Northian verbs: Difference between revisions
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'''tištāmi, tištité''', "stand". | '''tištāmi, tištité''', "stand". | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
!rowspan="2"| !! colspan="5"| {{smallcaps|active}} !! colspan="5"| {{smallcaps|middle}} | |||
|- | |||
!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|ind}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|impf-inj}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|subj}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|opt}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|imp}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|ind}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|impf-inj}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|subj}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|opt}} !!style="width: 6em"| {{smallcaps|imp}} | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|1 sg}} | |||
| ti-št-aēmi ||rowspan="2"| e-ti-št-ā̊ || ti-št-ōḥ || rowspan="2"| ti-ś-iiā̊ | |||
! | |||
| ti-št-aē || e-ti-št-á || ti-št-oē || ti-št-iyá | |||
! | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|2 sg}} | |||
| -ā́hi || -ayi || ti-št-iϑí | |||
| -itaē || -itá || -átaē || -ītá || ti-št-ižuuó | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|3 sg}} | |||
| -ā́ti || e-ti-št-āt || -ati || -iiāṯ || -ā́tū | |||
| -ə̄ || -ó || -átə̄ || -ītó || -ó | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|1 du}} | |||
| -umβéiñi || -umβó || -ouuōḫ || ti-št-ūmβó | |||
! | |||
| -umβōδa || -umβóδa || -óuuōδa || -ūmβóδa | |||
! | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|2 du}} | |||
| rowspan="2"| -itāḫ || -itõm ||rowspan="2"| -átāḫ || -ītõm || -itāḫ | |||
| -ātiϑayi || -ātiϑa || -ātiϑayi || -ītiϑa || -ātiϑa | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|3 du}} | |||
| -itā̊ || -ītā̊ || -itāmū́ | |||
| -āyi || -ā || -āyi || -iyā || -ā | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|1 pl}} | |||
| -əmáŋhi || -əmó || -omōḫ || -īmó | |||
! | |||
| -əmōiδa || -améδa || -omōiδa || -īméδa | |||
! | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|2 pl}} | |||
| -ité || -ité || -áti || -īté || -iti | |||
| -ižδuuó || -ižδuuó || -āδuuó || -īžδuuó || -ižuuó | |||
|- | |||
! {{smallcaps|3 pl}} | |||
| -ənti || -āṯ || -ónδi || -iyaṯ || -əṇtū́ | |||
| -árə || -árə || -ō || -ī || -iro | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="13"|{{smallcaps|'''inf'''}} {{smallcaps|'''fut imp'''}} | |||
|} | |||
===Vowel-final stems with persistent accent=== | |||
These encompass those roots that ended in a vowel plus laryngeal (VH) in the parent language. Praetorianus did not notice that the long vowel was part of the stem and not of the ending—in other words, he thought the root here was merely "št" to which an augmented ending was added—and so classed these stems together with those that have a suffixed long vowel—which he too regarded as normal roots using augmented endings. | |||
'''wōmi, woti''', "stand". | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!rowspan="2"| !! colspan="5"| {{smallcaps|active}} !! colspan="5"| {{smallcaps|middle}} | !rowspan="2"| !! colspan="5"| {{smallcaps|active}} !! colspan="5"| {{smallcaps|middle}} | ||
Revision as of 09:55, 14 January 2023
Northian verbs are conjugated for person, number, voice, mood, aspect, and tense.
Present
Mobile accent
Most athematic verbs are of the type which has mobile accent, that is the accent falls on the root syllable in the singular forms in the active voice, and on the ending in all other forms; this accent pattern is usually accompanied by ablaut, whereby the accented root is in the full grade and originally had the vowel *e, and the unaccented form had no vowel. Where there is no vowel, an internal resonant (*m, *n, *r, *l) or semivowel (*y, *w) often becomes a vowel in Northian. This type of accent is seen in the following class of verbs:
- Root (class 3)
- Reduplicated (class 1)
- Nasal suffix, in all its varieties
- n-infix
- ne-suffix, with na- and no-variants
- nu-suffix
All suffixes are thought of as part of the ending in traditional Northian education, and particularly after the manuals of Praetorianus. Thus, xšnəōmi was analyzed as xš-nəōmi, with -nəōmi being a variant (7th class, short) of the standard -mi ending. However, it is most likely that the -nu- suffix was understood as a suffix and not as part of the ending earlier in the history of the language.
Each class of endings came with "long" and "short" variants. These arise from a laryngeal that stood at the end of the root, which, before a consonant, became a separate syllable but, before a vowel, merely coloured it. These are of course etymological artifacts of the root, but until laryngeals were understood in the 20th century, they were thought of as special endings associated with certain roots. The long endings could appear in front of most classes.
Root
ēmi, šté, "to be". This verb of singular importance has opaque forms that owe their opaqueness to the vagaries of *s in various positions. In principle, when *s precedes *u̯ or a back vowel and when it stands in initial position and precedes any vowel, it becomes h; then any *e which borders h becomes a. Before a nasal, *s becomes *z and is elided with any vowel other than /i u/; thus ēmi < *ezmi "am". In the 2 sg the syncopated form *asi is required. The a-vocalism of *h-anti > həṇti "they are" is due to the colouring effects of h and not an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal, and so the subjunctive endings beginning in e are not coloured to a.
The full stem is disclosed by the 3 sg pres éšti and 1 sg impf eząm, where the /z/ < *s is not lost before a syllabic nasal. The 2 sg impf é-ō is the standard spelling after a vowel; where the augment is not used, it is āḫ, or as-tə "and you are" before an enclitic.
| active | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | ē-mi | é-ez-ąm | áŋh-ō | h-iiā̊ | ||
| 2 sg | á-hi | é-ō-ḫ | -aēyi | z-δí | ||
| 3 sg | éš-ti | é-eš-ṯ | -asi | -iiāṯ | š-tū́ | |
| 1 du | h-uuəíñi | ēz-uuó | h-uuó | -avíñi | -ūmβó | |
| 2 du | š-tāḫ | ēš-tõm | š-tõm | -átāḫ | -ītõm | -tāˢ |
| 3 du | -tā̊ | -tā̊ | -átiš | -ītā̊ | -tāmū | |
| 1 pl | h-maŋhi | ēz-mo | h-mo | -omiñi | -īmó | |
| 2 pl | s-té | ēš-té | š-te | -áti | -īté | éš-ti |
| 3 pl | h-ənti | ā-h-áṇṯ | -onδi | -iyāṯ | h-əntū | |
| inf | ||||||
nu-suffix
xšnaōmi, xšnuθvé, "to sharpen". Present stems which vary with a -nu- suffix -náuu- in strong forms (written naō- before consonants) are treated as a special class as the endings are liable to become muddled with the stem-final consonant. Fundamentally, these verbs are still of the VC type and all have mobile accent. For the zero-grade suffix, syllabification rules generate two alloforms -nu- and -av-, which appear in front of consonants and vowels, respectively.
Like other suffixed verbs, the injunctive, subjunctive, and imperative do not display the indicative suffix in Galic, but which is found in late texts.
| active | middle | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | xš-naṓ-mi | a-xš-nā̊ | xazam | xaŋh-ōḥ | xš-nu-iiā̊ | xš-nuv-ái | a-xš-nūm | hš-nūm | hš-neu̯ą̄m | hš-āŋvīma | |||
| 2 sg | xš-náu-šti | -naṓ-š | xā̊ | -ayi | -nu-iiā̊(s) | xš-ϑi | -nu-tái | -nušθo | -nušθo | -neu̯esθoi̯ | -āŋvīšθo | hš-nušvō | |
| 3 sg | xš-naṓ-ti | -naṓ | xašt | -ati | -nu-iiāṯ | xaš-tū | -nu-toi | -nuto | -nuto | -neu̯etoi̯ | -āŋvīto | -nuto | |
| 1 du | xš-nu-voíñi | a-xš-nu-vo | xšuuo | -auuiñi | xšt-av-īuuo | -nu-mβózθa | -nuu̯óθa | -nuu̯eθa | -neu̯ou̯ozθa | -āŋvīu̯óθa | |||
| 2 du | xš-nu-tāḫ | -nu-tõm | -tõm | -atāḫ | -av-ītõm | xš-tāḫ | -nu-vātiθayi | -āŋvātaθa | -āŋvātaθa | -neu̯ātaθai | -āŋvītaθa | -āŋvātaθa | |
| 3 du | -nu-tā̊ | -tā̊ | -atiš | -av-ītā̊ | -tāmū | -nu-vātāyi | -āŋvātā | -āŋvātā | -neu̯ātāi̯i | -āŋvītā | -āŋvātā | ||
| 1 pl | xš-nu-míñi | -nu-mo | -mo | -amiñi | -av-īmo | -nu-mózθa | -numeθa | -numeθa | -neu̯omozθa | -āŋvīmeθa | |||
| 2 pl | xš-nu-té | -nu-té | -té | -ati | -av-īte | -te | -nu-šδuué | -nušθve | -nušθve | -neu̯esθve | -āŋvīšθve | -nuθve | |
| 3 pl | xš-uu-onδi | a-xš-ŋv-óṇṯ | xštóṇṯ | -əṇti | -nu-iiaṯ | -atū | -ŋv-əntrai | -āŋvónθro | -āŋvónθro | -neu̯onθroi̯ | -āŋvīnθro | -āŋvunθo | |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Persistent accent
There is a variety of roots that take an accent that persists on the root syllable in (some forms of) the present stem. While the accent is persistent, the contrast between the singular active and other forms is conserved: the former have a lengthened vowel *ē, and the latter the full-grade vowel *e. The lengthened vowel grade is associated with the indicative, imperfect, subjunctive, and optative and disappears in the injunctive and imperative, as well as any non-finite forms.
The main difference from the mobile accent is that any ablauting element in the ending will take the zero-grade form, including the singular forms in the active. Thus, optative active forms are 1p yámī < *yém-ih₁-m, 2p yámīš, and 3p yámīṯ. Due to the stem-final /m/, the 1 sg secondary ending -m syncopates and created a prehistoric long vowel before final continuant that was opened. Thus the 1 sg and 2 sg forms are identical in Galic; stem is disclosed by the 3 sg form. Accounting for vowel colouring and accent colouring, the remaining forms are wholly regular.
yāmmi, yamai, "to take".
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | yā́m-mi | a-iiā̊ | yā̊ | yā́m-ō | yám-ī | yám-aē | a-iiám-a | yám-ōe | yám-īya | |||
| 2 sg | -p-si | -ayi | -īš | yám-δi | -taē | -ta | -itaē | -īta | -žuua | |||
| 3 sg | -ti | a-iiām-t | yam-t | -iti | -īṯ | -tū | -ta | |||||
| 1 du | yám-βuuaēñi | a-yám-uua | -uua | -auuōḫ | -ūmβa | -uuōδa | -uuoδa | -auuōδa | -īvaδa | |||
| 2 du | -tāḫ | -tõm | -tõm | -itāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -tiϑaēyi | -taϑa | -taϑaēyi | -ītaϑa | -ātaϑa | |
| 3 du | -tiš | -tā̊ | -tā̊ | -itiš | -ītā̊ | -tāmū | -iϑāyi | -iϑā | -iϑāyi | -ītā | -ātā | |
| 1 pl | -mahi | -ma | -ma | -amōḫ | -īma | -mōiδa | -miδa | -amōiδa | -īmiδa | |||
| 2 pl | -ti | -ti | -ti | -iti | -īti | -ti | -žδuua | -žδuua | -ižδuu | -īžδuua | -δumβa | |
| 3 pl | -āṯ | -āṯ | -āṯ | -ənti | -iyaṯ | -ātū | -ātraē | -ātra | -óntraē | -īyātra | -āta | |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | ||||||||||||
Root with long endings
raōdaēmi, ruδité, "to weep". Owing to the effects of an interconsonantal laryngeal, some roots were synchronically analyzed as taking a set of endings augmented with a vowel between the stem and ending proper, though historically the augmentation is part of the stem and not of the ending. These endings are analogous with the ṣet roots in the Tennite language, while those taking the short (normal) endings are analogous to aṇit roots. Since there is an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal on the stem-ending border, any ending which begins with *e (bolded) is liable to be coloured by this laryngeal. This colouring effect was seen as the analogue to the ending augmentation where the laryngeal is not preserved between consonants.
| active | middle | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | rəōd-aēmi | é-rəōd-am | rəōd-ōḥ | ruj-iiā̊ | ruδ-ai | é-ruδ-a | rəōd-oē | ruδ-iya | ||
| 2 sg | -išti | -iš | -ayi | rud-iδi | -itai | -ita | -āδo | -īta | ruδ-ižuuo | |
| 3 sg | -iti | -iṯ | -ati | -iiāṯ | rəōd-itū́ | -o | -o | -átoi | -īto | -o |
| 1 du | ruδ-umβóni | é-ruδ-iuuo | -auuōḫ | -īuuo | -umβṓδa | -umβóδa | -auuāδa | -ūmβóδa | ||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -atāḫ | -ītõm | ruδ-itāḫ | -átiδayi | -átiδa | -aētiδayi | -itiδa | -átiδa |
| 3 du | -itā̊ | -atiš | -ītā̊ | -ités | -átā | -átā | -aētāyi | -itā | -átā | |
| 1 pl | -amáŋhi | -amó | -omōḫ | -īmo | -amṓδa | -ameδa | -omōδa | -īmeδa | ||
| 2 pl | -ité | -ité | -ati | -īte | -iti | -ižδuuo | -ižδuuo | -āδuua | -īžδuuo | -iδuuo |
| 3 pl | -ánti | -ánṯ | -anti | -iianṯ | -ánθu | -árə | -árə | -óntrai | -iyaδro | -ir |
| act inf anitiš, anituš act ptcpl ānaṯ, anatṓḫ; ānatī, ānatīš mid inf aniźiiō mid ptcpl anaminṓḫ fut imp ániδitat, ánatat | ||||||||||
Of a similar construction are those verbs whose historic stems terminated in *-h₂ and *-h₃, giving rise to a and o respectively, in all the bolded positions.
Vowel-final stems
These encompass those roots that ended in a vowel plus laryngeal (VH) in the parent language. Praetorianus did not notice that the long vowel was part of the stem and not of the ending—in other words, he thought the root here was merely "št" to which an augmented ending was added—and so classed these stems together with those that have a suffixed long vowel—which he too regarded as normal roots using augmented endings.
tištāmi, tištité, "stand".
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |||
| 1 sg | ti-št-aēmi | e-ti-št-ā̊ | ti-št-ōḥ | ti-ś-iiā̊ | ti-št-aē | e-ti-št-á | ti-št-oē | ti-št-iyá | ||||
| 2 sg | -ā́hi | -ayi | ti-št-iϑí | -itaē | -itá | -átaē | -ītá | ti-št-ižuuó | ||||
| 3 sg | -ā́ti | e-ti-št-āt | -ati | -iiāṯ | -ā́tū | -ə̄ | -ó | -átə̄ | -ītó | -ó | ||
| 1 du | -umβéiñi | -umβó | -ouuōḫ | ti-št-ūmβó | -umβōδa | -umβóδa | -óuuōδa | -ūmβóδa | ||||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -átāḫ | -ītõm | -itāḫ | -ātiϑayi | -ātiϑa | -ātiϑayi | -ītiϑa | -ātiϑa | ||
| 3 du | -itā̊ | -ītā̊ | -itāmū́ | -āyi | -ā | -āyi | -iyā | -ā | ||||
| 1 pl | -əmáŋhi | -əmó | -omōḫ | -īmó | -əmōiδa | -améδa | -omōiδa | -īméδa | ||||
| 2 pl | -ité | -ité | -áti | -īté | -iti | -ižδuuó | -ižδuuó | -āδuuó | -īžδuuó | -ižuuó | ||
| 3 pl | -ənti | -āṯ | -ónδi | -iyaṯ | -əṇtū́ | -árə | -árə | -ō | -ī | -iro | ||
| inf fut imp | ||||||||||||
Vowel-final stems with persistent accent
These encompass those roots that ended in a vowel plus laryngeal (VH) in the parent language. Praetorianus did not notice that the long vowel was part of the stem and not of the ending—in other words, he thought the root here was merely "št" to which an augmented ending was added—and so classed these stems together with those that have a suffixed long vowel—which he too regarded as normal roots using augmented endings.
wōmi, woti, "stand".
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |||
| 1 sg | ti-št-aēmi | e-ti-št-ā̊ | ti-št-ōḥ | ti-ś-iiā̊ | ti-št-aē | e-ti-št-á | ti-št-oē | ti-št-iyá | ||||
| 2 sg | -ā́hi | -ayi | ti-št-iϑí | -itaē | -itá | -átaē | -ītá | ti-št-ižuuó | ||||
| 3 sg | -ā́ti | e-ti-št-āt | -ati | -iiāṯ | -ā́tū | -ə̄ | -ó | -átə̄ | -ītó | -ó | ||
| 1 du | -umβéiñi | -umβó | -ouuōḫ | ti-št-ūmβó | -umβōδa | -umβóδa | -óuuōδa | -ūmβóδa | ||||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -átāḫ | -ītõm | -itāḫ | -ātiϑayi | -ātiϑa | -ātiϑayi | -ītiϑa | -ātiϑa | ||
| 3 du | -itā̊ | -ītā̊ | -itāmū́ | -āyi | -ā | -āyi | -iyā | -ā | ||||
| 1 pl | -əmáŋhi | -əmó | -omōḫ | -īmó | -əmōiδa | -améδa | -omōiδa | -īméδa | ||||
| 2 pl | -ité | -ité | -áti | -īté | -iti | -ižδuuó | -ižδuuó | -āδuuó | -īžδuuó | -ižuuó | ||
| 3 pl | -ənti | -āṯ | -ónδi | -iyaṯ | -əṇtū́ | -árə | -árə | -ō | -ī | -iro | ||
| inf fut imp | ||||||||||||
Aorist
Aorist stems
The aorist or perfective (not to be confused with "perfect") stems belong to a relic class in Epic Northian, but they are productive in the Galic language. When used in the indicative and imperative, there are four formations as follows. But when used outside of them, and particularly in the injunctive and optative moods, aorists in s- are often "conjugated from the root", that is behave like root aorists. Roots which have this behaviour are called "split aorists" and are associated with a contrasting ablaut pattern, with only the third plural exhibiting a weak grade.
| # | Class | 1 sg. / 2 pl. | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | root | CéC-am / CØC-té | Contains roots that are inherently perfective. Most perfective verbs in the parent language appear to have been of this type, and Galic Northian has inherited about 100 lexical items inflected this way. The root syllable typically shows ablaut between *e ~ Ø. Many suffixed imperfective stems are derived from a root perfective stem. | dō- / d(i)- "to give" xraō- / xru- "to hear" |
| 2 | root | CØC-õm / CØC-té | Contains roots that are inherently perfective. This type appears to have been rare. | luδ- "to listen" |
| 3 | reduplicated | Cé-CØC-õm / Cé-CØC-iti | This pattern is known from only one root, though it is widely-attested in other Erani-Eracuran languages. | waō-š-[1] "to say" |
| 4 | s- | CḗC-s-(m) / CéC-š-ti | The s- suffix creates perfective stems from roots which were inherently imperfective; notably, the ablauting root syllable contrasts the long vowel in the strong forms and the short in the weak. | daix-s- "to show" |
- ↑ from *wau-s- < *wé-wk-
Root aorists
esedām, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Split aorists
dēkšam, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Thematic endings
dēkšam, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Perfect
Perfect stems
The features of the perfect stem in the proto-language were reduplication and the o-vocalism in the perfect indicative. This is true of Northian as well. In the Epic language, the o-vocalism has spread into the subjunctive, but in Galic the subjunctive has the inherited e-vocalism.
| # | Class | 1 sg. / 2 pl. | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | root | CóC-a / CØC-é | This type is known from only one verb, namely u̯oi̯d- "to know". The weak stem is u̯id-. Accent is on the root syllable for strong forms, and endings for weak forms. | u̯oi̯d- / u̯id- "to know" |
| 2 | reduplicated | Ce-CóC-a / Ce-CØC-é | Creates stative stems from perfective and imperfective roots. An extra syllable is prefixed, consisting of the consonant immediately preceding the next vowel and the vowel *e. Due to phonetic change, this vowel can appear as o following a labialized consonant or become more obscure if a lost consonant such as a laryngeal is reduplicated, cf. ā̊ha "I am desiccated" < PEE *h₂e-h₂oh₂s-h₂e. The strong forms have characteristic accented o-grade in the root syllable and zero-grade there in the weak forms with accented endings. | ve-voi̯d- / ve-vid- "to believe" ko-kor- / ko-kr- "to be working" ā̊s- / ā̊s- "to be desiccated" |
| 3 | long-vowel | Ce-CṓC-a / Ce-CóC-i | This type may have developed in Northian on the pattern of the sigmatic aorist as it has no like cognates in other branches of the language. It contrasts a long vowel in the strong forms and a short vowel in the weak, and the vowel is often, but not always, the o that is characteristic of the perfect. |
Reduplicated
titóna, titné "to be growing, to increase". Perfect stems in Northian are regularly formed by reduplication of the first consonant with the vowel *e, attached to the root in o-grade in the active singular and in zero grade in the active dual and plural and the entire middle. The endings are a special set of perfect endings.
Aside from the perfect indicative or "perfect tense" in paedagogical works, various other forms are made from the perfect stem. With the exception of the perfect imperative, which is attested about as much as the indicative, other formations are considerably rarer for the reason that they may be Northian innovations rather than inherited features of the prehistoric parent language. The pluperfect (or descriptively the perfect preterite) and perfect injunctive are formed from the indicative stem, with the same ablaut behaviour, with secondary endings. The subjunctive is formed from the reduplicated stem with root in invariant e-grade, and the optative from the same stem with root in invariant zero grade.
Not all perfect stems are capable of displaying all these formations. Especially, perfect verbs with stative meaning usually do not form pluperfects or any middle forms, but they do form subjunctives and optatives. When a pluperfect meaning is required, they have a periphrastic formation of the perfect active participle with the imperfect forms of the verb es "to be". Yet it is difficult to formulate absolute rules about this matter, since the Galic corpus is of limited size, and there may have existed unattested formations in the language of its composition.
| active | middle | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | titón-a | e-titón-ąm | titén-ō | titn-iiā̊ | p-ā́m | ep-ā́m | p-ā́m | p-ą̄m | |||
| 2 sg | -θa | e-titṓṇ-ġ | titéin-i | -iiā̊ | titā-δī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -ásθoi̯ | -īšθo | ||
| 3 sg | -i | e-titóṇ-ṯ | titén-ai | -iiāṯ | -tū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -átoi̯ | -īto | -ito | |
| 1 du | titn-uuo | e-titn-uuo | -auuiñi | -ūvo | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | |||
| 2 du | titā-tā | e-titā-tõm | -itāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātaθa | -ātaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ātaθa | |
| 3 du | -tṓ | -tā̊ | -itiš | -ītā̊ | -tḗ | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ātā | |
| 1 pl | tita-mé | e-tita-mo | -omiñi | -īmo | -amózθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | |||
| 2 pl | titn-é | e-titā-θé | -iti | -īté | tétā-ti | -išθvé | -išθvé | -ásθve | -īšθve | -iθve | |
| 3 pl | -ṓ | e-titn-áṇṯ | -ō | -iiāṯ | titn-atū | -ánθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo | |
| inf titnuuéni, pf act ptcpl titnuuā̊, titnuštṓ; titnuuṓḫ; titnuuohī, titnuźiiā̊ | inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl titaminō (I/II) | ||||||||||
Root
woida, widé "to know" is the only member of the perfect conjugation that, as a condition with good history, does not have reduplication. There are other perfect stems which do not have reduplication in Northian but do in other branch of the language; these are usually regarded as Northian innovations on the pattern of woida. It has the peculiarity of forming a full-grade root in the 3 pl, which also puts the ending in zero grade -ūš. It is as yet not known whether this feature is inherited, as it has been argued to be introduced from the root aorist injunctive, which in this form also shows full grade in the root.
| active | middle | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | woid-a | auuoid-am | teten-ō | tetn-i̯ą̄m | p-ā́m | ep-ā́m | p-ą̄m | p-īma | ||
| 2 sg | wōiš-ta | auuōi-š | -esi | -i̯āu̯ | tetun-θī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -ásθoi̯ | -īšθo | p-išvō |
| 3 sg | woid-i | auuōi-št | -eti | -i̯āṯ | -tū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -átoi̯ | -īto | -ito |
| 1 du | wīž-uuó | auuiž-uua | -ou̯iñi | -īvo | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | ||
| 2 du | wīš-tā | auuiš-tõm | -etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātaθa | -ātaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ātaθa |
| 3 du | -tṓ | -tā̊ | -itą̄m | -ītąm | -tés | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ātā |
| 1 pl | wīž-mé | auuiž-mó | -omiñi | -īmō | -amózθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | ||
| 2 pl | vid-é | auuiš-té | -áti | -īté | -ti | -išθvé | -išθvé | -ásθve | -īšθve | -iθve |
| 3 pl | woid-ūš | auuiž-iiáṯ | -ónθi | -ii̯āṯ | tétn-unθu | -ánθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo |
| pf act inf wižuuéni, pf act ptcpl wáiduš, widuštōḫ; wáidū; wáiduštī, widuśiiā̊ | pf mid inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl menanōḫ (I/II) | |||||||||
The other perfect verbs that fail to show reduplication are:
- u̯ṓi̯a, vii̯á "to fear"
- mṓna, mné "to recall"
It has been noted that most verbs which fail to reduplicate are verbs of internal states or emotions.
Thematic conjugation
Present
βaiδō "I trust". Cognate to Shalumite "to bide". Points of interest are:
- In the Galic material, the effects of the stem-final laryngeal are reflected quite regularly, such that the 2 and 3 sg., 2 and 3 du., and 2 pl. endings, which commence with the colouring-susceptible vowel *e, may be coloured to *a and *o, and the latter in unaccented positions becomes a. This is seen in the comparatively common verb apúpitō "fly away", whose 2 du. form is apúpitatāḫ and not *apúpititāḫ. In later materials, the laryngeal-less endings (which would be identical to those for stems ending in *h₁-) became standard.
- In the active subjunctive, the subjunctive modal suffix prehistorically merges with the thematic endings and result in long vowels; in unaccented positions these evolved differently than short vowels, to wit *ē > ā, while *ō remains unchanged.
- In the active optative, the diphthong scans short in the 1 du. and 3 pl., the cause of which is still uncertain.
- Due to phonetic change, the middle forms of the 2 and 3 sg. are not distinct, as both 2 sg. *eth₂ei and 3 sg. *etoi > -itai.
- In the middle subjunctive, the 2 and 3 du. endings lack the final -i of the primary endings and are thus identical to secondary endings; this phenomenon is widespread enough to be ruled out as a scribal error and is usually thought to reflect original variation in the conjugation system as the subjunctive is already specified by a modal morpheme and cannot be mistaken by a different set of endings. The optative, however, is always found with secondary endings.
| act | mid | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf / inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | βaiδ-ō | e-baiδ-õm | βaiδ-ō | βaiδ-ā̊ | βaiδ-aā̊i | e-baiδ-aā̊ | βaiδ-ōai | βaiδ-aiia | ||
| 2 sg | -iyi | -iš | -āyi | -aīš | βaiδi | -itai | -ita | -ātai | -aita | |
| 3 sg | -ai | -iṯ | -āi | -aīṯ | βaiδitū | -itai | -ita | -ātai | -aita | |
| 1 du | -auuiñi | -auua | -ə̄uuiñi | -aiuua | -auuazδa | -auuida | -ə̄uuazδa | -aiuuida | ||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -ātāḫ | -aītõm | βaiδitāḫ | -itāδāi | -itāδā | -ātāδā | -aitāδā | |
| 3 du | -itiš | -itā̊ | -ātiš | -aītā̊ | βaiδitiš | -itāyi | -itā | -ātā | -aitā | |
| 1 pl | -amiñi | -ama | -ōmiñi | -aīma | -amazδa | -amida | -ōmazδa | -aimida | ||
| 2 pl | -iti | -iti | -āti | -aīti | βaiδiti | -idūvi | -idūvi | -ādūvi | -aidūvi | |
| 3 pl | -ō | -anṯ | -ōnδi | -aiiāṯ | βaiδanδū | -aṇtrai | -aṇtra | -ōṇtrai | -aiiāθra | |
| fut imp βaiδitaṯ, βaiδanδaṯ act inf βaiδitiš, βaiδituš, act ptcpl βaiδā̊s, βaiδanδōḫ; βaiδaṯ; βaiδanδī, βaiδanδiiā̊, mid inf βaiδōi, mid ptcpl βaiδominōḫ (I/II) | ||||||||||
Aorist
| Indicative | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | ekorum | korum | korō | kāri̯ām | — | — | |
| 2 sg. | ekōr | kōr | korei | kāri̯ās | kor | kortoṯ | |
| 3 sg. | ekord | kord | korei̯ | kāri̯āt | kārto | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 du. | ekurōs | kārōs | korou̯ō | korīu̯ō | — | — | |
| 2 du. | ekurtõ | kārtõ | koretas | korītõ | kārtas | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 du. | ekurtąm | kārtą̄m | koretíš | krītąm | kārtíš | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 pl. | ekurmō | kārmō | koromõ | korīmō | — | — | |
| 2 pl. | ekurte | kārte | korete | korīte | kārte | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 pl. | ekurenṯ | kārenṯ | koronθi | koriānṯ | kārenθo | kārunθoṯ | |
| inf kāršiš, kāršuš, ptcpl korå, kronθō; korāṯ, kronθō; korunθī, krāŋθi̯ās | |||||||
| Indicative | Imperfect | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | ekurma | kārma | korōm | krīma | — | — | |
| 2 sg. | ekursθo | kārsθo | koresθoi̯ | krīšθo | kārhvō | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 sg. | ekurto | kārto | koretoi̯ | krīto | kārto | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 du. | ekurreθa | kārreθa | korou̯osθa | krīu̯eθa | — | — | |
| 2 du. | ekurātaθa | kārātaθa | korātaθai | krītaθa | kārātaθa | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 du. | ekurātā | kārātā | korātāi̯i | krītā | kārātā | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 pl. | ekurmeθa | kārmeθa | koromosθa | krīmeθa | — | — | |
| 2 pl. | ekuršθve | kāršθve | koresθve | krīšθve | kārθve | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 pl. | ekurenθro | kārenθro | koronθroi̯ | krīnθro | kārunθo | kārunθoṯ | |
| inf kārθi̯ō, kārθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kārūmnō, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnõ, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnā, kārūmnās | |||||||