the final *-ow > -ō.  The loc. du. has -ū, which must reflect *-u-u, but this an irregular syncopation acorss a laryngeal boundary, which is otherwise well-preserved in Northian. 
 
The nom. pl. has the expected forms, while the acc. pl. shows the suffix in the weak grade, *-u-ns > Galic -ū.  The weak suffix in the acc. pl. is often taken as a sign of lateness, but there is a common alternative form associated with certain words that has -uuā as an ending. There is debate which one is the more original, as the sequence -uuā is a more regular outcome of the general ruler of resonant vocalization from the sequence *-wn̥s, while the more common variant -ū would reflect something like *-w̥ns. The latter can be seen as a tendency of thematization, that is the regular appearance of a certain sound between stem and ending. On the other hand, this "thematized" form appears in the earlier G1 texts more often and is better attested across cognate languages, leading some to assert that the -uuā ending is a result of subsequent re-analysis and that the more regular vocalization was not in use in the parent language. 
 
The gen. has the strong suffix again and shows *-ew-om.  All other forms in the plural are straightforward and have the zero-grade suffix -u-, which departure from the normal rules of proterokinetic declension has also been linked with the attempt to thematize the u- and i-stems.
 
The neuter version of the PX u-stems, in contradistinction to the animate ones, often displays root ablaut, which alternates strong and weak stems. The strong has o-grade from PEE *h₂ói̯-u > unchanged Galic ''oiiū'', save the regular lengthening of final *-u. The oblique stem is from *h₂i̯-ou̯-s > also unaltered Galic ''yō''.  For this word, of great canonical significance, final *-s is never restored in Galic.
 
===Ablauting u-stems in OX===
There are also u-stem nouns with an OX pattern, of which there are several sub-types that are subsumed under the heading of ''hənuš''. 
{| class="wikitable"style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha tónāḫ, "string"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā gənuš, "jaw" = jaw
!colspan="3"| hā haiiō, "horizon"  
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| tónāḫ ||rowspan="3"| tónōḥ ||rowspan="2"| tónā̊
| gənō ||rowspan="3" | hənauuā ||rowspan="2"| hənauuā
|rowspan="3" colspan="3"| haiiō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| tóni
| hənū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| tónõm || tónāṇġ
| hənā̊ || hənnā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| tónōiiō || tónōš || tónõm
| jñuuōḫ || gnuōš || jñuuõm
! colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| tónōi || tónō || tónahū
| jñaō<br>{{small|{{smallcaps|'''dm'''}} jñauui}}  || gnuō || gnuštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| tónamōḥ ||tónamuš
| jñuuoi ||rowspan="2"| gnumō ||rowspan="2"| gnumuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| tónō || tónomβiiōḫ
| jñuua
|}
|}
The OX nouns had a nom. sg. end that vacillated amongst the lexical items between -uš and -ō / -ōs < *-ou̯-s.  These reflect the zero and full grades respectively.  The gen. and dat. reflects PEE *-u-os and *-u-ei̯ as expected.  The dual behaves as expected.  The acc. is on account of the deletion of resonants before a syllabic nasal, ''genā̊'' < *gen-ēm < *gen-eu̯-m̥. 


===Acrean declensions===
The acc. pl. ''gennā̊'' < *gen-w-ns has the suffix assimilated into the root.
Many words in later Northian are Early Elder Nordic loanwords from speakers of Acrean, which was used as a ''lingua franca'' in western Eracura for centuries under the influence of the [[Acrean Empire]].  These words were so numerous that many were not nativized but declined according to an approximation of the thematic declension in ELder Old Nordic.  Naturally, Old Nordic vocabulary would not occur within the Galic and Epic corpora, but as the Epic language survived in literary and liturgical usages, later material did incorporate a considerable number of Acrean words.


====Hybridized paradigms====
Note in this word some oblique forms have the stem jñuu-, which is an altered form of *gnw-Northian generally permits up to three consonants (or four, if beginning with s-) in anlaut, but only if they contain no stops; if they do, stops are altered to fricative counterpartsThis rule is not in effect for sequences of only two members in anlaut, hence the conserved gn- when the following *w is vocalizedNote also, the genitive and dative dual endings begin with a (lost) laryngeal, triggering the vocalization of *w.
The displacement of native vocabulary in favour of Acrean words was widespread and penetrating to a basic level, unlike previous assumptions that it was only introduced for topics of exotic political and commercial interestBaker notes that the Old Nordic word ''sōwulą sōwulas'' "Sun" has hybridized with native Northian ''hāuuərə hūvə̄ṇġ'' and displaced the latter's oblique formsDisplacement concentrated in Epic forms made opaque by regular sound changeWhile all these forms are now analyzed as regular, at least in this noun they were no longer so understood after the Epic age.


The Northian inscriptions from the Epic age are revelatory of the extent of Nordic substitutions from an early time. Nordicisms were regarded as "vulgar substitutions" by antiquiarians, but a mid-6th-century BCE stone discovered in 2002 has the word <sōwulas> in genitive usage for the solar goddess, found within her very own temple precinctSuch finds have cast doubt whether Nordicisms were really regarded as "vulgar" forms by Northians of the Epic age, and some scholars have come to think the "correct" forms like ''hūvə̄ṇġ'' were actually poetic forms that had not been used regularly for some generations by that time.
The other EE languages attest a neuter version of this OX patern as in Tennite ''madhu'' gen. ''madhvas'' < *medʰ-w-es that is not found in Northian.  This word in particular is found as an acrostatic ''meδū'' gen. ''meδuš''Instead, there is a solitary neuter noun ''haiiaō'' "horizon" that seems to have a neuter ending in *-ew.  It is quite uncertain whether this is an inherited pattern or a petrified Northian adjective on the pattern of the s-stems adjectives (though it is equally unclear what original adjective would give the meaning of "horizon"), or it could be somehow related to ei-stem nouns attested in Xevdenite.


{| class="wikitable"
===''ϑórū''===
Some neuter nouns in -ū, such as ''ϑórū'' "tree, wood", ''hanū'' "knee", ''uuəštū'' "settlement" descend from an old acrostatic ablaut pattern that subsequently gained proterokinetic forms in the oblique cases.  The original oblique stem *deru- is still visible as a compounding form.  These changes result in a locative singular that is identical to the nominative.  These special nouns need to be distinguished from those that also end in -ū like ''oiiū'' "life", which have a distinct locative.
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā hāuuərə, "Sun"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| θoṯ ϑórū, "wood" = δόρυ, "tree"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="3"|hāuuərə ||rowspan="3"| sōwulōs
|rowspan="4"| ϑərū ||rowspan="3"| ϑərū ||rowspan="3"| ϑərō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
!rowspan="4"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| sōwulas  || sōwulōm
|rowspan="2"| drā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| sōwulai̯ || sōwulamas
| rowspan="2"| drumō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| sōwulō || sōwulamiš
| drū
|}
|}


====a-stems====
The word ''ϑərū'' gives rise to several intriguing concepts in related languages.  In Nordic, an important derivative is ''triwwiz'' "true, faithful", evidently comparing a reliable person's character to the durability of wood.  Northian ''drəmβuuōḫ'', reflecting the same *drew-wos, means "firm, difficult", from the same sense that wood is resilient and hence difficult to manipulate.  But the word carries more of a neutral tone than the usually-positive one in the Nordic cognate: a person described as ''drəmβuuō'' in the Epics is inflexible and ill-disposed to the speaker, but not hostile.  Compare another possible cognate, ''duros'' in Venetian, which means "hard, harsh" and is more overtly critical and pejorative applied to persons, cp. ''dura lex sed lex''.
For the most part, these endings are cognates with the o-stems (2nd declension) ones in Northian, but because of intervening sound changes, they are taught separatelyWhere there was a distinct vocative, the nominative form has displaced it. There are also no {{wp|dual (grammar)|dual forms}} for these nouns, for which neologisms have sometimes been suggested, to no general acceptance.  Since Elder Nordic had no locative case, this form is always identical to the dative where Northian syntax demands the locative.
 
{| class="wikitable"
==ī-stems==
===''orī''===
The ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns.  This suffix showed ablaut from full grade *-ieh₂ ~ -ih₂ > Northian -iiā ~ ī-.  Some inherited nouns have a root that participated in ablaut, so the root was in full grade and suffix in zero grade in the direct cases, and ''vice versa'' in oblique cases.
 
Notice that, in the gen. ''oriiā̊'', the laryngeal is syllabified with the preceding vowel and causes it to lengthen, but in the dat. ''oriiaē'' it syllabifies with the ending -i and does not lengthen the suffix; still, in both cases, the suffix vowel is coloured. The regular syllabification is only attested in Galic; by Didaskalic and Epic times, the dative was remade according to the genitive and has the ending -iiā-yiThe nom. pl. attests the ending -īš < *ih₂-s, which features an unexpected zero-grade suffix and a zero-grade variant of the nom. pl. ending, which is unique here and *-es everywhere else.  This zero-grade variation has been explained by some as rather the nom. sing. ending but not to general acceptance.   
 
The acc. pl. ending is the same as the nom., which indicates the final resonant failed to vocalize, thus from *-ih₂-ns rather than *-ih₂-n̥s.  This renders it the same as the acc. pl. of the i-stems of the type ''mātiš''.  Such a syllabification is attested also in the 3 pl. of the athematic optative for stems with persistent accent, which has -inṯ < *-ih₂-nt rather than *-iyat < *-ih₂-n̥t.
 
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| ha wulfas, "lupine" = ''lupus'' !!colspan="2"| θaṯ ētą̄, "food"  
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā orī, "eagless, hen eagle"  
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="2"|wulfas ||rowspan="2"| wulfōs
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"| orī ||rowspan="3"| orīš
|rowspan="3"| ētą̄    ||rowspan="3"| ētō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| wulfą̄ || wulfāŋš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| wulfas  || wulfõm
| oryā̊ || oriiāouš || oriiaõm
| ētas  || ētõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| oriiayi || oriiaoū || oriiāštū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| wulfai̯ || wulfamas
| oriiaē ||rowspan="2"| oriiāma ||oriiāmuš
| ētai̯  || ētamas
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| wulfō || wulfamis
| oriiā || oriiāβiyōḫ
| ētō || ētamis
|}
|}


====ō-stems====
===''hənitrī''===
These are cognates of the ā-stems in Northian.   
In the example below, {{wp|Sievers's law}} operates in oblique form as the agentive *-tr- invariably creates a heavy syllable before the yod of the full-grade feminizing suffix *-yeh₂.  Thus, in old texts, the surface forms are trisyllabic ''hātriyā̊'' and ''hāϑriyay'', but the disyllabic forms ''hāϑəriyā̊'' and ''hāϑəriyaHē'' are often seen in texts of an only slightly younger vintage.  Jeweller indicates that metrical considerations can be discounted from this variance.  Minimally, these could be analogical replacements from words in like stem where Sievers's law does not operate, or maximally they could indicate Sievers's law governed a kind of free variation but not a definite shift.  The shortcoming of the former is that stems obtaining Sievers's are far more numerous than those not, owing to the preponderating usage of the feminizing suffix after another suffix.
{| class="wikitable"
 
The -o- in the gen. and dat. du. forms is a Runic orthographic insertion done to prevent the incorrect scansion of dysyllabic /a.us/ as monosyllabic /aws/; the -o- is spurious and silentIt is not present in all texts: monumental inscriptions usually omit it.
 
{| class="wikitable"style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| sā erδō, "Earth"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā hənitrī, "genitrix" = ''genitrix''
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="2"|erδō ||rowspan="2"| erδōs
|colspan="3" rowspan="3"| hənitrī
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| erδōm || erδōs
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| erδōs  || erδōm
| hatriyā̊ || hatriyaHō || hatriyaHõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| hatriyā || hatriyaHā || hatriyāšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| erδōi̯ || erδōmas
| rowspan="2"| hatriHāmō || hatriyāmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| erδō || erδōmiš
| hatriHā || hatrīβiyō
|}
|}


===Venetian declensions===
===''štərī''===
Old Venetian was another Erani-Eracuran language whose terms have been borrowed into Northian during the Late Canon Period.  The first and second declensions of Old Venetian, in -ā and -os respectively, were directly cognate to the Northian ā- and o-stems.
This type, consisting mostly of feminine derivatives, was much more common in the Gales than in later texts.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
====First declension====
|-
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā štərī, "heifer"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā azā, "altar"
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="2"| azā ||rowspan="2"| azās
|rowspan="4"| štərī ||rowspan="3"| štəriiā ||rowspan="2"| štəriiā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| azām || azas
| štəriiā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| rowspan="2"| štrīHō || štrīšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| azās  || azām
| štriHō || štriHõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| azāi || rowspan="2"| azāis
| štriHā ||rowspan="2"| štrīmō || štrīmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| azād
| štrī || štrīβiyō
|}
|}


====Second declension====
==ū-stems==
{| class="wikitable"
===''ϑənūˀ''===
The ū-stems were originally parallel to the ī-stems, but phonetic changes have rendered them distinct.  The nom. sing. always had accented root syllable and an ending in PEE *-uh₂ > Galic *-ūˀ.  The acc. requires a proto-form *-ueh₂-m, but already has simplified to *-u̯ām > -uā̊.  In the oblique cases, the stem alternated between -ū preconsonantally and -uH prevocalically, to which full-grade endings were added.  Other disfigurements are attributable to the shape of this stem.  The stem in zn- occurs whenever the *u of the stem is vocalized in the environment of *tnuh₂-, and the stem in dā-, when *u borders a vowel and *n is vocalized instead, i.e. *tn̥weh₂-.  The irregularity in this paradigm was preserved certainly owing to its frequent usage.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| ha cabos, "measure of corn" !!colspan="2"| θaṯ alom, "comfrey"  
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā ϑənū, "body"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| cabos ||rowspan="2"| caboi
|rowspan="2"| ϑənū ||rowspan="3"| ϑənnaHā ||rowspan="2"| ϑənnaHā
|rowspan="3"| alom ||rowspan="3"| alā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| cabe
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| cabom || cabōs
| ϑənnā̊ || dāuuā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| cabōiio  || cabozom
| znuHō || rowspan="2"| znuHō || znuHõm
! rowspan="3" colspan="2"|
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| dāuuā  || znuŋhū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| caboi || rowspan="2"| cabois
| znuHā ||rowspan="2"| znūmō || znūmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| cabod
| znuHōi || znūβiyō
|}
|}


====Third declension====
===''hōxrū''===
The third declension in Venetian was cognate with the athematic nouns in Northian, though in Venetian the number of sub-patterns was smaller.  As learned borrowings, they generally retained their original endings, though substitutions were only too common.
The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely ''hōxrūḥ'' "mother-in-law".
 
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā loux, "light"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā hōxrū, "mother-in-law" = ''socrus''
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="2"| loux ||rowspan="2"| loukeiies
|rowspan="2"| hōxrū ||rowspan="3"| hōxrō ||rowspan="3"| hōxrwā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| loukem || loukēs
| hōxrwō 
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| rowspan="2"| loukes || loukom
| hōxrwā̊ || hōxrwāHuš || hōxrwaHõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| loukibos
|rowspan="2"| hōxrwā || hōxrwāHū || hōxrwāhu
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| loukei
| rowspan="3"| hōxrwāmi ||rowspan="2"| hōxrwāmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
|}
|}


====Fourth declension====
==H-stems==
{| class="wikitable"
The H-stems or laryngeal-stems have a suffix consisting of an ablauting vowel followed by a laryngeal and were similar in structure to the ī- and ū-stems.  But, there, semivowels *i- and *u- preceded the ablauting vowel, and so in oblique cases, they become vowels in the absence of the ablauting vowel and are lengthened by the laryngeal.  Here, however, the ablauting vowel is not preceded by a semivowel and disappears completely in the oblique cases, causing the laryngeal to scan as part of the ending syllable.
 
===''pəntā̊''===
The word ''pəntā̊'' "path" had a stem ending in PEE *póntoh₁- ~ pn̥th₁-.  Fundamentally, it is a regular laryngeal-stem noun of amphikinetic origin of the same type that has full-grade root and o-grade suffix. In the accusative singular, the ending was *oh₁-m̥ > *ōm, with regular operation of {{wp|Stang's law}}. 
 
This word is a direct cognate to the {{wp|English|Shalumite}} word "path", which is a borrowing from the oblique stem of the reflex in another Erani-Eracuran language.
 
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā manus, "hand" !!colspan="2"| θaṯ cornu, "horn"  
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ho pəntā̊, "path, way" = "path"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| manus ||rowspan="3"| manūs
|rowspan="2"| pəntā̊ ||rowspan="3"| pəntōi ||rowspan="2"| pəntoHaHā
|rowspan="3"| cornu ||rowspan="3"| cornuā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| manu
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| manum
| pāϑā̊ || pəntoHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| rowspan="2"| manuos  || manuom
| rowspan="2"colspan="2"| pāϑō  || pāϑām
! rowspan="3" colspan="2"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| manubos
| pāšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| manui
| pāϑā || rowspan="2"| pāsmō ||rowspan="2"| pāśmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| pāϑōi
|}
|}


===Irregular nouns===
===''bā̊''===
====''ā̊'' "mouth"====
''bā̊'' "woman" continues the proterodynamic declension ending in *-h₂, and the nom. was asigmaticThis suffix also underlies the ī- and ū-stem declensions in Northian but is otherwise rarely seen alone.  The direct stem is from *gʷénh₂ > *gʷḗn > gā̊, and the oblique *gʷnéh₂- > gnā-. Both nominative and accusative forms are affected by {{wp|Stang's law}}.
''ā̊'' (Runic <AO>) is an acrostatic neuter root noun in s-stem.  Like other acrostatic nouns, its inflectional pattern can show irregularities under the influence of other, more productive ablaut patterns.  After the Late Canon period, all the oblique forms of this noun were replaced by thematized forms based on the stem ā̊-, e.g. gen. ''ā̊oiiō'', but it is the athematic originals that are discussed below.  Nom. sing. ''ā̊'' is for *ō-h < *HoH-s-Ø.  Gen. sing. is written in Runic script as <AAA{S}>, whose phonoloigcal form has been heavily controverted.  The form  ''ə·ās'', advanced by Rutger, would account for a pre-form of PNN *əə-h-s < *HH-s-s, with regular augmentation of the vowel in sequence with hiatusIn liturgical pronunciation, the gen. is read as ''aō '', which cannot be anything but a late creation, with the OX genitive ending -ō attached ''ad hoc'' to the invariant thematic stem.
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
 
At some point in the prehistory of Northian, the position of the accent was fully dissociated with the ablaut, and it was felt that all nouns should show regular ablaut variation in direct and oblique stems, even if the accent persisted on the root syllable as in the case of acrostatic nouns.  Thus, new zero-grade stems often replaced regular full-grade stems in the oblique forms of acrostatic nouns, but this remained exceptional for those with root shape √CeC-, as clashing obstruents would result.  This process is particularly hard to describe for the case of ''ā̊'' as its stem consists of two laryngeals, whose exact reflexes during the period when new oblique stems were created were uncertain, especially two of them in a row.  The stem is then further disguised by the presence of /h/ and the imprecision of Runic orthography.
 
Rugter argues that dual laryngeals in initial position may have evolved to *əə and was still understood as consonants rather than vowels, and in the process of creating a new weak stem a union vowel was inserted between the laryngeals or their reflexes, which would (eventually) give three vowels in a row, of which two could be coloured by the following *h and then merge.  However, Sally doubts that *HH- > *əə- could "really be as consonants √CC- and then require the insertion of a new vowel between them"; she says that if it was, then the expected form should be *əiə- or *əuə-, not *əəə- > *ə·ā-.
 
Dat. and loc. sing. <IIHI> is yet another mystery, and ''ə·iši'' has been advanced as an interpretation to reflect *ə-is-i < *HH-s-i. However, intervocalic *s is not usually spelled as <H> in Runic orthography, and at any rate if the preceding vowel was indeed i, the following *s should regularly surface as š and yield Runic <Ḥ>.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ ā̊, "mouth"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā gā̊, "wife" = γυνή
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| ā̊ ||rowspan="3"| ōhīḥ ||rowspan="3"| ōhā
|rowspan="2"| gā̊ ||rowspan="3"| gənā̊ ||rowspan="2"| gənā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| gənā̊ || bnā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| <AAA{S}> || <AIAUUS> || <AOON>
| bnā || bnaHuš || βna·ā̊m
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| <IIHI> || <AIAUU> || <AIASU>
| rowspan="2"| bnaēii || βnaHū || βnāhū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
|rowspan="2"| <AIAMA> ||rowspan="2"| <AIAMUS>
| rowspan="2"| bna·ā̊ ||rowspan="2"| βnāmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| a·ā̊ha
| βnā
|}
|}


====''ménōḫ'' "mind"====
==r/n-stems==
The PP version of the neuter s-stems had a few differences to the PX version that enabled it to withstand the general tendency to substitute PP with PX or OX forms; its preservation cannot be unrelated, according to authorities, with the prevalence and prominence of the noun ''ménōḫ'' "mind", a central idea in the religious canon. The nom. sing. was ''ménōḫ'' < PEE *mén-os, with ending -ōḫ undergoing the same changes as the PX counterpart. The gen. had ''māṇġs'' < PEE *mén-s-s.  
The r/n-stems, or heteroclitics, continue a class of EE nouns that had different suffixes for direct and oblique stems. Excepting productive derivative suffixes *-tr̥ and *-mr̥, they are all neuter nouns with basic meanings and show P/PX inflection in the singular and dual.  Many, but not all, formed a collective with an o-grade root with OX ablaut pattern.  The collective was endingless in the {{smallcaps|nom}}, like a singular, but took plural endings in the oblique cases.
{| class="wikitable"
 
In the Epic language, many heteroclitics also formed ordinary plurals from the zero-grade stem, which agree with singular verbs and have meanings different from those of their collective forms.
 
''yuHarə'' "year" is a case where the spelling of the Gales leaves open a number of interpretations as to their phonological forms. The {{smallcaps|nom}} ''yuHarə'' < *yoh₁-r̥ had the o-grade of the root. Proto-form of {{smallcaps|gen}} *yoh₁-n̥-s or *yeh₁-n̥-s should anticipate a PNR form like *yaH-ā̊, but nowhere is this found or metrically allowed; instead, one finds monosyllabic ''yā̊'', which according to Krueger may be an ''ad hoc'' replacement for *i-āh, logically assumed to be from < *ih₁--s.  However, the contraction of syllables across laryngeal borders is very rare in Northian, so this explanation has not achieved agreement by authorities.  {{smallcaps|du loc}} ''yaŋhaˀū'' is surely for a rather awkward *yaˀāˀū < *yéh₁n̥Hu.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria;font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ ménōḫ, "mind"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| θaṯ yuHarə, "year" = ὥρα → "hour"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| ménōḫ ||rowspan="3"| māŋhī ||rowspan="3"| māŋhā̊
|rowspan="3"| yuHarə ||rowspan="3"| yōrī ||rowspan="3"| yōrō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
Line 1,168: Line 1,242:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| māṇġs || māŋhuš || māŋhōḫ
| yuHā̊ || yaHāHuš ||  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"|māŋhi || māŋhū || māŋhū
|rowspan="2"| yūni || ||  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| māŋhma ||rowspan="2"| māŋhei̯
| rowspan="2"| ||rowspan="2"|  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| māŋha
|  
|}
|}


====''hāuuərə'' "Sun"====
''pāwr̥'' "fire" has PX inflection, with accented suffix in the oblique cases. In the nom. sing. the proto-form was from *péh₂wr̥; the final -ərə is paedagogically taught as /ara/, but as it is a single long syllable and not two short as the orthography implies, authorities concur it probably represents a preserved, tautosyllabic -R-r̥ sequence.  This ending also occurs with the *-mr̥ compound suffix, but not *-tr̥.  Oblique stem is from *ph₂wén- > *fiwen > Galic fūvon-.  The collective form is ''fūvə̄'', which is presumably from *ph₂wṓ, showing the replacement of full-grade root by zero-grade that is common in derived OX nouns, cp. direct cognate in Elder Nordic ''fōr''.
''hāuụərə'' (Runic <XAUUARA>) "Sun" may continue the PEE heteroclitic stem in *-l/n-, but this cannot be certain because word-final -l merges with -r and there is no separate accusative or collective disclosing the full stem.  The strong stem descends from PEE *seh₂w- > hāuụ-; the weak stem from *sh₂w- > *hiw- > *hūv-.  Genitive has ''hūvaṇġ'' < *hiwānh < *sh₂wens.


The word ''hāuuərə'' signifies a deified celestial body in early Northian religion and is usually found in the singular in the Galic language.  There, in in the dual, "the two Suns" is an ellipsis for "the Sun and the Moon". 
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria;font-style:italic"
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2"| hā hāuuərə, "Sun"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| θaṯ pāwr̥, "fire" = πῦρ → pyro-
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}}  
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| hāuuərə ||rowspan="3"| hāwa
|rowspan="3"| pāwr̥ ||rowspan="3"| ||rowspan="3"| pāuuō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
Line 1,199: Line 1,270:
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| hūvaṇġ || hānuš
| puuanh ||  ||  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| hvíni || hānui̯
| puuən ||  ||
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| hāŋma
| puuənā || rowspan="2"|  ||rowspan="2"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| hūva
| puuā̊
|}
|}


====''onkā'' "cream"====
Other common heteroclitic nouns include:
The bare stems in -n- also contain nouns with PX inflectionThese are rarer than those with OX inflection, and the only abundantly-attested noun here is ''onkā'' "cream".
*PX ''azr̥ azā̊'' "day"
{| class="wikitable"
*PX ''fetar fθā̊'' "feather"
*PP ''woδar woθā̊'' "water" < PEE *wodr̥ *wodn̥s
*PP ''ferərə ferūš'' "mountain"
*PP ''fō ferā̊'' "house"
 
==ā-stems==
The main point of interest in this paradigm is in the genitive and locative dual forms, where the form suggests the e-grade *-ew- instead of the anticipated zero grade -u-.  Nowhere else in Northian or other Erani-Eracuran languages does this ending take the e-grade.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-family:cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ onkā, "cream"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā mīrā, "mist"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| onkā ||rowspan="3"| oŋginīḥ ||rowspan="3"| oŋgō
|rowspan="2"| mīrā ||rowspan="3"| mīraHī ||rowspan="2"| mīraHā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| mīrō || mīrā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| agāṇġ || agénuš || agénõm
| mīraHā ||rowspan="2"| mīraHā || mīraHõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
|rowspan="2"| agéni || agénū || agáŋhū
| mīrā  || mīraHū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| agénā ||rowspan="2"| agénmuš
|rowspan="2"| mīraHā || rowspan="2"| mīrāmō ||rowspan="2"| mīrāmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| agā̊
|}
|}


====''nomā'' "name"====
==o-stems==
''nomā'' < *Hnómn̥ takes special PP endings in the singular.  There is never a vowel interposed between the two resonants of the suffix. Gen. sing. ''nómā̊'' is probably from an original *Hnómāh < *Hnómn̥s.  Excepting before endings commencing in vowel, such as the nom. du., suffix *-n is vocalized as ā or ə̄.  Note that the gen. and loc. du. endings actually began with a laryngeal *HuH- and therefore are considered to begin with a consonant; thus, suffix *-n becomes *-n̥ in those contexts, and the regular reflext *ā is altered by the following syllable to ə̄.
The thematic declension in o-stem could be divided into two subclasses that arose on account of the position of the accent, without which the short *o became /a/.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:Cambria; font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ nómā, "name"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha θūmōḫ, "smoke" !!colspan="3"| θaṯ yuɣõm, "yoke"  
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="3"| nómā ||rowspan="3"| nómnīḥ ||rowspan="3"| nómō
| θūmōḫ ||rowspan="3"| θūmṓḥ ||rowspan="2"| θūmā̊
|rowspan="3"| yuɣõm  ||rowspan="3"| yuɣṓ(yīḥ) ||rowspan="3"| yuɣāḥ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| θūmi
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| θūmõm || θūmə̄ṇġ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| nomā̊ || nomə̄ụuš || nomnõm
| θūmōiiō || θūmōš || θūmõm
! colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
|rowspan="2"| nomni || nomə̄ụū || nomāŋhū
| rowspan="2"|θūmōi || θūmō || θūmohū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| nomāma ||rowspan="2"| nomāmuš
| rowspan="2"| θūmoma ||θūmomuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| nomna
| θūmō || θūmomβiiōḫ
|}
|}


====''mā·ā̊ḫ'' "moon" and ''xaṇġ'' "goose"====
==Acrean declensions==
This is a rare formation with only two well-attested items: ''mā·ā̊ḫ'' "moon" and ''xaṇġ'' "goose"Nevertheless they must be introduced separately, because ''mā·ā̊ḫ'' has the lengthened declensionEffectively these were n-stems extended by -s- after the resonant, which in turn triggers different vocalizations and alterations to vowel quality.  For ''mā·ā̊ḫ'' the root vowel was originally long, while the following laryngeal caused the *-ns to vocalize as -ah > -āḫ, which is altered to ā̊ḫ on account of the preceding vowel; the short-vowel grade is visible in the vocative.
Many words in later Northian are Early Elder Nordic loanwords from speakers of Acrean, which was used as a ''lingua franca'' in western Eracura for centuries under the influence of the [[Acrean Empire]].  These words were so numerous that many were not nativized but declined according to an approximation of the thematic declension in ELder Old Nordic.  Naturally, Old Nordic vocabulary would not occur within the Galic and Epic corpora, but as the Epic language survived in literary and liturgical usages, later material did incorporate a considerable number of Acrean words.
 
===Hybridized paradigms===
The displacement of native vocabulary in favour of Acrean words was widespread and penetrating to a basic level, unlike previous assumptions that it was only introduced for topics of exotic political and commercial interest.  Baker notes that the Old Nordic word ''sōwulą sōwulas'' "Sun" has hybridized with native Northian ''hāuuərə hūvə̄ṇġ'' and displaced the latter's oblique forms.  Displacement concentrated in Epic forms made opaque by regular sound changeWhile all these forms are now analyzed as regular, at least in this noun they were no longer so understood after the Epic age.
 
The Northian inscriptions from the Epic age are revelatory of the extent of Nordic substitutions from an early time.  Nordicisms were regarded as "vulgar substitutions" by antiquiarians, but a mid-6th-century BCE stone discovered in 2002 has the word <sōwulas> in genitive usage for the solar goddess, found within her very own temple precinctSuch finds have cast doubt whether Nordicisms were really regarded as "vulgar" forms by Northians of the Epic age, and some scholars have come to think the "correct" forms like ''hūvə̄ṇġ'' were actually poetic forms that had not been used regularly for some generations by that time.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha mā·ā̊ḫ, "moon, month"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā hāuuərə, "Sun"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| mā·ā̊ḫ ||rowspan="3"| māŋhə̄i̯ ||rowspan="2"| māŋhāḫ
| rowspan="3"|hāuuərə ||rowspan="3"| sōwulōs
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| ma·ā̊ḫ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| māŋhəm ||  māŋhaṇġ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| māŋhə̄ || māṇśmōš || māŋhą̄m
| sōwulas  || sōwulōm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| māṇġ || māŋhə̄u̯ || māŋhu
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| māŋhai̯ ||rowspan="2"| māṇśmō ||rowspan="2"| māṇśmuš
| sōwulai̯ || sōwulamas
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| māŋha
| sōwulō || sōwulamiš
|}
|}


The principle difference, other than the regular ablaut, is that the root here ended in a vowel, which caused the final *-ens to resolve as -aṇġThe Northian vowel is on account of the guttural sound of the initial consonant.  Final -s is an early restoration attested in some Galic texts, though not universally seen and never as the last syllable of a line.
===a-stems===
For the most part, these endings are cognates with the o-stems (2nd declension) ones in Northian, but because of intervening sound changes, they are taught separately.  Where there was a distinct vocative, the nominative form has displaced it.  There are also no {{wp|dual (grammar)|dual forms}} for these nouns, for which neologisms have sometimes been suggested, to no general acceptanceSince Elder Nordic had no locative case, this form is always identical to the dative where Northian syntax demands the locative.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā xāṇġ(s), "goose"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| ha wulfas, "lupine" = ''lupus'' !!colspan="2"| θaṯ ētą̄, "food"  
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| xāṇġ(s) ||rowspan="3"| xaŋhōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| xaŋhāḫ
| rowspan="2"|wulfas ||rowspan="2"| wulfōs
|rowspan="3"| ētą̄    ||rowspan="3"| ētō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| xāṇġ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| xaŋham || xaŋhaṇġ
| wulfą̄ || wulfāŋš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| xahōḫ || xaṇśmōš || xaŋhą̄m
| wulfas  || wulfõm
|-
| ētas  || ētõm
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| xaṇġ || xaŋhə̄u̯ || xaŋhu
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| xahai̯ ||rowspan="2"| xaṇśmō ||rowspan="2"| xaṇśmuš
| wulfai̯ || wulfamas
| ētai̯  || ētamas
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| xaha
| wulfō || wulfamis
| ētō || ētamis
|}
|}


====''mā̊'' "meat"====
===ō-stems===
''mā̊'' < *mēm-s must be distinguished from the word for "moon", as outside of paedagogical texts they are both printed and written as ''mā''.  This is either a root noun or a reduplication of a root *me-ms-.  The word has no dual or collective forms.
These are cognates of the ā-stems in Northian.   
 
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!θaṯ mā̊, "meat"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| sā erδō, "Earth"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
| rowspan="5"|mā̊ 
| rowspan="2"|erδō ||rowspan="2"| erδōs
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| erδōm || erδōs
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
|-
| erδōs  || erδōm
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| meṃśi 
| erδōi̯ || erδōmas
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| meṃśa
| erδō || erδōmiš
|}
|}


====l-stems====
==Venetian declensions==
There are a few nouns with an ablauting stem ending in -l, the most important being ''nomβar'' "navel", ''oṇkar'' "coal-fire", and ''abar'' "apple"Aside from ''nomβar'', which is an feminine noun with *-l- throught its stem, the other nouns are similar to those ending in -r/n- but show a collective ending in *-ōl > -ō rather than *-ōr > -ā̊, and the  zero-grade nominative is indistinguishable from the r-stems, since -l̥ and -r̥ both > PNR *-r̥.
Old Venetian was another Erani-Eracuran language whose terms have been borrowed into Northian during the Late Canon PeriodThe first and second declensions of Old Venetian, in -ā and -os respectively, were directly cognate to the Northian ā- and o-stems.


===First declension===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā nomβar, "navel" = ''umbilicus''
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā azā, "altar"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| nomβar ||rowspan="3"| nomβilōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| nomβiliš
| rowspan="2"| azā ||rowspan="2"| azās
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| nomβram || nomβilā̊
| azām || azas
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| āmβāḫ || āmβeluš || āmβelõm
| azās  || azām
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| āmβeli || āmβelū || āmβertū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
|rowspan="2"| āmβerma ||rowspan="2"| āmβermuš
| azāi || rowspan="2"| azāis
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
| āmβela
| azād
|}
|}


''oṇkar'' is a noun of basic relevance that is also the source of an adjective meaning "black".  The adjective takes PX inflection, while the noun has PP inflection.
===Second declension===
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ oṇkar, "coal-fire" = ''ignis''
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| ha cabos, "measure of corn" !!colspan="2"| θaṯ alom, "comfrey"  
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| oṇkar ||rowspan="3"| oṇkra ||rowspan="3"| oṇkō
| cabos ||rowspan="2"| caboi
|rowspan="3"| alom ||rowspan="3"| alā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| cabe
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| cabom || cabōs
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| oṇkuš || oṇkərəuš || oṇkrõm
| cabōiio  || cabozom
|-
! rowspan="3" colspan="2"|
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| oṇkri || oṇkərəū || oṇkərəšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
|rowspan="2"| oṇkərəma ||rowspan="2"| oṇkərəmuš
| caboi || rowspan="2"| cabois
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
| oṇkra
| cabod
|}
|}


====''fō'' "shrine"====
===Third declension===
''fō'' "shrine" is a heteroclitic PP noun in r-stem, which causes syncopation in the direct forms, < *per-r; otherwise the noun is regularGenitive ''ferā̊'' is for *pern̥s, etc.
The third declension in Venetian was cognate with the athematic nouns in Northian, though in Venetian the number of sub-patterns was smallerAs learned borrowings, they generally retained their original endings, though substitutions were only too common.
 
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| θaṯ fō, "shrine"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā loux, "light"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| ||rowspan="3"| ferrī ||rowspan="3"| ferō
| rowspan="2"| loux ||rowspan="2"| loukeiies
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| loukem || loukēs
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| ferā̊ || fernuš || fərənõm
| rowspan="2"| loukes || loukom
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
|rowspan="2"| firni || fernū || frāhū
| rowspan="2"| loukibos
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| ferāma || frāmuš
| loukei
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| ferna || frāβiiā̊
|}
|}


====d-stems====
===Fourth declension===
The d-stems consist of a small group of root nouns, most prominently OX ''foṯ'' = "foot" and PX ''xō'' "heart".  Irregularities arise principally in the treatment of word-final -d in various contexts.  For ''xō'' the -d follows r- and so can be assimilated; this is evidently still in progress while the Gales were written, as forms with and without -d were often poetic alternatives.
 
As a natural pair, a person's own feet are always referred to in the dual and not the plural (unless the speaker is of a quadrupedal species).  If feet are referred to in the plural, they usually denote dismembered feet, especially of another entity.  An altar's two feet are referred to in the dual, even the an altar is not a person.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|hā foṯ, "foot" = ''pes''
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="2"| hā manus, "hand" !!colspan="2"| θaṯ cornu, "horn"
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} & {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| foṯ ||rowspan="3"| fodōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| fodiš
| manus ||rowspan="3"| manūs
|rowspan="3"| cornu ||rowspan="3"| cornuā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| manu
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| fodam || fodā̊
| manum
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| βδōḫ || βδōš || βδõm
| rowspan="2"| manuos  || manuom
! rowspan="3" colspan="2"|
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|abl}}  
| fodi || βδō || βδšū
| rowspan="2"| manubos
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| βδei̯ ||rowspan="2"| βδmō ||rowspan="2"| βδmuš
| manui
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| βδōi̯
|}
|}


====''fonδā̊'' "path"====
==Irregular nouns==
The word ''fonδā̊'' "path" had a stem ending in PEE *póntoh₁- ~ pn̥th₁-.  Fundamentally, it is a regular laryngeal-stem noun of amphikinetic origin, but the difficulty arises with its two ablauting syllables affected by the laryngeal stemIn the accusative singular, the ending was *oh₁-, with regular operation of {{wp|Stang's law}}.  This would result in a form identical to the nominative, and the weak stem was introduced prehistorically. The nom. pl. stands for *póntoh₁-es.
===''ā̊'' "mouth"===
 
''ā̊'' is an acrostatic neuter root noun in s-stemLike other acrostatic nouns, its inflectional pattern can show irregularities under the influence of other, more productive ablaut patternsAfter the Late Canon period, all the oblique forms of this noun were replaced by thematized forms based on the stem ā̊-, e.g. gen. ''ā̊ōiiō'', but it is the athematic originals that are discussed below. Nom. sing. ''ā̊'' is for *ō-h < *HoH-s-Ø.  
This word is a direct cognate to the {{wp|English|Shalumite}} word "path", which is a borrowing from the oblique stem of the reflex in another Erani-Eracuran language.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha fonδā̊, "path, way = "path"
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|θaṯ ā̊, "mouth"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| fonδā̊ ||rowspan="3"| fonδōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| fónδayiš
|rowspan="3"| ā̊ ||rowspan="3"| ōhīḥ ||rowspan="3"| ōha
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| fātā̊ || fātəṇġ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| fātōḫ || fātōš || fātõm
| ōs || ōhuš || ōhõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| fonδō || fātō || fāššū
| āḫ || ōhū || ōššū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| fātai̯ || rowspan="2"| fāśmō ||rowspan="2"| fāśmuš
| ōhi ||rowspan="2"| ōma ||rowspan="2"| ōmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| fātā
| ōha
|}
|}


====t-stems with persistent accent====
===''mā̊'' "meat"===
These are t-stem nouns with acrostatic inflection.  The nominative was evidently asigmatic < *ses-t, from *ses- "to rest".The genitive ''haš'' represents *has-t-s, the final consonant cluster being resolved in favour of *s.   
''mā̊'' < *mēm-s must be distinguished from the word for "moon", as outside of paedagogical texts they are both printed and written as ''''.  This is either a root noun or a reduplication of a root *me-ms-.  The word has no dual or collective forms.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā hašṯ, "bed"
!rowspan="2"| !!θaṯ mā̊, "meat"
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| hašṯ ||rowspan="3"| hašta ||rowspan="2"| haštiš
| rowspan="5"|mā̊ 
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| haštəm || haštā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| haš || haštuš || haštõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| hašti || haštū || fāššū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| haštma ||rowspan="2"| haštmuš
| meṃśi 
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| hašta
| meṃśa
|}
|}


Interestingly, the dual ''hašta'' is more frequent than singular ''hašṯ'' and has singular meaningIt is possible that the singular had the sense of a bed-end rather than the entire bed.
===''potiš'' "master" in compounds===
The word *potiš "lord, master" has OX-B inflection.  As a word it is not seen alone but does serve as the second element in the terms ''déṃpśpatiš'' "master of the house" and ''uuei̯xšpatiš'' "lord of the settlement"The word can sometimes appear with the o-grade suffix, e.g. ''déṃpśpatōiš''.


The very well-attested word ''nōxṯ'' "evening, night" is usually thought to be a root noun with persistent accent on the initial syllable at the Proto-Erani-Eracuran level, but some authorities consider the root to be *(d)negʷ-, extended by the suffix -t-.  Whatever the case in the parent language, the -t- never takes full grade even in the nom. du. and pl.  Thus its behaviour is identical to that of ''hašṯ''.
While the root *potiš is not seen independently, the feminine -īḥ derivative ''potnīḥ'' is used as part of certain goddesses' titles; there, the full grade root is invariant.
 
{| class="wikitable"
The word for "ten" in compounds of multiple of ten, e.g. twenty, thirty, etc. also displays the word ''dekam'' in zero grade extended by -t, ''-δɣāt'' < *-dḱm̥-t.
*''θríδɣāt'' < *tri-dḱm̥-t.
*''kozuuərəδɣāt'' < *kʷetwr̥-dḱm̥-t.
 
====''hōxrūḥ'' "mother-in-law"====
The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely ''hōxrūḥ'' "mother-in-law".
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā hōxrūḥ, "mother-in-law" = ''socrus''
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha déṃpśpatiš, "master of the house" = δεσπότης
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"| hōxrū ||rowspan="3"| hōxrāu̯a ||rowspan="2"| hōxruuāḫ
| déṃpśpatiš ||rowspan="3"| déṃpśpačiiāḥ ||rowspan="2"| déṃpśpačiiāḫ
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| déṃpśpatai
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| hōxrūm || hōxruuā̊
| déṃpśpatim || déṃpśpatī
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| hōxruuā̊ || hōxru̯āu̯uš || hōxru̯aõ
| déṃpśpatiiāḫ || déṃpśpatiyōš || déṃpśpačiiõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| hōxru̯ā || hōxru̯āu̯u || hōxru̯āhu
| déṃpśpati || déṃpśpatiyō || déṃpśpatištū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| hōxru̯āi̯i || rowspan="2"| hōxru̯āma ||rowspan="2"| hōxru̯āmuš
| déṃpśpačiiai || rowspan="2"| déṃpśpatimō ||rowspan="2"| déṃpśpatimuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| hōxrūu̯a
| déṃpśpačiiāḥ
|}
|}


====''gā̊'' "woman"====
===''šiiō'' "god, sky"===
''gā̊'' "woman" continues the PEE proterodynamic declension ending in *-h₂This suffix also underlies the ī- and ū-stem declensions in Northian but is otherwise rarely seen aloneThe full-grade stem is from *gʷénh₂ > gā̊, and the zero-grade *gʷnéh₂- > gnā-Both nominative and accusative forms are affected by {{wp|Stang's law}}.
This word ''šiiō'' is a direct cognate with several theonyms across the Erani-Eracuran family.  The original *ew was transformed to *aw (written ''aō'') after yodUnder the influence of that phone, the initial obstruent was palatalized to z, where it is otherwise preserved before vocalic iThere is an alternate nom. form ''žiiōš'', which may either be a contraction or a reflex of *dyou̯-s, the o-grade of the same rootThe acc. sing. ''žiiā̊'' is a product of {{wp|Stang's law}}, which requires the sequence of *dyeu̯-m to be simplified to *dyēm; this sequence is attested in virtually all branches and is assumed to be old.  ''šyā̊'' is cognate to Syaran ''Ζῆν''.
{| class="wikitable"
 
''šyō'' often co-occurs with the epithet ''ufšištō'' "highest" as ''ufšištoz-dyō'' "Heaven Most High", in much the same way as ''fərətištā-taɣam'' "Earth Most Broad".  These compounds, other than being appellations of their titular deities, were also used of their agents.  [[Aithar]], the god of numina, is almost always accompanied by the epithet ''ufšištṓiia-diuuō'' "of Heaven Most High".  After Aithar, the pantheon of [[Valstígr]] was also called ''āhaṓuuāḫ põm ufšištṓiia diuuō'', "Lords of Powers and Heaven-Most-High", defining them as celestial, rather than chthonic, deities.
 
It is to note that the epithet ''ufšištōḫ'' "highest" does ''not'' carry the implication that the god is highest in rank or power, at least in the Galic and Didaskalic corpora.  The idea of a deity that is supreme over other deities was not endorsed by the earlier Northians, and instead a god's supremacy was envisioned more as "excellence" or "extremity", or simply the quality or domain assigned to that god in a superlative, peerless state.  Thus in Northian theology, Ziiaōš was the highest, and θaɣam the broadest, and the two are both peerless in the qualities recognized in them.  But, being differently or oppositely characterized, they partake in nothing in common and thus could not compare with each other.  There thus could not exist a hierarchy between them.
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-family:cambria;font-style:italic"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā gona, "woman" = γυνή
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha šiiō, "sky, Sky God"  
|-
|-
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
! style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="2"|  gā̊ ||rowspan="3"| gonā̊ ||rowspan="2"| gona·ā̊ḫ
| šiiō ||rowspan="3"| ||rowspan="2"| ziiauuō
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
| ziiā
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| gonā̊ || gña·ā̊
| ziiā̊ || 𝛿uwā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| gnā̊ || gnauuš || gna·ā̊m
| 𝛿uwō ||rowspan="2"| || 𝛿ūwam
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| rowspan="2"| gnaēii || gnāuū || gnāhū
| ziiā || 𝛿ūwšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| rowspan="2"| gna·ā̊ ||rowspan="2"| gnāmuš
| 𝛿uwō ||rowspan="2"| ||rowspan="2"| 𝛿ūmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| gnā
|
|}
|}


====Neuter nouns in -ū====
===''hazərə'' "hand"===
Some neuter nouns in -ū, such as ''δorū'' "tree, wood", ''ɣanū'' "knee", ''uuəštū'' "settlement" descend from an acrostatic ablaut pattern in the proto-languageThese words have invariant stems and are exempted from the creation of new zero-grade stems that have often supplanted their original, regular full-grade stemsTheir oblique stems end in short -u, which was lengthened in auslaut in the nominative formsThese special nouns need to be learned by memory from PX nouns that also end in -ū like ''oiiū'' "life", which have a distinct oblique stem.
''hazərə'' is an OX noun in r-stem with the inverted declension, with a zero-grade in the nominative singular.  -ərə here is treated as a single, long syllable, representing Erani-Eracuran *-That -ərə is a consonantal is elucidated by the reflex of *s as -z- and not -h-, which would be regular had -ərə been a vowel soundAs with all nouns with inverted declension, the accusative is regarded as a weak case as to its appropriate stem, thus ''xšrə̄m'' over the expected *xšerəm; however, the syllable weight of the original is preserved in the long vowel of the ending.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| θaṯ δorū, "wood" = δόρυ
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā hazərə, "hand"  
|-
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
! {{smallcaps|nom}}  
|rowspan="3"| dorū ||rowspan="3"| doruụīḥ ||rowspan="3"| dorō
|rowspan="2"| hazərə ||rowspan="3"| xšerōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| xširiš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
! {{smallcaps|voc}}  
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
! {{smallcaps|acc}}  
| xšrə̄m || xšrā̊
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
! {{smallcaps|gen}}  
| draōš || doruu̯ōḫ || druu̯ōḫ
| xšrōḫ || xšarōš || xšrõm
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
! {{smallcaps|loc}}  
| derū || doruu̯a || doruu̯i
|rowspan="2"| xšrei̯ || xšarō || xšərəšū
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
! {{smallcaps|dat}}  
| drauui ||rowspan="2"| doruma ||rowspan="2"| druu̯ēi̯
| rowspan="2"| xšərəmō ||rowspan="2"| xšərəmuš
|-
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
! {{smallcaps|ins}}  
| drūḥ
| xšroi̯
|}
|}


====''xāmō'' "human"====
===''monuš'' "man, human"===
''xāmō'' "human being" is an n-stem noun that has an important place in the [[Fonδaiš Wīštā̊]] religion in Northian culture.  It is used for humans of all sexes and nations, noting them as a group as opposed to gods or animals; it conveys a difference in spiritual species and not of sex or nationality.  Its oblique stem takes the special form ''xmān-'' rather than the expected *xāmn-Possibly it is assimilated to the first three consonants of the oblique forms of ''θaɣam xmōḫ'' "earth, Earth" to emphasize the nature of humans as "earthlings".  There is a term ''xāmātā́s xāmātṓḫ'' "humanity" that serves to identify the condition of being human (as opposed to that of a god or animal), with pre-form *dʰǵʰm̥mn̥teh₂t-s. also > Elder Nordic ''gumuntāt''.
''monuš'' is the basic word for "human" in Northian, and it frequently appears as the principal to the adposition ''θxāmō'' "earthling"It defines the human being as "the thinking one" or "one who remembers" and is formally very similar to the perfect active participle ''ménuš'' "remembering, recalling", from ''móna'' "to remember". ''monuš'' defines mankind in opposition to beasts, and ''θxāmō'' in opposition to gods.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="3"| ha xāmō, "human" = ''homo''
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|xāmō ||rowspan="3"| xāminōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| xāminiš
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| xāmón
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| xāminəm || xāminā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| xmānōḫ || xmānōš || xmānõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| xmaēnin || xmānō || xmāŋhū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| xmānei̯ ||rowspan="2"| xmānmō ||rowspan="2"| xmānmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| xmāna
|}


====''dā̊'' "house"====
The word ''monuš'' has two competing etymologies: some stress its connection to the o-grade of the PEE root *men- "to think", thus characterizing the human being as a characteristically intelligent being, and others provide a more mundane connection to the very basic Nordic word ''mannuz'' "male, man"These etymologies are not necessarily incompatible. ''mannuz'' is obligatorily male in Elder Nordic and all its descendants, but ''monuš'' can be female in Northian, though the feminine form ''mnuuozərə'' < putative *mn-u-és-r̥ is more commonly seen with women.  The feminine participle form of the verb ''mona'' is ''ménuuī''.
''dā̊'' is a root noun ending in -mThe nom., acc., and gen. sing. forms are alike in Northian, but they have different sources in the proto-language.  The accusative singular was likely *dom-m̥ and was simplified by {{wp|Stang's law}} to *dōm early; this was identical to the nominative form.  The genitive singular may reflect either *dom-s or *dem-s.  The latter would reflect a very archaic *e ~ o ablaut pattern, but it cannot be confirmed as the two did not have different Northian reflexes.  Nevertheless, its presence in the compound ''déṃpśpatōi̯š'' and loc. and dat. sing. ''démi'' assures that e-vocalism was present somewhere, at some point, in the paradigm.


{| class="wikitable"
''monuš'' takes the oxytone declension in u-stem, gen. ''mŋʷuuōḫ'', e.g. GNr. ''yōrō mnuuōḫ'' "a person's lifetime".
|-
!rowspan="2"|  !!colspan="3"| hā dā̊, "house"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| dā̊ ||rowspan="3"| doma ||rowspan="2"| domiš
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| dõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| dā̊ || domā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| dā̊ || domuš || domõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| demi || domū || doṃśū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
|rowspan="2"| domma ||rowspan="2"| dommuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| doma
|}
 
====''potiš'' "master" in compounds====
The word *potiš "lord, master" has OX-B inflection.  As a word it is not seen alone but does serve as the second element in the terms ''déṃpśpatiš'' "master of the house" and ''uuei̯xšpatiš'' "lord of the settlement".  The word can sometimes appear with the o-grade suffix, e.g. ''déṃpśpatōiš''.
 
While the root *potiš is not seen independently, the feminine -īḥ derivative ''potnīḥ'' is used as part of certain goddesses' titles; there, the full grade root is invariant.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha déṃpśpatiš, "master of the house" = δεσπότης
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| déṃpśpatiš ||rowspan="3"| déṃpśpačiiāḥ ||rowspan="2"| déṃpśpačiiāḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| déṃpśpatai
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| déṃpśpatim || déṃpśpatī
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| déṃpśpatiiāḫ || déṃpśpatiyōš || déṃpśpačiiõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| déṃpśpati || déṃpśpatiyō || déṃpśpatištū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| déṃpśpačiiai || rowspan="2"| déṃpśpatimō ||rowspan="2"| déṃpśpatimuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| déṃpśpačiiāḥ
|}
 
====''žiiaōš'' "god, sky"====
This word ''žiiaōš'' is a direct cognate with several theonyms across the Erani-Eracuran family.  The original *ew was transformed to *aw (written ''aō'') after yod.  Under the influence of that phone, the initial obstruent was palatalized to z, where it is otherwise preserved before vocalic i.  There is an alternate nom. form ''žiiōš'', which may either be a contraction or a reflex of *dyou̯-s, the o-grade of the same root.  The acc. sing. ''žiiā̊'' is a product of {{wp|Stang's law}}, which requires the sequence of *dyeu̯-m to be simplified to *dyēm; this sequence is attested in virtually all branches and is assumed to be old.  ''žiiā̊'' is cognate to Syaran ''Ζῆν''.
 
''žiiaōš'' often co-occurs with the epithet ''ufšištōḫ'' "highest" as ''ufšištoz-diiaōš'' "Heaven Most High", in much the same way as ''fərətištā-taɣam'' "Earth Most Broad".  These compounds, other than being appellations of their titular deities, were also used of their agents.  [[Aithar]], the god of numina, is almost always accompanied by the epithet ''ufšištṓiia-diuuō'' "of Heaven Most High".  After Aithar, the pantheon of [[Valstígr]] was also called ''āhaṓuuāḫ põm ufšištṓiia diuuō'', "Lords of Powers and Heaven-Most-High", defining them as celestial, rather than chthonic, deities.
 
It is to note that the epithet ''ufšištōḫ'' "highest" does ''not'' carry the implication that the god is highest in rank or power, at least in the Galic and Didaskalic corpora.  The idea of a deity that is supreme over other deities was not endorsed by the earlier Northians, and instead a god's supremacy was envisioned more as "excellence" or "extremity", or simply the quality or domain assigned to that god in a superlative, peerless state.  Thus in Northian theology, Ziiaōš was the highest, and θaɣam the broadest, and the two are both peerless in the qualities recognized in them.  But, being differently or oppositely characterized, they partake in nothing in common and thus could not compare with each other.  There thus could not exist a hierarchy between them.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha žiiaōš, "sky, Sky God"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| žiiaōš ||rowspan="3"| ziiauuōi ||rowspan="2"| ziiauuōḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| ziiaō
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| ziiā̊ || ziiauuā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| dūvōḫ || dūvōš || dūvõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| dūvəi̯ || dūvō || dūvštū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| rowspan="2"| dūvmō ||rowspan="2"| dūvmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| dī
|}
 
====''ošta'' "bone"====
''ošta'' has a stem ending in laryngeal, much like ''foṇδā̊'' and ''gā̊'', but the shape of its root prevented quantitative alterations.  The collective form ''oštō'' means "skeleton", of a living or deceased animal.  In the Didaskalic language, the plural form ''oštā'' is also known, and it means a plural number of bones.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| ha ošta, "bone" = ''os''
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|coll}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|rowspan="3"| ošta ||rowspan="3"| oštī ||rowspan="3"| oštō
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| oštiš || oštiyuš || oštõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| ošti || oštiyu || oštišū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| rowspan="2"| oštama ||rowspan="2"| oštamuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| oštā
|}
 
====''hazərə'' "hand"====
''hazərə'' is an OX noun in r-stem with the inverted declension, with a zero-grade in the nominative singular.  -ərə here is treated as a single, long syllable, representing Erani-Eracuran *-r̥.  That -ərə is a consonantal is elucidated by the reflex of *s as -z- and not -h-, which would be regular had -ərə been a vowel sound.  As with all nouns with inverted declension, the accusative is regarded as a weak case as to its appropriate stem, thus ''xšrə̄m'' over the expected *xšerəm; however, the syllable weight of the original is preserved in the long vowel of the ending.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| hā hazərə, "hand"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|rowspan="2"| hazərə ||rowspan="3"| xšerōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| xširiš
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| xšrə̄m || xšrā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| xšrōḫ || xšarōš || xšrõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| xšrei̯ || xšarō || xšərəšū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| rowspan="2"| xšərəmō ||rowspan="2"| xšərəmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| xšroi̯
|}
 
====''nō'' "man"====
An r-stem noun not within the formation -tr is ''nō'' "man", gen. ''drūš'' < PNN *nr̥s.  As it is seen this noun originally has hysterokinetic accent, but acc. sing. ''drum'' and pl. ''drāṇġ'' reflect PEE zero-grade stem *nr-.  Nom. pl. ''niriš'' is the only place where the full-grade stem appears in the paradigm.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"|ha nō, "man, male person"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|rowspan="2"|nō ||rowspan="3"| drōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| nei̯riš
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| drām ||  ndrā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| ndrōḫ || ndārōš || ndrõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| níri || ndārō || ndāršu
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| ndrei̯ ||rowspan="2"| dārmō ||rowspan="2"| dārmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| ndrōi̯
|}
 
====''monuš'' "man, human"====
''monuš'' is the basic word for "human" in Northian, and it frequently appears as the principal to the adposition ''θxāmō'' "earthling".  It defines the human being as "the thinking one" or "one who remembers" and is formally very similar to the perfect active participle ''ménuš'' "remembering, recalling", from ''móna'' "to remember".  ''monuš'' defines mankind in opposition to beasts, and ''θxāmō'' in opposition to gods.
 
The word ''monuš'' has two competing etymologies: some stress its connection to the o-grade of the PEE root *men- "to think", thus characterizing the human being as a characteristically intelligent being, and others provide a more mundane connection to the very basic Nordic word ''mannuz'' "male, man".  These etymologies are not necessarily incompatible.  ''mannuz'' is obligatorily male in Elder Nordic and all its descendants, but ''monuš'' can be female in Northian, though the feminine form ''mnuuozərə'' < putative *mn-u-ésr̥ is more commonly seen with women.
 
''monuš'' takes the oxytone declension in u-stem, gen. ''mŋʷuuōḫ'', e.g. GNr. ''yōrō mŋʷuuōḫ'' "a person's lifetime".
 
====Country names====
All country-names in Northian are feminine in gender, though they are usually consonant-stem nouns (and with particular frequency n-stem nouns) and so may not reflect their grammatical genders readily.  Nevertheless they agree with feminine adjectives and participles in all cases.  The feminine gender is employed as a feminine of the special collective, since a country is envisioned as a special aggregate of people, and not in reference to any perceived quality about the country's people and their habits.
 
"Acrea" is named ''Áṃśrā̊'', which is a compound from ''aṃśr-'' "lord" and ''rā̊'' "dominion", literally "the lord's realm"; gen. ''Áṃśriš''.
 
"[[Æþurheim]]", the name of the country to the southwest of [[Shalum]], has an invariant stem with full grade throughout and persistent initial accent in Áδurō-, which takes oxytone endings.  The vocative form is identical to the nominative, showing full grade. 
 
"Shalum" behaves in a manner more reminiscent of a regular n-stem noun in oxytone and has the expected endings and accentual positions, but the stem does not display apophony as is usual in this class of nouns.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !! hā Aδurā̊, "Æþurheim" !! hā Halā̊, "Shalum" !! sā Aṇhrōs, "Acrea" !! sā Silū, "Silua" !! sā Hu̯inī, "Svinia" !! sā Ossorī, "Ossoria"
|-
! style="width:9em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !! style="width:9em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !! style="width:9em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !! style="width:9em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !! style="width:9em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !! style="width:9em"| {{smallcaps|sing}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|rowspan="2"| Aδurā̊  ||rowspan="2"| Halā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| Aδurōnəm || Halomnam
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| Aδurōnōḫ || Halomnōḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| Aδureni || Halomini
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| Aδurōnei̯ || Halomnei̯
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| Aδurōna || Halomna
|}
 
==Adjectives==
 
===u-stem===
As mentioned above, there are three types of u-stem adjectives: some are sensitive only to animacy, having a two-way contrast between masculine and feminine referents together with neuter ones, and others have a three-way contrast.  Further, the ones with a three-way contrast are divided by their feminine forms, which could take the feminizing suffix *-h₂ directly after their stems ending in -u, or added *-i- to create the compound suffix *-w-ih₂ ~ -w-i̯eh₂ instead.  Note it is only the root and *-h₂- ~ -eh₂- suffix that participates in ablaut in feminine forms, and never *-u- ~ -eu̯- there.
 
Only the last type was productive in the Northian family, but there are many examples of inherited items in the former patterns.
 
====Oxytone====
Seen in the case of ''meδuš'' "sweet" and a handful of others.  These are usually held to be archaicisms as ''meδuš'' is obviously related to the neuter noun ''meδū'' "honey" (which is still attested as its neuter form), created by shifting its accent rightwards in internal derivation.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. and f. meδuš, "sweet" = μέθυ !!colspan="3"| n. meδū, "sweet"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| meδuš ||rowspan="3"| meδauuōi ||rowspan="2"| meδauuōḫ
|rowspan="3"| meδū  ||rowspan="3"| mežuuīḥ ||rowspan="3"| meδūḥ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| meδū
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| meδum || meδūš
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| ą̄mžuuōš || ą̄mdūvōš || ą̄mžuuõm
!colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| ą̄mžuuōi || ą̄mdūvō || ą̄mdūhū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| ą̄mžuuoi ||rowspan="2"| ą̄mdūma ||rowspan="2"| ą̄mdūmus
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| ą̄mžuuōi
|}
 
====Three-ending====
The type of u-stem adjective differs from the following type only in that the feminizing suffix was a bare *-h₂ ~ -eh₂, rather than the more common *-ih₂.  The strong feminine stem was thus from *tenuh₂, and the weak *tn̥weh₂-.  It is a rule that all the u-stem adjectives with feminine ending in -ūḥ show root ablaut.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. ϑanuš, "thin" = thin !!colspan="3"| n. ϑanū, "thin"  !!colspan="3"| f. ϑanūḥ, "thin" 
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| ϑanuš ||rowspan="3"| ϑánauua ||rowspan="2"| ϑánauuōḫ
|rowspan="3"| ϑanū  ||rowspan="3"| ϑánauuīḥ ||rowspan="3"| ϑanūḥ
|rowspan="2"| ϑanūḥ ||rowspan="3"| ϑánuuayīḥ ||rowspan="2"| ϑanuuōḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| ϑanū
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| ϑanā̊ || ϑanūš
| ϑanum || ϑanuuáā̊ḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| źnaōš || źnavuš || źnauuõm
! rowspan="4" colspan="3"|
| źnuuā̊ || źnuuāvuš || źnuuaą̄̊m
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| źnaō || źnavū || źnaōšū
| źnuuā || źnuuāvū || źnuuāzū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| źnauui ||rowspan="2"| źnaōma ||rowspan="2"| źnaōmuš
| źnuuayi ||rowspan="2"| źnuuāma ||rowspan="2"| źnuuāmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| źnō
| źnuuā
|}
 
The feminine forms of ''fərətūvīḥ'' "broad" < *pl̥tH-w-ih₂ are provided by way of illustration of the u-stem adjectives with feminine forms in -īḥ.  As a rule, the nominative singular shows the zero-grade root.  As an exception to ablaut behaviour expected under normal accentuation, some u-stem feminine adjectives have a "promoted" root syllable that shows full grade, i.e. ''fretūvīḥ'' as though < *pletH-w-ih₂, especially when speaking of personal entities.  Note that the oblique cases show the stem fərətūmβiia-, which represents *fr̥tiwya-, where the short i was altered to ū before w, generating a nasal in the process, and the w further became β when sandwiched between a nasal and a following approximant.  This series of alterations does not occur when the feminizing suffix is in the zero grade, which resolves into a vocalic i.
{| class="wikitable"
|- pltHu-iH pltHu-ieH-s feretūviia
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| f. fərətūvīḥ, "broad" = "flat"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|rowspan="2"| fərətūvīḥ ||rowspan="3"| fərətūmβiiayīḥ ||rowspan="2"| fərətūmβiiáā̊ḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| fərətūvī || fərətūviyā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| fərətūmβiiā̊ || fərətūmβiiāvuš || fərətūmβiiaą̄̊m
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| fərətūmβiiayi || fərətūmβiiāvū || fərətūmβiiāštū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
|rowspan="2"| fərətūmβiiāma ||rowspan="2"| fərətūmβiiāmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| fərətūmβiiā
|}
 
===i-stem===
The i-stem adjectives are not very common and all take the PX inflection.  For example is ''θraištiš'' "sad".
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. θraištiš, "sad" !!colspan="3"| n. θraišti, "sad"  !!colspan="3"| f. θrištayīḥ, "sad" 
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| θraištiš ||rowspan="3"| θraištī ||rowspan="2"| θráištaiiāḫ
|rowspan="3"| θraišti  ||rowspan="3"| θrištayīḥ ||rowspan="3"| θraištī
|rowspan="2"| θrištayīḥ ||rowspan="3"| θrištayīḥ ||rowspan="2"| θrištáyyaā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| θraišti
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| θraištin || θraištis
| θrištayī || θrištáyiyāḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| θrištaiš || θrištaiiuš ||θrištiõm
!colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
| θrištiyā̊ || θrištiyāvuš || θrištiyaą̄̊m
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
|rowspan="2"| θrištaiiai || θrištaiiū || θrištēšu
|rowspan="2"| θrištiyāyi || θrištiyāvū || θrištiyāźiiū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
|rowspan="2"| θrištaima ||rowspan="2"| θrištēmuš
|rowspan="2"| θrištiyāma ||rowspan="2"| θrištiyāmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| θrištaiiōi
| θrištiyā
|}
 
===nt-stem (adjectives)===
This stem shows two variants: the amphikinetic one has a zero-grade suffix, and the hysterokinetic one, an o-grade suffix.  The former type is recovered only from the frequent term ''hanūs'', from *ǵʰen-unt-s, "bearing value, honour", from *ǵʰen-, "esteem, honour". This word is used primarily of gods in their roles as sources of value (in objects) and honour (in persons). 
 
The co-ordinating term ''honōḫ'', cognate to Venetian ''honos'', in objects, means their worth, valuation, or function, and in persons, their position in public society.  A person's "worth" or "function" was evidently assessed by the role they play in society; thus, a person's ''honōḫ'' can mean either, literally, their profession or office, or, by extension, the esteem in which they are held, coming close to the modern meaning of "honour".  Hence, the ''fonδā̊ honáhāḫ'', literally "path of honour", names the priesthood, as the sacerdotal profession was evidently one of the earliest to receive general accreditation in Northian culture, cp. the ''cursus honorum'' "course of honours" in Venetian culture.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. and n. hanūs, "bearing value, honour" !!colspan="3"|  f. jñuuáṇδīḥ
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| hanūs ||rowspan="3"| hanuṇδōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| hanuṇδiš ||rowspan="2"| jñuuáṇδīḥ ||rowspan="3"| jñuuáṇźiiayīḥ ||rowspan="2"| jñuuáṇźiiaā̊ḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| hanuṇ
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| hanuṇδəm || hanuṇδā̊  || jñuuáṇźiiā̊ḫ || jñuuáṇδī
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
|jñuuātōḫ || jñuuātōš || jñuuātõm ||jñuuāčiiā̊ || jñuuāčiiāvuš || jñuuāčiiāą̄̊m
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| jñuuoṇδi || jñuuātō || jñuuāštū || rowspan="2"|jñuuāčiiayi|| jñuuāčiiāvū || jñuuāčiiāhū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| jñuuātai ||  jñuuātmus || jñuuātmuš || rowspan="2"| jñuuāčiiāma || jñuuāčiiāmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| jñuuāta || jñuuātmōḥ || jñuuāϑβiiōḫ || jñuuāčiiā || jñuuāčiiāβiiōḫ
|}
 
===Present and aorist active participles in -nt-===
Present and aorist verb-stems form an active participle with the suffix -nt.  For thematic verbs, the suffix is -ont.  The weak stem of the verb is used where it is present, so from the copula ''es'' the active participle is ''hą̄s'' from PNN *hants < PEE *h₁(e)sn̥ts.  The vowel is nasalized in the masculine nominative singular but not in the neuter or feminine, suggesting that the cluster *-nt-s had probably been resolved first as *-ns-s prehistorically.
 
Many state the full-grade stem would have been used originally in all direct forms, since their endings are uniformly in zero grade.  But the zero-grade stem is found in the oldest received texts, and metrical restoration does not reveal any additional syllables that diagnose the strong (syllabic) stem. Thus if the strong stem was once used, it was replaced in a remote time.  On the other hand, the full-grade stem *-ent- is visible in the nominative dual and plural, and it has been argued its selective replacement in the nominative singular and accusative would be rather bizarre.  Thus, the forms with zero-grade suffix may also be old.
 
The feminine participle takes the like stem and adds the feminizing suffix -ī(ị)- ~ -i̯ā-.  The neuter direct dual and plural forms fail to trigger the full-grade suffix and are in zero grade, contrary to the forms of the masculine and feminine duals and plurals.  The nominative dual feminine form ''hātīịāḥ'' shows an unexpected long vowel in the suffix where a short vowel is expected.  Possibly the long vowel was borrowed from the singular to differentiate the dual from the plural, which had become identical (in at least some dialects that did not distinguish front and back ''a'' in final position).
 
Verbs which have mobile accent in the weak forms also have mobile accent in the participle.  The ending is in full grade in the oblique cases (in all genders).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. hą̄s, "being" !!colspan="3"| n. hāt, "being"  !!colspan="3"|  f. hātī, "being"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| hą̄s ||rowspan="3"| hanδōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| haą̄nδiš ||rowspan="3"| hāt ||rowspan="3"| hātī ||rowspan="3"| hātā ||rowspan="2"| hātī ||rowspan="3"| hātīịāḥ ||rowspan="2"| hātiịāḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| hāt 
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| hātam || hātaṇġ  || hātiịām || hātiịāṇġ
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| haą̄nδi || hātō || hą̄tšu
!colspan="3" rowspan="5"| = masc. 
| hą̄či̯ā || hą̄či̯aō || hą̄či̯āhu
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
|rowspan="2"| hātōḫ || hātōš || hātõm ||rowspan="2"| hą̄či̯ā̊ḫ || hą̄či̯aōš || hą̄či̯aõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}
|rowspan="2"| hāsmō || hāšmi̯āu̯ || rowspan="2"|hą̄či̯amo  || hą̄či̯āmi̯āu̯
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| hātei̯ ||  hāšmus ||  hą̄či̯åi̯ || hą̄či̯āmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| hāta || hāšmi̯ā || hāšmi̯āu̯ || hą̄či̯ā̊i || hą̄či̯āmi̯ā || hą̄či̯āmi̯āu̯
|}
 
Verbs which take a persistent accent, such as the s-stem aorist and present and some reduplicated present verbs, also form a participle with persistent accent. Despite appearances, the feminine forms of the PP participle is formed with the same feminizing suffix as the OX participles, except it remains in zero-grade throughout the entire paradigm, e.g. gen. sing. ''deδātīš'' < *de-dh₃-n̥t-ih₁-s.  As is the usual case with this suffix, if the ending began with a vowel the final laryngeal scanned with the following syllable and does not lengthen the preceding vowel in the suffix; otherwise, the suffix appears as long -ī.  In late Galic texts, this participle could also appear with a -ū̆ suffix in the dative singular, such as G. 4435, ''deδāδuu̯i'', "to the giveress".
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. deδāt, "giving" !!colspan="3"| n. deδāt, "giving"  !!colspan="3"|  f. dedātī, "giving"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
|rowspan="2"| deδāt ||rowspan="3"| deδāta ||rowspan="2"| deδātiš ||rowspan="3"| deδāt ||rowspan="3"| deδātī ||rowspan="3"| deδāta ||rowspan="2"| deδātī ||rowspan="3"| deδātīịa ||rowspan="2"| deδātiịāḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| deδātam || deδātaṇġ  || deδātiịām || deδātiịāṇġ
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| deδaą̄δi || deδātū || deδāššū
! colspan="3" rowspan="5"| = masc. 
| deδātī || deδātiịū || deδātīšu
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
|rowspan="2"| deδą̄s || deδātuš || deδātõm ||rowspan="2"| deδātīš || deδātiịuš || deδātiịõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|abl}}
|rowspan="2"| deδāšma || deδāšmi̯āu̯ || rowspan="2"| deδātīma || deδātīmi̯āu̯
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| deδāti ||  deδāšmus || deδātiịi || deδātīmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| deδāta || deδāšmi̯ā || deδāšmi̯āu̯ || deδātīịa || deδātīmi̯ā || deδātīmi̯āu̯
|}
 
===es-stems===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. and f. huménōḫ, "well-intended" !!colspan="3"| n. hāminiš, "well-intended" 
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| humenāḫ ||rowspan="3"| humenahōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| humenišiš
|rowspan="3"| humeniš  ||rowspan="3"| humenahī ||rowspan="3"| humenaza
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| huméniš
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| humenizam || huménizaṇġ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| humenahōḫ || humenizōš || humenahõm
! colspan="3" rowspan="4"| = m. and f.
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| huminiš || humenizō || humeništū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| humenahai̯ ||rowspan="2"| humenizmō ||rowspan="2"| humenizmus
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| humenahōi̯
|}
 
===Perfect active participle in -u̯os-===
The perfect active participle, which was very productive in Galic down to Epic times, was formed by an ablauting suffix -u̯ōs- ~ -u̯os- ~ -uš- to the zero grade of the perfect stem.  The nom. sing. of the masculine has the lengthened-grade ending -u̯ōs-, and full-grade -u̯os- appears in other direct forms.  The zero-grade ending -uš- manifests elsewhere in the masculine and neuter.  The feminine participle added the -īḥ- ~ -i̯ā- suffix to the zero grade -uš- of the perfect active participle suffix.  Thus, all the suffixes would be in zero-grade in the nominative singular of the feminine and neuter, and so the accent retracts to stand on the reduplication syllable; that retraction usually prevents initial *e- from weakening to i- (as seen below).
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. βiβižuuā̊, "sympathetic" = πεποιθώς !!colspan="3"| n. βiβižuuōḫ, "sympathetic" !!colspan="3"|  f. βiβiδuštīḥ, "sympathetic"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| βiβižuuā̊ ||rowspan="3"| βiβižuuóhōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| βiβižuuóhiš
|rowspan="3"| βiβižuuōḫ  ||rowspan="3"| βiβižuuóhī ||rowspan="3"| βiβižuuóha
|rowspan="2"| βiβiδuštīḥ ||rowspan="3"| βiβiδuźiiā ||rowspan="2"| βiβiδuźiiáā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| βéβižuuōḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| βiβižuuozəm || βiβižuuózā̊
| βiβiδuźiiā̊ || βiβiδuźiiaā
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| βiβiδuštōḫ || βiβiδuźiiōš || βiβiδuštõm
! colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
| βiβiδuźiiā̊ || βiβiδuźiiāouš || βiβiδuźiiāõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| βiβiδušti || βiβiδuźiiō || βiβiδuštū
| rowspan="2"| βiβiδuźiiayi || βiβiδuźiiāoū || βiβiδuźiiazū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| βiβiδuštei̯ ||rowspan="2"| βiβiδužma ||rowspan="2"| βiβiδužmuš
| rowspan="2"| βiβiδuźiiāma ||rowspan="2"| βiβiδuźiiāmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| βiβiδuštōi̯
| βiβiδuźiiā
|}
 
While this paradigm may appear somewhat confusing, there are only two stems.  The strong stem is βiβižuuós-, with final -s altered to -št before other vowels and to -ž before resonants.  The weak stem is βiβiδuš-, with final -š altered to -ž before resonants, including the laryngeal that begins the dual gen. and dat. endings.  If the resonant has a vowel inserted, the -ž is appended with -ii- and further becomes to -ź.  The nom. sing. of the masculine has the long grade -uuā̊ < *-ōs.
 
As exceptions to this rule, the perfect active participles of ''wōiδa'' "know" and ''mimóna'' "remember" have nominative singular forms ''wāiδuš, wāiδū, wāiδuštīḥ'' and ''menuš'' (similar) respectively.  These are probably continuations of the original amphikinetic inflection of perfect active participles, with full-grade root for nominative forms.  Other members of their class have evolved to take the hysterokinetic pattern, which have an non-ablauting root.  Curiously, the participle of ''mimóna'' loses its reduplication—some scholars have taken this as an indication that perfect active participles may have originally been unreduplicated, as an independent formation from the e-grade root and not from the perfect verb stem.
 
===Comparatives in -yos-===
Many (but not all) adjectives formed comparative forms with the suffix -i̯os- ~ -iš-.  Unlike the perfect active participle, the comparative form does not have a distinct feminine form; otherwise, the distribution of strong and weak forms of the stem are exactly the same. 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. and f. xréčiiā̊, "more powerful" = κρείττων !!colspan="3"| n. xrétiš, ''id''
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| xréčiiā̊ ||rowspan="3"| xréčiioha ||rowspan="2"| xréčiiohiš
|rowspan="3"| xratiš  ||rowspan="3"| xréčiiohī ||rowspan="3"| xréčiiažiia
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| xréčiiōḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| xréčiiaham || xrétiźiiā̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| xrétištōḫ || xrétiźiiōš || xrétištõm
! rowspan="4" colspan="3"| = m.
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| xréčiiā || xrétiźiiō || xrétištū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| xrétištei̯ ||rowspan="2"| xrétižmō ||rowspan="2"| xrétižmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| xrétištōi̯
|}
 
It should be noted that the -yos- adjectives can lean more towards the sense of "quite so", rather than "more so" than a particular object compared to.  Thus, for certain adjectives, two separate comparatives with contrastive meanings are in use, e.g. ''yəuuā̊'' "quite young, younger" vs. ''yuterōḫ'' "the younger of two siblings".  Where an adjective implies a definite comparative standard, the forms in -ter- are more often encountered.
 
And like the perfect active participle, there is a variation of the comparative suffix that has amphikinetic form, i.e. zero-grade suffix in the nominative, used in adjectives such as ''máɣis'' "larger" and ''foris'' "more"; note the non-retroflexed -s of the ending < *máɣis-s, with prehistorically restored nominative *-s, as otherwise the masculine and feminine would be identical to the neuter.
 
===r/n-stem===
This class of adjectives were principally derived from the heteroclitics neuter nouns.  The neuter singular was identical to the heteroclitic noun. The masculine was formed as an n-stem, while the feminine was formed as with the suffix -ih₂ from the zero grade of the neuter stem.  The example provided included the petrified suffix *-wr ~ wn-, but other adjectives of this class could include other suffixes such as *-mr ~ mn- and *-tr ~ tn-, with their associated phonetic peculiarities.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. fīuuō, "fat" = fat !!colspan="3"| n. faiuuərə !!colspan="3"|  f. fūvurīḥ
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| fīuuō ||rowspan="3"| fīuuonōi̯ ||rowspan="2"| fīuuoniš
|rowspan="3"| faiuuərə ||rowspan="3"| faiiurīḥ ||rowspan="3"| faiuuā̊
|rowspan="2"| fūvurīḥ ||rowspan="3"| fūvuriiāḥ ||rowspan="2"| fūvuriiaāḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| fīuuon
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| fīuuonām || fīuuonāṇġ
| fūvuriiā̊ || fūvuriyāḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| fūvunōḫ || fūvunōš || fūvunõm
!colspan="3" rowspan="4"|
| fūvuriiā̊ || fūvuriiāous || fūvuriiaõm
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| fūvoīni || fūvunō || fivəŋhū
|rowspan="2"| fūvuriiāyi || fūvuriiāoū || fūvuriiāzū
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| fūvunei̯ ||rowspan="2"| fūvunmō ||rowspan="2"| fūvunmuš
|rowspan="2"| fūvuriiāma ||rowspan="2"| fūvuriiāmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| fūvunōi̯
| fūvuriiā
|}
 
===''mahiš''===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. mahiš, "large" !!colspan="3"| n. maha, "large" !!colspan="3"|  f. mahii̯āḫ, "large"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| mahiš ||rowspan="3"| maɣā ||rowspan="2"| maɣāḫ
|rowspan="3"| maha  ||rowspan="3"| mahīḥ ||rowspan="3"| mahīḥ
|rowspan="2"| mahīḥ ||rowspan="3"| mahīi̯a ||rowspan="2"| mahii̯āḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| maɣā
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| maɣåm || maɣåṇġ
| mahīi̯am || mahii̯āṇġ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| āmhōḫ || āmhōš || āmhõ
!colspan="3" rowspan="4"| = m.
| āmjii̯āu̯ || āmjii̯āu̯uš || āmjii̯ā
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| āmha || āmhō || āmhšu
| āmjii̯ā || āmjii̯āu̯u || āmjii̯āhu
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| āmhei̯ ||rowspan="2"| āmhmō ||rowspan="2"| āmhmuš
| āmjii̯ai̯i ||rowspan="2"| āmjii̯āma ||rowspan="2"| āmjii̯āmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| āmhōi̯
| āmjii̯å
|}
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. mahii̯āu̯, "larger" !!colspan="3"| n. mahii̯ōḫ, "larger" !!colspan="3"|  f. mahii̯ahīḥ, "larger"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| mahii̯āu̯ ||rowspan="3"| mahii̯oha ||rowspan="2"| mahii̯ohiš
|rowspan="3"| mahii̯ōḫ  ||rowspan="3"|mahii̯ohī ||rowspan="3"| mahii̯oha
|rowspan="2"| mahii̯ahīḥ ||rowspan="3"|mahii̯ahīi̯a ||rowspan="2"| mahii̯ahii̯āḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| mahii̯ōḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| mahii̯āham || mahii̯ohāṇġ
| āmjii̯ahīi̯am || āmjii̯ahīi̯aṇġ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| āmjihōḫ ||āmjihōš ||āmjihõ
! rowspan="4" colspan="3"| = m.
| āmjii̯ahi̯āu̯ ||āmjii̯ahi̯āu̯uš ||āmjii̯ahi̯ą̄̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| mahii̯ahi ||āmjihō ||āmjihššu
|āmjii̯ahi̯āḥ ||āmjii̯ahi̯āu̯u ||āmjii̯ahi̯āhu
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| āmjihei̯ ||rowspan="2"|āmjihmō ||rowspan="2"|āmjihmuš
| āmjii̯ahi̯ai̯i ||rowspan="2"|āmjii̯ahi̯āma ||rowspan="2"|āmjii̯ahi̯āmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| āmjihōi̯
| āmjii̯ahi̯å
|}
 
===''poluš''===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. poluš, "many" !!colspan="3"| n. polu, "many" !!colspan="3"|  f. polūḥ, "many"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| poluš ||rowspan="3"| maɣā ||rowspan="2"| maɣāḫ
|rowspan="3"| polu  ||rowspan="3"| mahīḥ ||rowspan="3"| mahīḥ
|rowspan="2"| polūḥ ||rowspan="3"| mahīi̯a ||rowspan="2"| mahii̯āḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| maɣā
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| maɣåm || maɣåṇġ
| mahīi̯am || mahii̯āṇġ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| āmhōḫ || āmhōš || āmhõ
!colspan="3" rowspan="4"| = m.
| āmjii̯āu̯ || āmjii̯āu̯uš || āmjii̯ā
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| āmha || āmhō || āmhšu
| āmjii̯ā || āmjii̯āu̯u || āmjii̯āhu
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| āmhei̯ ||rowspan="2"| āmhmō ||rowspan="2"| āmhmuš
| āmjii̯ai̯i ||rowspan="2"| āmjii̯āma ||rowspan="2"| āmjii̯āmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| āmhōi̯
| āmjii̯å
|}
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"| !!colspan="3"| m. mahii̯āu̯, "more" !!colspan="3"| n. mahii̯ōḫ, "more" !!colspan="3"|  f. mahii̯ahīḥ, "more"
|-
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
!  style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|sing}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|du}} !!style="width:7em"| {{smallcaps|pl}}
|-
! {{smallcaps|nom}}
| mahii̯āu̯ ||rowspan="3"| mahii̯oha ||rowspan="2"| mahii̯ohiš
|rowspan="3"| mahii̯ōḫ  ||rowspan="3"|mahii̯ohī ||rowspan="3"| mahii̯oha
|rowspan="2"| mahii̯ahīḥ ||rowspan="3"|mahii̯ahīi̯a ||rowspan="2"| mahii̯ahii̯āḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|voc}}
| mahii̯ōḫ
|-
! {{smallcaps|acc}}
| mahii̯āham || mahii̯ohāṇġ
| āmjii̯ahīi̯am || āmjii̯ahīi̯aṇġ
|-
! {{smallcaps|gen}}
| āmjihōḫ ||āmjihōš ||āmjihõ
! rowspan="4" colspan="3"| = m.
| āmjii̯ahi̯āu̯ ||āmjii̯ahi̯āu̯uš ||āmjii̯ahi̯ą̄̊
|-
! {{smallcaps|loc}}
| mahii̯ahi ||āmjihō ||āmjihššu
|āmjii̯ahi̯āḥ ||āmjii̯ahi̯āu̯u ||āmjii̯ahi̯āhu
|-
! {{smallcaps|dat}}
| āmjihei̯ ||rowspan="2"|āmjihmō ||rowspan="2"|āmjihmuš
| āmjii̯ahi̯ai̯i ||rowspan="2"|āmjii̯ahi̯āma ||rowspan="2"|āmjii̯ahi̯āmuš
|-
! {{smallcaps|ins}}
| āmjihōi̯
| āmjii̯ahi̯å
|}


==Adverbs==
==Adverbs==
Line 2,459: Line 1,714:
==See also==
==See also==
*[[Northian language]]
*[[Northian language]]
*[[Northian grammar]]
**[[Northian verbs]]
**[[Northian adjectives]]


[[Category:DNS]]
[[Category:DNS]]

Latest revision as of 00:21, 3 March 2024

Northian nominals are the nouns, adjectives, and some adverbs of the Northian language.

History

The Northian noun classes were named by Praetorianus of Duuora (c. 950? – 1027) in his studies on Galic language. Praetorianus was descended from Æþurian settlers who populated the north of the modern Northern States in the course of the 8th and 9th centuries. From a family seeking to build relations with the more southerly cities of Northian heritage, he was sent to take holy orders in the city of Cleiden at the age of 16; he first spent four years acquiring the Galic language before joining the order of training-priests and then graduating to an under-priest in 978, the first firm date of his biography. He celebrated his promotion as plenary priest in 993 with a large banquet for over 100 guests.

Later in life, he published in West Nordic on his priestly career, in which a full third was spent describing the way the language was taught in Cleiden. He engaged in an early form of comparative linguistics and identified many cognate words in Elder Nordic and Galic Northian. For example he said sunuz was the same as huiiuš and furthermore all genitives ending in -auz in Nordic ended in -ō in Northian. He did not discover any evolutionary principles between the two languages, considering them the same language, and instead attributed the difference to speech speed, as according to him, -auz spoken quickly was the same as -ō. In his effort to describe Northian, he summarized the various noun paradigms under the heading of an exemplar, which is still followed in modern education and called elsewhere the Praetorianian caput.

The pre-praetorianian method of language instruction followed the order of words in which they were encountered in the Gales, which intermixed the different parts of speech.

Stem types

-C -t -m -n -r -s -i -u -H -r/n -nt
OX-B About 80 root nouns and suffixed nouns in -k, -l, -ns, -d, etc., fos = "foot", = "heart" A few in -ōs, nepōs "child"; -it melit "honey"; -ut xaput "head" About 20 feminine, in -ō or -am, xay-ō "winter" Many, in -ō and -ə̄, often binds m-, s-, t-, i-, u-, H-, θxām-ō "human" haz-r "arm" and personal, feminizing suffix -ez-r A handful in -ā̊, awšt-ā̊ "dawn"; the perf. act. ptcpl. wayδuš "knowing" Some in -ō and -iš, hak-ō "friend, ally", ow-iš = "ewe"; neuter var. in -ai, oxϑ-ay "finger" A few dozen in -ōš or -uš, han-uš "jaw" Some in -ī, wrk-ī "wolfess" A handful in -ū, ϑen-ū "body" fənδōy, "path" Derived coll. of heteroclitics, in -r ~ n-, ō-grade in nom. > -ā̊   A few in -āṯ, dāṯ = "tooth"  
OX-A No Productive suffix -tāt-, āβr-tās "immortality" and -tūt-, wəš-tūs "moistness" No Productive, in -ṓ and -ā̊ Productive through agentive -ter, duhiϑ-ṓ "daughter" Productive, comparatives in -yā̊- maz-yā̊ "bigger", perf. act. ptcpl. in -wā̊-, βeβiž-wā̊ "trusting" Verbal nouns, middle, in -doi, št-oi "an eating" Certain denominal nouns, in -ṓ, piϑr-ṓ "uncle" Non-ablauting feminine derivatives in -ī́ No Certain nouns in -dōy, žβā-dōi "libation-giver" No Productive pres. aor. act. ptcpl. of thematic verbs, in -ās hadáʸy-ās "sitting"
PX No No No Productive, neuter var. of OX n-stems, exhibiting same bound suffixes yāϑr, "husband's sister" Productive, neuter var. of OX s-stems, in -ō; neβ-ō "cloud", xrat-ō "power" Productive, animate in -iš, action nouns -tiš, zāt-iš "a step"; neuter in -i, mər-i "sea" Productive, animate in -uš, wiš-t-úš "witness"; neuter in -ū, oii-ū "life" Proliferate suffix deriving feminines in -ī; geniϑr-ī "genitrix" Same as -ī but more common in adjectives, in -ū; hozr-ū "mother-in-law" bā̊ "wife" Neuter, in -r ~ n- suffix, yaH-arə "year"; more in -tr, -mr, -zr No
PP About 30 root and suffixed nouns in obstruent stems nox-ṯ "night", haš-ṯ "bed", xom-d "hand" tā̊ "house" Extended with -n-s, maHā "moon" māϑ-r "mother", βrāϑ-r "brother" zraw-š "gore" aŋhi "serpent" Neuter nouns in -ū, gon-ū "knee", wəšt-ū "settlement" Feminine pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, déδāṯīš "of the giveress" No A few, particularly neuter in -i, ošti "bone" A few, in -r ~ n-, f-ō "shrine" A few nouns; pres. aor. act. ptcpl. with static accent, déδāṯ "giving"

As appears from this schematic, most suffixes are associated with more than one accentual pattern. But even in Galic, the majority of suffixes have only one productive accentual pattern or separate productive patterns associated with masculine-feminine gender and neuter gender (the case of the n-stems and s-stems). Additionally, some suffixes are only productive through petrified compounds, which tended to be hysterokinetic and have invariant stems, such as the comparative in -yā̊- and perfect active participle in -wā̊-; otherwise, the s-stems in amphikinetic is non-productive.

Where there are multiple productive accentuation patterns, neuter nouns are almost always identified with the proterokinetic pattern, and masculine-feminine with the hysterokinetic or amphikinetic. The exception is for i-stems and u-stems, wherein proterokinetic accentuation is standard, and particularly productive through the compound with -t.

As is generally observed across all the Erani-Eracuran daughter languages, the suffixes ending in resonants and semivowels, i.e. n-, i-, and u-stems, tend to be productive over the suffixes in stops. There is some speculation why this is the case, one theory being the resonants were able to be vocalized as syllables and thus did not produce illegal clusters of consonants, given the tendency to delete vowels in unaccent positions. It is argued that the compound suffixes, which often mix one stop and one resonant are the results of transferrals from suffixes in stops to those in resonants; if so, these transferrals must have occurred quite early, as their older siblings in stops generally do not leave visible remnants in attested languages.

Unlike verbal formations, where suffixes often have specific meanings and exist as part of the standard morphology of verbs, the meanings of noun suffixes are barely if at all recoverable. Synchronically, there is no obvious meaning to most of the suffixes present in Galic, even the productive ones, above a rudimentary association with certain parts of speech from which a noun is derived. For example, the -tiš nouns most often are nomina actionis derived from verbs, -tuš having a similar function, -tāt and -tūt deriving states of being, but there is no comparable explanation for their common constituent -t-, which appears as an independent suffix in nouns like haš-t and nep-ot.

Root nouns ending in stops

The category of consonant-stems consist only of those that end in -p and -k, and all are root nouns, as apparently the parent language did not have any suffixes that ended in *-p or *-k, with one exception for the adjective meraxš "soft". There are two ablaut-cum-accent patterns attested in these nouns: one is static on the root syllable, and another shifts to the ending in oblique cases. The static accent is generally (but not universally) seen with the lengthening of the root syllable in direct cases. Phonetically, the obstruents p- and k- are rarely subject to alteration, except before the nom. sing. ending -s where they become fricativized to f- and x-, respectively.

The noun āfš < PEE *h₂ēp-s "river" is often the poster-boy of the Northian nouns due to its straightforward forms and clear ablaut alteration between ā ~ a. Here we also encounter the first diachronic variation: in the Didaskalic Material (noted in small type dm) the long grade is deployed only in the nominative singular, since the long grade was more typically associated with that desinence by way of the much commoner amphikinetic and hysterokinetic nouns. Theoretically, given this tendency, we should also expect the DM to yield nom. du. *apa with the short grade of the stem, but that cannot be confirmed either way as it is not attested there (also noted for interest). In the plural, there is attested a separate collective apō "the divine waters", which has singular number and no separate accusative form.

ap "force" is used for neuter nouns, displaying PEE e ~ Ø ablaut > Galic o ~ Ø. Forms with initial b- are due to vocalization of initial *p-.

hā āfš, "river" θaṯ op, "force"
sing du pl sing du pl
nom āfš āpi
dm ?
āpaŋhā op opī opi
voc ap
acc āba
dm apa
abā̊
gen afš apuš apõm bōš bõm
loc api apū apšū opi fštū
dat afma afmuš βmō βmuš
ins api dm aōβiiōḫ bōi βžβiiōḫ

t-stems

Ablauting nouns

The stems ending in -t comprise both of root nouns and suffixed nouns. They are underlyingly the same as other obstruent stems but are distinguished in that final -s is preserved in the nominative case, at the expense of *-t-. t-stems not part of a compound suffix such as -tāt- and -tūt- are rare and are descended mainly from the amphikinetic ablaut type.

nēpōs "grandchild" has the stem nep-ot-, where the suffix undergoes ablaut to zero grade in the oblique cases as *nep-t- > nef-θ-.

ha nēpōs, "grandchild"
sing du pl
nom nēpōṯ nepotōi neptaHā
voc
acc nepotā neptā
gen āptō neptō neptõm
loc nepeti nefšu
dat neptā neptmō nepšmuš
ins nepti

Non-ablauting animates

The PEE suffix *-teh₂ts created nouns of states of being. Inherited examples are mainly of hysterokinetic origin, which had the zero grade of the root, but later creations may bind the full grade. The suffix is non-ablauting and takex oxytone endings. The following example has many cognates in EE languages and is from a common root *n̥-mr̥teh₂ts > Galic āmarətāṯ.

hā āmarətāṯ, "immortality"
sing du pl
nom āmarətāṯ āmarətāϑōi āmarətāϑaHā
voc
acc āmarətāϑa āmarətāϑā̊
gen āmarətāϑō āmarətāϑō āmarətāϑõm
loc āmarətāϑi āmarətāštū
dat āmarətāϑā āmarətāsmō āmarətāsmuš
ins āmarətāϑōi

Neuters

This group of neuter nouns combines suffix -t with a semivowel (-it or -ut) or resonant (-n̥t). Neither the stem nor suffix displays ablaut, and accent is persistent over the root.

hā melit, "honey"
sing du pl
nom melit melitī meliti
voc
acc
gen melitō melitō melitam
loc melit melištū
dat melitā melismō melismuš
ins meliti
hā kaput, "head"
sing du pl
nom kaput kaputī kaputi
voc
acc
gen kaputō kaputō kaputam
loc kaput kapušū
dat kaputā kapusmō kapusmuš
ins kaputōi

The term ezat has the zero-grade of the stem *-nt. This word is an apparent exception to Cloverdale's law, as the suffix always appears written short, regardless of the quantity of the preceding vowel.

hā ezat, "food"
sing du pl
nom ezat ezatī kaputi
voc
acc
gen ezatō ezatō ezatam
loc ezat ezašū
dat ezatā ezasmō ezasmuš
ins ezatōi

hašt and non-ablauting items

These are t-stem nouns with acrostatic inflection. The nominative was evidently asigmatic < *ses-t, from *ses- "to rest". The genitive haš must represent *has-t-s, the final consonant cluster being resolved in favour of *s.

hā hašt, "bed"
sing du pl
nom hašt hašti haštā
voc
acc hašta
gen haš haštuš haštõm
loc hašti haštū hašū
dat haštmō haštmuš
ins

Interestingly, the dual hašti is more frequent than singular hašt and has singular meaning. It is possible that the singular had the sense of a bed-end rather than the entire bed.

The very well-attested word nōxt "evening, night" is usually thought to be a root noun with persistent accent on the initial syllable at the Proto-Erani-Eracuran level, but some authorities consider the root to be *(d)negʷ-, extended by the suffix -t-. Whatever the case in the parent language, the -t- never takes full grade even in the nom. du. and pl. Thus its behaviour is identical to that of hašt. xašt "hunger" is another word which is acrostatically accented; the expected form is *xošt, but the attested vowel is /a/, which may signify a (very) early borrowing from another Erani-Eracuran language that is not attested.

The word for "ten" in compounds of multiple of ten, e.g. twenty, thirty, etc. displays the zero grade and is apparently extended by suffix *-t, -tkaṯ < *-dḱm̥-t.

  • θrítkaṯ < *tri-dḱm̥-t, "thirty"
  • kóswr̥tkaṯ < *kʷetwr̥-dḱm̥-t, "forty"
  • patótkaṯ < *pn̥kʷe-dḱm̥-t, "fifty"
  • xšwáxštkaṯ < *ksweks-dḱm̥-t, "sixty"
  • háptatkaṯ < *septm̥-dḱm̥-t, "seventy"

nt-stems

The nt-stems are very closely associated with the formation of the present active participle in -nt-. But while participles are adjectives that have distinct gendered forms that agree with their principals, nt-stem nouns have the form of the masculine participle and a lexical gender (that is, the noun can have feminine gender but will always have the same inflectional endings as the masculine participle). In the following example, the oblique stem is from *h₁dn̥t-; as the vocalic *n̥ indeed follows two consonants, it is short by Cloverdale's law. In the acc pl, the -ā ending is for *-ah, which is regular following two consonants, disclosing the strong stem ending in *ent- that has been replaced by the oblique in at-.

hā dənt, "tooth"
sing du pl
nom dənt
lg dən
dəntōi dəntaHā
voc
acc dənta datā
gen datō datō datām
loc dənti
lg dati
daśtū
dat datā daśmō daśmuš
ins datōi

m-stems

This class is known from only a few but important nouns, e.g. ϑázā "earth, ground" and xaō "winter". All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only a few examples, this may not be a rule in the proto-language. The later the time period, the more the m-stem group tended to become merged with the n-stems, usually thought to be due to assimilation in some case-forms and the common irregular accusative that occurs in both groups and then generates similar results.

As Proto-Erani-Eracuran had a strict rule against geminates, the accusative morpheme *-m causes a geminate to occur in m-stems in both the singular and the plural. In the singular, the long vowel accusative results, while in the plural the sequence of *CVC-em-ms generated -ōi. This also happens to be evidence that the acc pl was originally a case with the strong stem, even though all attested m-stems terms have weak stem: only a full-grade suffix in this position could generate the required *-ē > -ōi.

ziiō

Outside of nouns, it is also known in numerals for 1, 7, and 10—hā̊ hafθa tezā—and the solitary adjective mərā "particulate, ground up". Some authorities believe many m-stems may have, during the time of the proto-language, been either remade to thematic neuters by the insertion of the theme vowel *e ~ o or had an additional *-n appended after *m-, giving rise to the multitude of n-stems of the -mn- type, wherein the -m- is of otherwise unexplained origin. But both hypotheses suffer from the mismatch of grammatical gender—virtually all m-stems in Erani-Eracuran languages are attested as feminine in gender, not neuter.

hā ziiō, "winter" = hiemps
sing du pl
nom ziiō ziiamōi ziiamaHā
voc ziiam
acc xaiiā̊ xaiiōi
gen ximō ximō ximām
loc ximām xīsū
dat ximā ximuš
ins ximōi ximβiyō

ϑázā

Most suffixed nouns with OX inflection have a long o-grade suffix in the nominative singular, cf. xaiiō, akin to the n-stems. Indeed, given phonetic change, *-ōm and *-ōn cannot be told apart, so it is possible this ending has been transported from the n-stems or generalized in the proto-language or later. Yet in the nom. sing. ϑázā xmō "earth" has an ultima reflecting a zero grade as in *dʰégʰ-m̥. Had the second vowel been a typical long o-grade, it would have become *ō and would not elide the guttural consonant, giving *ϑáɣō.

In the acc, the sequence *-em-m̥ in the proto-language resolves prehistorically to *-ēm via Stang's law and appears in Galic as -ā̊, while the equivalent sequence for n-stems *-en-m̥ yielded Northian -əmā.

hā ϑázā, "ground, earth" = χθών
sing du pl
nom ϑázā
voc
acc xōi lg ϑámō
gen xmō
loc xšam
dat xmā
ins xmōi

To this table above must be subjoined that xā̊ < *ǵʰḗm < *dʰǵʰém-m̥ is only found in a handful of instances in Galic Period I, and even there it is not exclusive. The proto-form of the accusative is uncertain, since many authorities predict this word should have a full-grade root syllable, which should result in dysyllabic *θaɣā̊. But the form actually found is monosyllabic, which could only come from a zero-grade root. If the oblique stem *dʰǵʰm- was later introduced to replace the nominative stem, the resulting form would have been expected xam, with the *m of the stem probably vocalized as short by position.

n-stems

This group of nouns, all with a stem ending in -n, had numerous subtypes. Some of them were proliferate in Northian, while others were vestigial. Their phonetic outcomes can be quite different due to the paradigmatically irregular vocalization of resonants, which are particularly common because the resonant suffix is often attached to another resonant. It appears the suffix -n could be attached to nearly all other suffixes at some point in the prehistory of the language, with only the combination of *-r-n- being unattested. The common feature of all n-stem nouns is that the primary ablauting element is the syllable containing -n-, with or without the root syllable also participating; all other suffixes do not ablaut when followed by the -n suffix.

As a general observation, most n-stems can be divided into those of amphikinetic origin and those of hysterokinetic origin. Only the latter are productive in the recent prehistory of Northian. Amphikinetic nouns, e.g. laēmō "lake", always have an accented root in the nominative singular and more often than not lose the final *-n there; the kʷetwóres rule applies to them in the accusative singular, as the shape of the stem is always *CéC-on- > *CeC-ón, e.g. limōi. Hysterokinetic nouns have accented suffixes and endings, while the root is never accented. Amphikinetic nouns are actively transferred into the hysterokinetic paradigm during the historical period and thereby acquire an invariant root, which may retain the full grade or receive the zero grade instead.

mn-stems

A common subtype of the n-stems is through the suffix *-mn-, which is common in Northian. The OX pattern was normal for animate nouns, and the PX in neuter nouns. Items with this inflection can further be divided into sub-classes: some are of amphikinetic origin like asmō in the following example, while others are of hysterokinetic origin.

In ā́smō "life", the nom. singular ending -ō (which occludes the stem consonant) arises due to the effects of a sound law that deleted final *-n in the environment of *-ōn, though some related languages have either retained or restored this stem final *-n. A few ablauting nouns in this class have an accented root in the direct cases and accented ending in oblique cases, except in the locative singular where the accented suffix is attested (note that "ablauting nouns" in Northian usually refers to root-ablauting nouns, rather than suffix-ablauting nouns, as these are regular).

In the accusative singular and plural the deletion of geminate consonants operates after adjacent nasals assimilate in early Northian history, causing compensatory lengthening of the suffix syllable *-en- in each case the ending *-m disappears.

There are two phonologically-regular oblique stems arising conditionally: where the ending began with a vowel, the *m part of the suffix -mn- was vocalized, and where it began with a consonant, *n was vocalized instead. Thus, the gen sing is tanō and gen du smaHō, given the presence of a laryngeal in the latter. Yet it should be noted that such a regular application of the vocalization rule is exceptional. Most nouns have generalized the vocalization pattern of *-m̥n- rather than *-mn̥-, possibly because the commonly-used cases tended to begin with vowels and trigger *-m̥n-.

Owing to the presence of an o-grade following an e-grade in a three-syllable word, the kʷetwóres rule intervenes in the nom pl and shifts the accent to the suffix syllable. The apparent e-grade is considered an analogy to the en-stems. The rule does not operate regularly in case the final syllable is long, but here the final syllable actually reflects short *-eH, which entertains the rule and also shifts the accent to the o-grade.

ha ā́smō, "life"
sing du pl
nom ā́smō āsmә́nōi āsmә́naHā
voc ā́smən
acc ā́smōi smə̄ŋh
gen tanō smaHō tanõm
loc smən smahū
dat tanā smamō tanuš
ins tanōi smaβiiō

fnaōmin "breath" is an ablauting mn-stem noun with PX inflection. Owing to its semantic connection with fraōmō "lung" as well as the shape of the oblique stem under the influence of u, the alternate spelling fraōmin is also seen, for example G.Nr. 1477 mōi βā xšəm apū praōmənō praōmən dite "By the Earth, let therefore not [his] breaths be given away from his two lungs". But these two words are from etymologically unrelated roots.

ϑaṯ ϑərma, "edge"
sing du coll
nom ϑərma ϑә́ranī ϑərmā̊
voc
acc
gen ϑarəmáŋh ϑarəmә́nuš ϑarəmә́nõm
loc ϑarəmә́ni ϑarəmənū ϑarəmāhū
dat ϑarəmә́nō ϑarəmāmuš
ins ϑarəmāβiiō

apṓ

apṓ "holy waters" < *h₂ep-Hō(n) has the same suffix, but preceded by a laryngeal that colours the vowel. As a result, the rule that deletes final resonants following lengthened *-ō comes into play and produces the same ending as the animate mō-stems. But here in the gen. and loc. du. it is the suffix *-n- that becomes vocalized when followed by a consonant. The resulting vowel is short on account of the preceding laryngeal, with regular alterations of quality and quantity to surrounding vowels.

voc sing ápan has regular recessive accent for vocatives; otherwise accent is regularly on the suffix syllable. acc pl requires the weak stem of *h₂ep-Hn-m̥s. Under Cloverdale's law, interconsonantal laryngeals count as consonants, which means the word is underlyingly scanned as *h₂epH-nm̥s; thus the vocalized *m̥ will be short and produce *-ah > -āʰ. In some Early Galic phrases, this word was indeed only dysyllabic and not trisyllabic as the orthography suggests, recovering the extreme antiquity of the scansion of -i- as a laryngeal consonant.

hā apṓ, "holy waters"
sing du pl
nom apṓ aponōi apə̄naHā
voc ápən
acc apə̄nā apnā
gen apnō apə̄nō apnõm
loc apə̄n apšū
dat apnā apmō apmuš
ins

xaēñin

This group of nouns had the compound suffix *-i-n- and showed no ablaut, irrespective of gender.

ha xaēnin, "girl"
sing du pl
nom xaēnin xaēninōi xaēninaHā
voc
acc xaēninā xaēninā̊
gen xaēnī xaēninō xaēninõm
loc xaēnini xaēnaŋhū
dat xaēninā xaēninmō xaēninmuš
ins xaēninōi xaēnimβiyō

xrauuštō, anžiiō

ha xrauuštō, "reputation, honour"
sing du pl
nom xrauuštō xrauuštenōi xrauuštónaŋhāʰ
voc xrauuštan
acc xrauuštṓnəm xrauužnā̊
gen xrauužnōḫ xrauužnōš xrauužnõm
loc xrauuštan xrauužnō xrauužnū
dat xrauužnai xrauužnmō xrauužnmuš
ins xrauužnōi xrauužāβiiōḫ
ha yaoxštō, "team of draft animals"
sing du pl
nom yaoxštō yaoxštenōi yaoxštonaŋhāʰ
voc yaoxštan
acc yaoxštinąm yaoxštanā̊
gen yāoxnōḫ yāoxnōš yāoxnõm
loc yaoxštan yāoxnō yāoxnū
dat yāoxnai yaoxštmō yāoxāmuš
ins yāoxnōi yāoxzāmβiiōḫ

hmərun

There is some debate over the origin of this class of nouns that seemed to be rare otherwise in the other daughter languages, as there are few comparanda. Such a conspicuous absence of comparanda could very well indicate this type was young or even arose after Northian had split off from the parent language. In support of that chronologization, all members of this class had completely non-ablauting roots with accented full grade, and an invariant suffix in zero-grade. The stem nevertheless exhibits inverse vocalization patterns depending on the vocalism of the ending, which means it must at least predate the vocalization of syllabic resonants.

A few members of this class are also neuter in gender, which are declined with the same apophonic pattern, except with accusatives identical to the nominative; some of them are associated with the acrostatic u-stem, e.g. hánun "knee". It has been noted this entire declensional pattern reminiscs of the old acrostatic neuter pattern ending in *-u, only enlarged with a suffix *-n of unclear function. That connection is mooted by a unique, newly-identified (2020) instance of gen sg ending -ū in G.Nr. 1127 hánū, which by that analysis represent the zero-grade genitive ending in *-un-s. Such a form would be difficult to ascribe as a recent innovation. As yet, it is not agreed which type was the older or if they share a common origin; the more prevalent view regards the neuter type as the original, and the non-neuter type as secondary to other nouns.

The Nordic scholar Havarsson has connected this suffixal *-n to the Nordic weak noun declension, which were n-stems in the ancestral language, saying "this mysterious Galic word could bear witness to the ancient origin of the weak nouns, hitherto believed to be a young and deviant noun type." Yet he also provides that since hanun is a hapax legomenon and is glossed as an equivalent to nom sg hánū "knee", it would be most difficult to explain functionally how these formations are alike in origin.

ho hmərun, "bone marrow"
sing du pl
nom hmərun hmərunōi hmərunaHā
voc
acc hmərum hmərū
gen hmərunō hməruuaHō hmərunam
loc hməruni hməruuāhū
dat hmərunā hməruuāmō hməruuāmuš
ins hmərū hməruuāβiiō

bare n-stems

There are also n-stems not part of a compound suffix like *-mn-. They are rarer and sometimes emphasized as "bare" n-stems. They are of two types, distinguished in the nom. sing., those with -ō and those with -ā̊. Though less common, they are typical of adjectival origin and often family names; the Venetian name Cato is a cognate example, < *kat-ōn "the smart one".

In uə̄rštā̊ "male of an animal", of the type ending in -ō, PNN stems are ablauting *uors-on- and *uərəs-n-. In the nom. sing. the root vowel is lengthened, occasioning the loss of the root-final resonant prehistorically. As it will appear, the stem-final -n- is vocalized if the ending begins with a consonant; the gen. and loc. du. begin with the prehistoric laryngeal, which still trigger vocalization and are reflected as Galic hiatus and quantitative and qualitative alteration. After *r and its vocalized allophone, *s obligatorily becomes š, which cannot precede a vowel directly and to which a t is added. However, this addition is chronologically late and therefore applicable to the loc. and gen. du. forms, even though earlier they were considered to begin with consonants and trigger vocalization.

ho uxšō, "bull"
sing du pl
nom uxšō uxšənōi uxšənā
voc uxšən
acc uxšənā uxnā
gen uxnō uxšənō uxšənõm
loc uxšəni uxšahū
dat uxnā
uxšənā
uxšamō uxšamuš
ins uxnōi uxšaβyō

r-stems

duxiϑṓ

duxiϑṓ "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in *-tēr.

Similarly inflected: fϑō piϑrō "father", nomina agentis in -ā̊ and -ō.

hā tuxiϑṓ, "daughter"
sing du pl
nom dukiϑṓ dukitərōi dukitəraHā
voc
acc duxiϑərā dúxiϑrā̊
loc duxiϑəri duxiϑarHṓ duxiϑrštū
gen duxiϑrō duxiϑrõm
dat duktrā duxiϑrmṓ duxiϑrmō
ins duxiϑrōi duxiϑrβiyōḫ

mā̊tar

mā̊tar "mother" represents the group with inherited acrostatic pattern, whose accent persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade. βrātar "brother" is declined in like manner.

gen.sg mā̊tarəš from *meh₂tr̥s. nom.pl, aside from more frequent mā̊traHā, has alloforms mā̊traH ~ mā̊traHaH preserved in Old Material, in spondee and bacchius positions; these attested to the more archaic simplex nom.pl ending *-es as well as complex *-eses. The bacchius reading precedes another word that beings with *s-, whereby degemination between words caused the ending to lose its final consonant.

The acc.pl mā̊tərā seems to reflect PEE *meh₂tr̥n̥s (for expected *meh₂tern̥s), while most daughters reflect *meh₂tern̥s. The form is a prima facie deviation from the general rule of resonant vocalization, but the vocalization of *r̥ could have been carried over from the gen. sing., where it is the only resonant that could be vocalized; moreover, it is a perfect match with Xevdenite mātərąs, hinting that the vocalization of -n̥s was not a firm rule in the proto-language. Perhaps the lack of vocalization here could also be explained by analogy to the acc. sing., where the -m is never vocalized.

In Galic, mā̊tar "two mothers" is often an ellipsis for "mother and father".

hā mā̊tar, "mother"
sing du pl
nom mā̊tar mā̊tar mā̊traHā
~ mā̊traHaH
~ mā̊traH
voc
acc mā̊tra mā̊tərā
gen mā̊tarəš mā̊taruš mā̊tram
loc mā̊tar mā̊tarū mā̊tərəšū
dat mā̊tri mā̊tərəmō mā̊tərəmuš
ins mā̊trōi mā̊tərəβiiō

yāϑr

hā yāϑr, "husband's brother's wife"
sing du pl
nom yāϑr yaϑəra yaϑeraŋhāʰ
voc
acc yaϑram yāϑrā̊
gen yaϑōs yaϑəruš yaϑrõm
loc yaϑéri yaϑərū yaϑrštū
dat yaϑərma yaϑərmuš
ins yaϑəra yaϑərβyōḫ

Feminines in -zarə

Certain Northian nouns formed feminine counterparts with the suffix *-sr.

hā hwózr, "sister"
sing du pl
nom hwózr hwozórōy hwózoraŋhāʰ
voc
acc hwozóram huzrā̊
gen huzrōʰ huzrōʷ huzrõm
loc huzeri huzrštū
dat huzrma huzrmuš
ins huzra huzrβyōḫ

l-stems

There are a few nouns which anciently had an ablauting stem ending in -l, the most important being āuuarə "Sun", nəmβar "navel", naōgar "nail", əṇgar "coal-fire", and abar "apple". Aside from nəmβar, a feminine noun, all attested l-stems are neuter heteroclitics that attest a stem in -n in oblique cases.

For the most part, l-stems are indistinguishable from r-stems since the two sounds merge completely in Northian, but traces of their former existence can be seen. Since the parent language prohibited geminates, the sequence of nom.sg *CVr-r̥ would simplify to *CVr-, which appears endingless and is indeed found in that shape in Northian. But if the suffix had been *-l̥, this sound does not degeminate and surfaces in Northian as CVr-r instead, as in pərarə "a type of food-offering", reflecting *per-l̥; this forms, indeed, a minimal pair with pər < *per(-r̥) "mountain".

s-stems

The s-stem nouns can be divided into two classes, more numerous, neuter nouns like xrétō and animate nouns like awšā̊. The former suffix exhibits qualitative ablaut from *-os ~ es-, while the second class has a more conventional, quantitative -os ~ s- pattern.

xrétō

The os/es-stems are a class of very common neuter nouns in Northian and are directly cognate to those found in Nordic languages, where the ablaut surfaces as -az ~ iz-.

In PX the nom sing ended in -ō < *-os, a bare stem. The suffix ablauted to -es- for all oblique cases, but here the ending once again acts prominently on the suffix. If the ending did not begin with a voiceless stop, the -s- of the suffix disappeared or become -H- intervocalically and coloured any neighbouring /e/ to /a/. As a result, the gen. ended in -aHā < *-es-es. If the ending began with a voiced consonant, the -s- elided and caused compensatory lengthening to the preceding *e-, which surfaced as -aē- instead. The gen loc du endings began with a laryngeal consonant, which assimilated with the preceding -s- and was deleted.

θaṯ xrétō, "intellect, power"
sing du pl
nom xrétō xrétaHā
e xrétā
xrétā̊
voc
acc
gen xrétaHā
e xrétā
xrétaHuš
e xrétōš
xrétaHam
e xrétām
loc xrétā xrétaHū
e xrétō
xrétahū
dat xrétaHā
e xrétā
xrétaēmō xrétaēmuš
ins xrétaēβiyō

aōšā̊

The noun aōšā̊ "dawn" has feminine gender and therefore a distinct accusative. The noun had three stems: the strong stem which appears in the sing. nom. and voc. comes from PEE *h₂eu̯s-os-, with regular lengthening of the final syllable anticipating a zero nominative ending; the middle stem appears in the other direct cases and is from *h₂us-es-; the weak stem appears in all other cases and is from *h₂us-s-, which dissimilated to ušt- in Northian, with full-grade endings as expected in OX nouns. The acc. sing. shows elision of *z and compensatory lengthening. The *z was generated before a syllabic nasal *m̥.

hā aōšā̊, "dawn"
sing du pl
nom aōšā̊ ušaHā ušáHā
voc aōšō
acc ušézā uštā
gen uštō uštō uštām
loc ušā ūštū
dat uštā ušmō ušmuš
ins uštōi užβiyō

i-stems

mātiš

The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In the proto-language, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all ways, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different. Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.

The PX pattern of the i-stems gained primacy early in Northian history, and these nouns proliferated, being built to a variety of roots. These nouns usually show no root ablaut, but the example provided here does. Where the root did not show ablaut, the accent was presistent on the suffix, even in zero-grade. The other forms require little comment, other than the gen. and loc. du. and gen. pl. where the suffix *-i is consonantal before endings beginning with a vowel, which here triggers the palatalization of preceding *-t.

Of the neuter nouns in -i, only one example can be considered original to the parent language, that being məʸri "sea". Most other neuter nouns can be shown to be petrified neuter forms of adjectives in i-stem. It is assumed that the neuter i-stems would have formed a collective in the same way as the u-stems, but such is not attested.

hā mātiš, "thought" ϑaṯ məri, "sea"
sing du pl sing du coll
nom mātiš mātī mātaiiā məri
voc māti
acc mātī
loc mātō mātaiiō mātišū
gen mātaiiuš mātaiiõm
dat mātaiiā mātimō mātimuš
ins mātī mātiβiiō

ākō

The OX pattern of the i-stems was moderately productive in Galic times and less so by later ages. In the nominative du. and pl., the suffix is in long o-grade; the suffix consonantal *-i is lost. The same deletion corresponds exactly with forms found in archaic grammars in Syaran and Tennite languages, so the dropping of final -i is likely to have been old.

Perhaps owing to the phonetic similarity between the dual and plural nom. forms, *-ē > -ōi, which is not expected after i-, often displaces the expected -ā. However, there is also a hapax of short -e found in Galic and in final position, which suggests the -ōi may be a late alteration, inserted after du *-aH had ceased to be distinguishable in speech from pl *-ah.

This pattern has a neuter equivalent that ended in -ā < *-ei̯ in the nominative; otherwise, oblique cases inflect identically. This neuter pattern is very rare and only present in a few examples like óxϑā "palm", whose archaic dual form óxϑō means "eight".

ho ākō, "friend, ally" = socius θaṯ óxϑā, "palm"
sing du pl sing du pl
nom ākō hokoiiā
dm hokoyōi
hokoiiā óxϑā óxϑō
voc
acc hokiiā
loc hokā škiHō škišū
gen hiiō hiiõm
dat hiiā škimō škimuš
ins škiβiiō

u-stems

Ablauting u-stems in PX

etó hūiiuš, "child" = υἱύς etóṯ oiiū, "life, generation"
sing du pl sing du coll
nom hūiiúš hūiiū hūiiáuuā oiiū oiiō
voc hūiiū
acc hūiiúm hū́iiū
var. həruuā
gen hūiiō hūiiáuuō hūiiauuam
loc hūiiū hūiiušū
dat hūiiumō hūiiumuš
ins hūiiū hūiiumβiiō

The PX pattern in u-stem nouns is very prolific in both the Galic and Epic languages. Many are abstract nouns with the ending -tuš, though combinations with -m- and -s- are also seen.

The nom. ended in -uš. While many Northian nouns showed root ablaut, none of the nouns in the pattern of hūiiúš do and therefore have all components in zero grade in the nom sing; the hypothetical forms *haōiiuš < *sewHyus or *sowHyus might be expected based on general ablaut tendencies, but it is in fact the phonological pre-form of hūiiúš that is reflected in all Erani-Eracuran languages, showing, if once these nouns had a full-grade root, that the spread of the zero-grade root probably occurred in the proto-language. Yet it is also suspected this pattern only became productive after root ablaut ceased to be productive, as suffix ablaut is aberrant compared to other stem types (viz. below).

Note the voc.sing form hūiiū which contrasts with acc.pl hū́iiū only by accent.

The gen., dat., and loc. forms are all hūiiō in the oldest texts, but they have different sources. The gen. ended in *-ou̯-s, where *-s has dropped after the final resonant, giving *-ōu̯, which changed to -ō in Northian in final position. In the dat. and loc. the final *-i is lost after the stem resonant. But the stem-final -u̯ lingers as a spectre in sandhi: a following *-kʷe delabializes and becomes -xa < *-ke. In the later Gales, a final -s is often restored to the genitive unless prohibited by metre. In this instance, Northian presents the most archaic forms and demonstrates that widespread compensatory lengthening had indeed occurred prior to analogical restoration, which in all other branchs obscured the outcome of the sound change. The Northian restoration of -s must be later than the period when -s is retroflexed after *-w, as it is written -s.

The nom. du. has the ending -ū, which is from *-u-h₁, and then the gen. has -áuuō < *-ew-ow; both have unexpected ablaut grades. It has been suggested the full grade in the gen. could have been introduced from the singular; if so, it must have been before the final *-ow > -ō. The loc. du. has -ū, which must reflect *-u-u, but this an irregular syncopation acorss a laryngeal boundary, which is otherwise well-preserved in Northian.

The nom. pl. has the expected forms, while the acc. pl. shows the suffix in the weak grade, *-u-ns > Galic -ū. The weak suffix in the acc. pl. is often taken as a sign of lateness, but there is a common alternative form associated with certain words that has -uuā as an ending. There is debate which one is the more original, as the sequence -uuā is a more regular outcome of the general ruler of resonant vocalization from the sequence *-wn̥s, while the more common variant -ū would reflect something like *-w̥ns. The latter can be seen as a tendency of thematization, that is the regular appearance of a certain sound between stem and ending. On the other hand, this "thematized" form appears in the earlier G1 texts more often and is better attested across cognate languages, leading some to assert that the -uuā ending is a result of subsequent re-analysis and that the more regular vocalization was not in use in the parent language.

The gen. has the strong suffix again and shows *-ew-om. All other forms in the plural are straightforward and have the zero-grade suffix -u-, which departure from the normal rules of proterokinetic declension has also been linked with the attempt to thematize the u- and i-stems.

The neuter version of the PX u-stems, in contradistinction to the animate ones, often displays root ablaut, which alternates strong and weak stems. The strong has o-grade from PEE *h₂ói̯-u > unchanged Galic oiiū, save the regular lengthening of final *-u. The oblique stem is from *h₂i̯-ou̯-s > also unaltered Galic . For this word, of great canonical significance, final *-s is never restored in Galic.

Ablauting u-stems in OX

There are also u-stem nouns with an OX pattern, of which there are several sub-types that are subsumed under the heading of hənuš.

hā gənuš, "jaw" = jaw hā haiiō, "horizon"
sing du pl sing du pl
nom gənō hənauuā hənauuā haiiō
voc hənū
acc hənā̊ hənnā̊
gen jñuuōḫ gnuōš jñuuõm
loc jñaō
dm jñauui
gnuō gnuštū
dat jñuuoi gnumō gnumuš
ins jñuua

The OX nouns had a nom. sg. end that vacillated amongst the lexical items between -uš and -ō / -ōs < *-ou̯-s. These reflect the zero and full grades respectively. The gen. and dat. reflects PEE *-u-os and *-u-ei̯ as expected. The dual behaves as expected. The acc. is on account of the deletion of resonants before a syllabic nasal, genā̊ < *gen-ēm < *gen-eu̯-m̥.

The acc. pl. gennā̊ < *gen-w-ns has the suffix assimilated into the root.

Note in this word some oblique forms have the stem jñuu-, which is an altered form of *gnw-. Northian generally permits up to three consonants (or four, if beginning with s-) in anlaut, but only if they contain no stops; if they do, stops are altered to fricative counterparts. This rule is not in effect for sequences of only two members in anlaut, hence the conserved gn- when the following *w is vocalized. Note also, the genitive and dative dual endings begin with a (lost) laryngeal, triggering the vocalization of *w.

The other EE languages attest a neuter version of this OX patern as in Tennite madhu gen. madhvas < *medʰ-w-es that is not found in Northian. This word in particular is found as an acrostatic meδū gen. meδuš. Instead, there is a solitary neuter noun haiiaō "horizon" that seems to have a neuter ending in *-ew. It is quite uncertain whether this is an inherited pattern or a petrified Northian adjective on the pattern of the s-stems adjectives (though it is equally unclear what original adjective would give the meaning of "horizon"), or it could be somehow related to ei-stem nouns attested in Xevdenite.

ϑórū

Some neuter nouns in -ū, such as ϑórū "tree, wood", hanū "knee", uuəštū "settlement" descend from an old acrostatic ablaut pattern that subsequently gained proterokinetic forms in the oblique cases. The original oblique stem *deru- is still visible as a compounding form. These changes result in a locative singular that is identical to the nominative. These special nouns need to be distinguished from those that also end in -ū like oiiū "life", which have a distinct locative.

θoṯ ϑórū, "wood" = δόρυ, "tree"
sing du coll
nom ϑərū ϑərū ϑərō
voc
acc
loc
gen drā
dat drumō
ins drū

The word ϑərū gives rise to several intriguing concepts in related languages. In Nordic, an important derivative is triwwiz "true, faithful", evidently comparing a reliable person's character to the durability of wood. Northian drəmβuuōḫ, reflecting the same *drew-wos, means "firm, difficult", from the same sense that wood is resilient and hence difficult to manipulate. But the word carries more of a neutral tone than the usually-positive one in the Nordic cognate: a person described as drəmβuuō in the Epics is inflexible and ill-disposed to the speaker, but not hostile. Compare another possible cognate, duros in Venetian, which means "hard, harsh" and is more overtly critical and pejorative applied to persons, cp. dura lex sed lex.

ī-stems

orī

The ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns. This suffix showed ablaut from full grade *-ieh₂ ~ -ih₂ > Northian -iiā ~ ī-. Some inherited nouns have a root that participated in ablaut, so the root was in full grade and suffix in zero grade in the direct cases, and vice versa in oblique cases.

Notice that, in the gen. oriiā̊, the laryngeal is syllabified with the preceding vowel and causes it to lengthen, but in the dat. oriiaē it syllabifies with the ending -i and does not lengthen the suffix; still, in both cases, the suffix vowel is coloured. The regular syllabification is only attested in Galic; by Didaskalic and Epic times, the dative was remade according to the genitive and has the ending -iiā-yi. The nom. pl. attests the ending -īš < *ih₂-s, which features an unexpected zero-grade suffix and a zero-grade variant of the nom. pl. ending, which is unique here and *-es everywhere else. This zero-grade variation has been explained by some as rather the nom. sing. ending but not to general acceptance.

The acc. pl. ending is the same as the nom., which indicates the final resonant failed to vocalize, thus from *-ih₂-ns rather than *-ih₂-n̥s. This renders it the same as the acc. pl. of the i-stems of the type mātiš. Such a syllabification is attested also in the 3 pl. of the athematic optative for stems with persistent accent, which has -inṯ < *-ih₂-nt rather than *-iyat < *-ih₂-n̥t.

hā orī, "eagless, hen eagle"
sing du pl
nom orī orīš
voc
acc
gen oryā̊ oriiāouš oriiaõm
loc oriiayi oriiaoū oriiāštū
dat oriiaē oriiāma oriiāmuš
ins oriiā oriiāβiyōḫ

hənitrī

In the example below, Sievers's law operates in oblique form as the agentive *-tr- invariably creates a heavy syllable before the yod of the full-grade feminizing suffix *-yeh₂. Thus, in old texts, the surface forms are trisyllabic hātriyā̊ and hāϑriyay, but the disyllabic forms hāϑəriyā̊ and hāϑəriyaHē are often seen in texts of an only slightly younger vintage. Jeweller indicates that metrical considerations can be discounted from this variance. Minimally, these could be analogical replacements from words in like stem where Sievers's law does not operate, or maximally they could indicate Sievers's law governed a kind of free variation but not a definite shift. The shortcoming of the former is that stems obtaining Sievers's are far more numerous than those not, owing to the preponderating usage of the feminizing suffix after another suffix.

The -o- in the gen. and dat. du. forms is a Runic orthographic insertion done to prevent the incorrect scansion of dysyllabic /a.us/ as monosyllabic /aws/; the -o- is spurious and silent. It is not present in all texts: monumental inscriptions usually omit it.

hā hənitrī, "genitrix" = genitrix
sing du pl
nom hənitrī
voc
acc
gen hatriyā̊ hatriyaHō hatriyaHõm
loc hatriyā hatriyaHā hatriyāšū
dat hatriHāmō hatriyāmuš
ins hatriHā hatrīβiyō

štərī

This type, consisting mostly of feminine derivatives, was much more common in the Gales than in later texts.

hā štərī, "heifer"
sing du pl
nom štərī štəriiā štəriiā
voc
acc štəriiā̊
loc štrīHō štrīšū
gen štriHō štriHõm
dat štriHā štrīmō štrīmuš
ins štrī štrīβiyō

ū-stems

ϑənūˀ

The ū-stems were originally parallel to the ī-stems, but phonetic changes have rendered them distinct. The nom. sing. always had accented root syllable and an ending in PEE *-uh₂ > Galic *-ūˀ. The acc. requires a proto-form *-ueh₂-m, but already has simplified to *-u̯ām > -uā̊. In the oblique cases, the stem alternated between -ū preconsonantally and -uH prevocalically, to which full-grade endings were added. Other disfigurements are attributable to the shape of this stem. The stem in zn- occurs whenever the *u of the stem is vocalized in the environment of *tnuh₂-, and the stem in dā-, when *u borders a vowel and *n is vocalized instead, i.e. *tn̥weh₂-. The irregularity in this paradigm was preserved certainly owing to its frequent usage.

hā ϑənū, "body"
sing du pl
nom ϑənū ϑənnaHā ϑənnaHā
voc
acc ϑənnā̊ dāuuā̊
gen znuHō znuHō znuHõm
loc dāuuā znuŋhū
dat znuHā znūmō znūmuš
ins znuHōi znūβiyō

hōxrū

The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely hōxrūḥ "mother-in-law".

hā hōxrū, "mother-in-law" = socrus
sing du pl
nom hōxrū hōxrō hōxrwā
voc
acc hōxrwō
gen hōxrwā̊ hōxrwāHuš hōxrwaHõm
loc hōxrwā hōxrwāHū hōxrwāhu
dat hōxrwāmi hōxrwāmuš
ins

H-stems

The H-stems or laryngeal-stems have a suffix consisting of an ablauting vowel followed by a laryngeal and were similar in structure to the ī- and ū-stems. But, there, semivowels *i- and *u- preceded the ablauting vowel, and so in oblique cases, they become vowels in the absence of the ablauting vowel and are lengthened by the laryngeal. Here, however, the ablauting vowel is not preceded by a semivowel and disappears completely in the oblique cases, causing the laryngeal to scan as part of the ending syllable.

pəntā̊

The word pəntā̊ "path" had a stem ending in PEE *póntoh₁- ~ pn̥th₁-. Fundamentally, it is a regular laryngeal-stem noun of amphikinetic origin of the same type that has full-grade root and o-grade suffix. In the accusative singular, the ending was *oh₁-m̥ > *ōm, with regular operation of Stang's law.

This word is a direct cognate to the Shalumite word "path", which is a borrowing from the oblique stem of the reflex in another Erani-Eracuran language.

ho pəntā̊, "path, way" = "path"
sing du pl
nom pəntā̊ pəntōi pəntoHaHā
voc
acc pāϑā̊ pəntoHā
gen pāϑō pāϑām
loc pāšū
dat pāϑā pāsmō pāśmuš
ins pāϑōi

bā̊

bā̊ "woman" continues the proterodynamic declension ending in *-h₂, and the nom. was asigmatic. This suffix also underlies the ī- and ū-stem declensions in Northian but is otherwise rarely seen alone. The direct stem is from *gʷénh₂ > *gʷḗn > gā̊, and the oblique *gʷnéh₂- > gnā-. Both nominative and accusative forms are affected by Stang's law.

hā gā̊, "wife" = γυνή
sing du pl
nom gā̊ gənā̊ gənā
voc
acc gənā̊ bnā
gen bnā bnaHuš βna·ā̊m
loc bnaēii βnaHū βnāhū
dat bna·ā̊ βnāmuš
ins βnā

r/n-stems

The r/n-stems, or heteroclitics, continue a class of EE nouns that had different suffixes for direct and oblique stems. Excepting productive derivative suffixes *-tr̥ and *-mr̥, they are all neuter nouns with basic meanings and show P/PX inflection in the singular and dual. Many, but not all, formed a collective with an o-grade root with OX ablaut pattern. The collective was endingless in the nom, like a singular, but took plural endings in the oblique cases.

In the Epic language, many heteroclitics also formed ordinary plurals from the zero-grade stem, which agree with singular verbs and have meanings different from those of their collective forms.

yuHarə "year" is a case where the spelling of the Gales leaves open a number of interpretations as to their phonological forms. The nom yuHarə < *yoh₁-r̥ had the o-grade of the root. Proto-form of gen *yoh₁-n̥-s or *yeh₁-n̥-s should anticipate a PNR form like *yaH-ā̊, but nowhere is this found or metrically allowed; instead, one finds monosyllabic yā̊, which according to Krueger may be an ad hoc replacement for *i-āh, logically assumed to be from < *ih₁-n̥-s. However, the contraction of syllables across laryngeal borders is very rare in Northian, so this explanation has not achieved agreement by authorities. du loc yaŋhaˀū is surely for a rather awkward *yaˀāˀū < *yéh₁n̥Hu.

θaṯ yuHarə, "year" = ὥρα → "hour"
sing du coll
nom yuHarə yōrī yōrō
voc
acc
gen yuHā̊ yaHāHuš
loc yūni
dat
ins

pāwr̥ "fire" has PX inflection, with accented suffix in the oblique cases. In the nom. sing. the proto-form was from *péh₂wr̥; the final -ərə is paedagogically taught as /ara/, but as it is a single long syllable and not two short as the orthography implies, authorities concur it probably represents a preserved, tautosyllabic -R-r̥ sequence. This ending also occurs with the *-mr̥ compound suffix, but not *-tr̥. Oblique stem is from *ph₂wén- > *fiwen > Galic fūvon-. The collective form is fūvə̄, which is presumably from *ph₂wṓ, showing the replacement of full-grade root by zero-grade that is common in derived OX nouns, cp. direct cognate in Elder Nordic fōr.

θaṯ pāwr̥, "fire" = πῦρ → pyro-
sing du coll
nom pāwr̥ pāuuō
voc
acc
gen puuanh
loc puuən
dat puuənā
ins puuā̊

Other common heteroclitic nouns include:

  • PX azr̥ azā̊ "day"
  • PX fetar fθā̊ "feather"
  • PP woδar woθā̊ "water" < PEE *wodr̥ *wodn̥s
  • PP ferərə ferūš "mountain"
  • PP fō ferā̊ "house"

ā-stems

The main point of interest in this paradigm is in the genitive and locative dual forms, where the form suggests the e-grade *-ew- instead of the anticipated zero grade -u-. Nowhere else in Northian or other Erani-Eracuran languages does this ending take the e-grade.

hā mīrā, "mist"
sing du pl
nom mīrā mīraHī mīraHā
voc
acc mīrō mīrā
gen mīraHā mīraHā mīraHõm
loc mīrā mīraHū
dat mīraHā mīrāmō mīrāmuš
ins

o-stems

The thematic declension in o-stem could be divided into two subclasses that arose on account of the position of the accent, without which the short *o became /a/.

ha θūmōḫ, "smoke" θaṯ yuɣõm, "yoke"
sing du pl sing du pl
nom θūmōḫ θūmṓḥ θūmā̊ yuɣõm yuɣṓ(yīḥ) yuɣāḥ
voc θūmi
acc θūmõm θūmə̄ṇġ
gen θūmōiiō θūmōš θūmõm
loc θūmōi θūmō θūmohū
dat θūmoma θūmomuš
ins θūmō θūmomβiiōḫ

Acrean declensions

Many words in later Northian are Early Elder Nordic loanwords from speakers of Acrean, which was used as a lingua franca in western Eracura for centuries under the influence of the Acrean Empire. These words were so numerous that many were not nativized but declined according to an approximation of the thematic declension in ELder Old Nordic. Naturally, Old Nordic vocabulary would not occur within the Galic and Epic corpora, but as the Epic language survived in literary and liturgical usages, later material did incorporate a considerable number of Acrean words.

Hybridized paradigms

The displacement of native vocabulary in favour of Acrean words was widespread and penetrating to a basic level, unlike previous assumptions that it was only introduced for topics of exotic political and commercial interest. Baker notes that the Old Nordic word sōwulą sōwulas "Sun" has hybridized with native Northian hāuuərə hūvə̄ṇġ and displaced the latter's oblique forms. Displacement concentrated in Epic forms made opaque by regular sound change. While all these forms are now analyzed as regular, at least in this noun they were no longer so understood after the Epic age.

The Northian inscriptions from the Epic age are revelatory of the extent of Nordic substitutions from an early time. Nordicisms were regarded as "vulgar substitutions" by antiquiarians, but a mid-6th-century BCE stone discovered in 2002 has the word <sōwulas> in genitive usage for the solar goddess, found within her very own temple precinct. Such finds have cast doubt whether Nordicisms were really regarded as "vulgar" forms by Northians of the Epic age, and some scholars have come to think the "correct" forms like hūvə̄ṇġ were actually poetic forms that had not been used regularly for some generations by that time.

hā hāuuərə, "Sun"
sing du & pl
nom hāuuərə sōwulōs
voc
acc
gen sōwulas sōwulōm
dat sōwulai̯ sōwulamas
ins sōwulō sōwulamiš

a-stems

For the most part, these endings are cognates with the o-stems (2nd declension) ones in Northian, but because of intervening sound changes, they are taught separately. Where there was a distinct vocative, the nominative form has displaced it. There are also no dual forms for these nouns, for which neologisms have sometimes been suggested, to no general acceptance. Since Elder Nordic had no locative case, this form is always identical to the dative where Northian syntax demands the locative.

ha wulfas, "lupine" = lupus θaṯ ētą̄, "food"
sing du & pl sing du & pl
nom wulfas wulfōs ētą̄ ētō
voc
acc wulfą̄ wulfāŋš
gen wulfas wulfõm ētas ētõm
dat wulfai̯ wulfamas ētai̯ ētamas
ins wulfō wulfamis ētō ētamis

ō-stems

These are cognates of the ā-stems in Northian.

sā erδō, "Earth"
sing du & pl
nom erδō erδōs
voc
acc erδōm erδōs
gen erδōs erδōm
dat erδōi̯ erδōmas
ins erδō erδōmiš

Venetian declensions

Old Venetian was another Erani-Eracuran language whose terms have been borrowed into Northian during the Late Canon Period. The first and second declensions of Old Venetian, in -ā and -os respectively, were directly cognate to the Northian ā- and o-stems.

First declension

hā azā, "altar"
sing du & pl
nom azā azās
voc
acc azām azas
gen azās azām
dat azāi azāis
abl azād

Second declension

ha cabos, "measure of corn" θaṯ alom, "comfrey"
sing du & pl sing du & pl
nom cabos caboi alom alā
voc cabe
acc cabom cabōs
gen cabōiio cabozom
dat caboi cabois
abl cabod

Third declension

The third declension in Venetian was cognate with the athematic nouns in Northian, though in Venetian the number of sub-patterns was smaller. As learned borrowings, they generally retained their original endings, though substitutions were only too common.

hā loux, "light"
sing du & pl
nom loux loukeiies
voc
acc loukem loukēs
gen loukes loukom
abl loukibos
dat loukei

Fourth declension

hā manus, "hand" θaṯ cornu, "horn"
sing du & pl sing du & pl
nom manus manūs cornu cornuā
voc manu
acc manum
gen manuos manuom
abl manubos
dat manui

Irregular nouns

ā̊ "mouth"

ā̊ is an acrostatic neuter root noun in s-stem. Like other acrostatic nouns, its inflectional pattern can show irregularities under the influence of other, more productive ablaut patterns. After the Late Canon period, all the oblique forms of this noun were replaced by thematized forms based on the stem ā̊-, e.g. gen. ā̊ōiiō, but it is the athematic originals that are discussed below. Nom. sing. ā̊ is for *ō-h < *HoH-s-Ø.

θaṯ ā̊, "mouth"
sing du pl
nom ā̊ ōhīḥ ōha
voc
acc
gen ōs ōhuš ōhõm
loc āḫ ōhū ōššū
dat ōhi ōma ōmuš
ins ōha

mā̊ "meat"

mā̊ < *mēm-s must be distinguished from the word for "moon", as outside of paedagogical texts they are both printed and written as . This is either a root noun or a reduplication of a root *me-ms-. The word has no dual or collective forms.

θaṯ mā̊, "meat"
sing
nom mā̊
voc
acc
gen
loc
dat meṃśi
ins meṃśa

potiš "master" in compounds

The word *potiš "lord, master" has OX-B inflection. As a word it is not seen alone but does serve as the second element in the terms déṃpśpatiš "master of the house" and uuei̯xšpatiš "lord of the settlement". The word can sometimes appear with the o-grade suffix, e.g. déṃpśpatōiš.

While the root *potiš is not seen independently, the feminine -īḥ derivative potnīḥ is used as part of certain goddesses' titles; there, the full grade root is invariant.

ha déṃpśpatiš, "master of the house" = δεσπότης
sing du pl
nom déṃpśpatiš déṃpśpačiiāḥ déṃpśpačiiāḫ
voc déṃpśpatai
acc déṃpśpatim déṃpśpatī
gen déṃpśpatiiāḫ déṃpśpatiyōš déṃpśpačiiõm
loc déṃpśpati déṃpśpatiyō déṃpśpatištū
dat déṃpśpačiiai déṃpśpatimō déṃpśpatimuš
ins déṃpśpačiiāḥ

šiiō "god, sky"

This word šiiō is a direct cognate with several theonyms across the Erani-Eracuran family. The original *ew was transformed to *aw (written ) after yod. Under the influence of that phone, the initial obstruent was palatalized to z, where it is otherwise preserved before vocalic i. There is an alternate nom. form žiiōš, which may either be a contraction or a reflex of *dyou̯-s, the o-grade of the same root. The acc. sing. žiiā̊ is a product of Stang's law, which requires the sequence of *dyeu̯-m to be simplified to *dyēm; this sequence is attested in virtually all branches and is assumed to be old. šyā̊ is cognate to Syaran Ζῆν.

šyō often co-occurs with the epithet ufšištō "highest" as ufšištoz-dyō "Heaven Most High", in much the same way as fərətištā-taɣam "Earth Most Broad". These compounds, other than being appellations of their titular deities, were also used of their agents. Aithar, the god of numina, is almost always accompanied by the epithet ufšištṓiia-diuuō "of Heaven Most High". After Aithar, the pantheon of Valstígr was also called āhaṓuuāḫ põm ufšištṓiia diuuō, "Lords of Powers and Heaven-Most-High", defining them as celestial, rather than chthonic, deities.

It is to note that the epithet ufšištōḫ "highest" does not carry the implication that the god is highest in rank or power, at least in the Galic and Didaskalic corpora. The idea of a deity that is supreme over other deities was not endorsed by the earlier Northians, and instead a god's supremacy was envisioned more as "excellence" or "extremity", or simply the quality or domain assigned to that god in a superlative, peerless state. Thus in Northian theology, Ziiaōš was the highest, and θaɣam the broadest, and the two are both peerless in the qualities recognized in them. But, being differently or oppositely characterized, they partake in nothing in common and thus could not compare with each other. There thus could not exist a hierarchy between them.

ha šiiō, "sky, Sky God"
sing du pl
nom šiiō ziiauuō
voc ziiā
acc ziiā̊ 𝛿uwā̊
gen 𝛿uwō 𝛿ūwam
loc ziiā 𝛿ūwšū
dat 𝛿uwō 𝛿ūmuš
ins

hazərə "hand"

hazərə is an OX noun in r-stem with the inverted declension, with a zero-grade in the nominative singular. -ərə here is treated as a single, long syllable, representing Erani-Eracuran *-r̥. That -ərə is a consonantal is elucidated by the reflex of *s as -z- and not -h-, which would be regular had -ərə been a vowel sound. As with all nouns with inverted declension, the accusative is regarded as a weak case as to its appropriate stem, thus xšrə̄m over the expected *xšerəm; however, the syllable weight of the original is preserved in the long vowel of the ending.

hā hazərə, "hand"
sing du pl
nom hazərə xšerōi̯ xširiš
voc
acc xšrə̄m xšrā̊
gen xšrōḫ xšarōš xšrõm
loc xšrei̯ xšarō xšərəšū
dat xšərəmō xšərəmuš
ins xšroi̯

monuš "man, human"

monuš is the basic word for "human" in Northian, and it frequently appears as the principal to the adposition θxāmō "earthling". It defines the human being as "the thinking one" or "one who remembers" and is formally very similar to the perfect active participle ménuš "remembering, recalling", from móna "to remember". monuš defines mankind in opposition to beasts, and θxāmō in opposition to gods.

The word monuš has two competing etymologies: some stress its connection to the o-grade of the PEE root *men- "to think", thus characterizing the human being as a characteristically intelligent being, and others provide a more mundane connection to the very basic Nordic word mannuz "male, man". These etymologies are not necessarily incompatible. mannuz is obligatorily male in Elder Nordic and all its descendants, but monuš can be female in Northian, though the feminine form mnuuozərə < putative *mn-u-és-r̥ is more commonly seen with women. The feminine participle form of the verb mona is ménuuī.

monuš takes the oxytone declension in u-stem, gen. mŋʷuuōḫ, e.g. GNr. yōrō mnuuōḫ "a person's lifetime".

Adverbs

See also