Imperial Federation of Brazil

Federal Republic of Brazil República Federal do Brasil
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Verdade, Justiça, Fraternidade" "Truth, Justice, Fraternity"
Anthem: Independence Anthem
Brazil, 2023
Capital	Petrópolis
Largest city	Alvorecer D'Ouro
Official languages	Portuguese Brazilian Sign Language (LIBRA)
Ethnic groups (2023 estimates)	45% White 39% Mixed 12% Black 3% Asian 1% Amerindian
Religion (2023 estimates)	60% Roman Catholic 14% Protestant 10% Irreligious 6% Spiritist 3% Afro-Brazilian Religions 3% Neopaganism 4% Other Religions
Demonym(s)	Brazilian, Brazilese
Government	Federal parliamentary republic under an authoritarian dictatorship
• Grand-Rector	Giovanni V. Guimarães
• Minister-President	Verônica L. Giraud
• Justice-Director of the Supreme Federal Court	Henrique Cunha Brown
• Minister of War	Sebastião Pinto Pinheiro
Legislature	Federal Parliament
• Upper house	Federal Senate
• Lower house	Chamber of Deputies
Independence from Portugal
• Declared	07 September 1822
• Recognized	29 August 1825
• Slavery Abolished	13 May 1888
• Brazilian Civil War	15 November 1889
• Current Constitution	03 June 2012
Area
•	8,515,767 km2 (3,287,956 sq mi)
Population
• 2020 census	209,028,000
GDP (nominal)	2021 estimate
• Total	$5.3 trillion (3rd)
• Per capita	$25,283
Gini (2021)	43 medium
HDI (2021)	0.837 very high
Currency	Brazilian Real (R$) (BRL)
Time zone	UTC -5 to UTC -2
Date format	dd-mm-yyyy (CE)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+55
ISO 3166 code	BR
Internet TLD	.br

Brazil (Portuguese: Brasil), officially the Federal Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federal do Brasil), is the largest country in the continents of Latin America and South America, and the third-largest in The Americas. Brazil is both the fifth-largest country by area and the fifth-most populous in the world. Its capital is Petrópolis, although there are plans to build a new capital city. The country is composed of a union of 28 states and a Federal District. Brazil is the largest Portuguese-speaking country in the world. The country is the only Portuguese-speaking territory in the Americas, as well as the country with the largest Roman Catholic population. With access to both the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, it borders all countries in South America without exceptions. Brazil covers more than half of the continent's area.

Brazil is one of the ten megadiverse countries and is home to most of the Amazon Rainorest. The Amazon Rainforest is home to highly diverse wildlife and contains uncountable natural resources. These facts turned Brazil into a subject of global interest, especially due to environmental degradation processes such as deforestation. The government pursues an ambivalent policy towards the Forest. Although extensive areas of the Amazon are protected by indigenous federations and natural reserves, companies are given permission to exploit areas that contain mineral resources. The government forbade deforestation for agriculture. According to political specialists and economists, this is not out of preoccupation due to environmental degradation, but due to concerns regarding deindustrialization.

Brazil's history predates European colonization by millennia. Indigenous peoples, including the Tupinambá, Tupiniquim, Guarani, and many others, inhabited the land. They cultivated agriculture, engaged in fishing and hunting, and developed intricate social structures. Indigenous cultures were diverse, with varying languages, customs, and lifestyles. In April 1500, Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on the shores of what is now Brazil. This event marked the beginning of Portuguese colonization. Brazil became a vital part of the Portuguese colonial empire, and efforts to exploit its resources led to the establishment of sugar plantations. By the 16th century, Brazil's northeastern coast was dotted with sugar plantations known as engenhos. The labor-intensive sugar industry necessitated a workforce, leading to the importation of African slaves. The slave trade flourished as millions of Africans were forcibly brought to Brazil over the centuries.

Following the decline of the Brazilian sugar market, in the 17th century the discovery of gold and diamonds in the region now known as Douradéria ignited a mining rush. The gold extracted from Douradéria enriched Portugal and led to further colonial expansion. Cities like Ouro Preto and Diamantina emerged as centers of mining activity and culture. More than a century later, in 1807, Portugal was invaded by Napoleon Bonaparte. In an unprecedented move, the Portuguese royal family, including Dom João VI, fled to Rio de Janeiro, making Brazil the center of the Portuguese Empire. This event led to the opening of Brazilian ports to international trade and the promotion of cultural and economic development. As Brazil's importance within the Portuguese Empire grew, demands for greater autonomy gained traction. In 1820, political changes in Portugal led to calls for the return of the royal court to Lisbon. Among other changes was the demotion of Brazil back to its former status of colony.

In response, Prince Pedro I, then regent of Brazil, declared the country's independence on September 7, 1822, leading to the establishment of the Empire of Brazil. Dom Pedro I became the first Emperor of Brazil, and the nation embarked on a journey as an independent monarchy. The 19th century witnessed political and social changes, including the fight against slave trafficking and the rise of coffee as a major export crop. Slavery remained a crucial part of the economy, even as abolitionist movements gained momentum. Pressure from both international and domestic sources pushed Brazil to address its slave-based economy. The Lei Áurea (Golden Law) was enacted on May 13, 1888, abolishing slavery in Brazil. This landmark legislation marked the end of one era and the beginning of another, as the country transitioned towards new social, political, and economic challenges.

The attempted republican overthrow of the monarchy on 15 November 1889 plunged Brazil into turmoil, resulting in a prolonged period of internal strife known as the Brazilian Civil War. The republicans and monarchists clashed in a bitter struggle for control, with the monarchists emerging victorious. Princess Isabel de Bragança, who once authored the Lei Áurea, was crowned as the reigning monarch, establishing a new era under the Braganzas. Under the leadership of Dona Isabel, Brazil embarked on an ambitious modernization and industrialization program, transitioning from a largely agrarian economy to a thriving industrial powerhouse. The state-sponsored initiatives yielded tremendous success, propelling Brazil to the forefront of global economic development.

As the world was engulfed in the First Weltkrieg, Brazil opted for a policy of neutrality, refraining from active involvement in the conflict. This decision allowed the nation to focus on internal progress and development while much of the world was consumed by the devastating war. Ultimately, the triumph of the German Empire and the fall of its rivals reshaped the world order. With the fall of Brazil's biggest commercial partners, Brazil had to realign its foreign policy towards Germany, causing the country to experience political turmoil and social unrest with the advent of the Great Depression in 1931. The period of the 1930s led to the rise of mass movements, such as the far-left Communists and the far-right Newfatherlandists. In the end, the struggle for power was won by a charismatic strongman named Getúlio Vargas, who ruled from 1938 to 1950.

However, the neutral foreign policy adopted by Brazil in the aftermath of the civil war was abandoned as soon as the Second Weltkrieg kicked off. Seeing its trade routes threatened by the unrestricted submarine warfare engaged by the Union of Britain and the French Commune, Brazil aligned itself with the Germans, joining the Reichspakt in 1940 following the sinking of three convoys on the Bay of Biscay. Brazil and its allies eventually emerged victorious from the bloodshed. The country became one of the founding members of the Society of Nations, pursuing an active stance in the global scenario for the following decades, which was aptly named "The Four White Decades" due to its peaceful and prosperous nature.

However, the peace established in the aftermath of the Second Weltkrieg came to an abrupt end in 1989 with the eclosion of the Third Weltkrieg. Brazil and its allies of the Reichspakt, including Germany, lost the war, which lasted for eight years. As a result of the war, a harsh peace was imposed upon the country, which was largely disarmed, deindustrialized, and had to pay hefty reparations to the winners. In December 1997 the monarchy was overthrown and Brazil became a parliamentary republic during a period known as the "Maceió Republic", named after the city in which the Republican Constitution was drafted.

In 2011 the National Reorganization League (LIGA), a nationalist party that holds a strong anti-imperialist rhetoric, rose to power amid the highly-contended 2011 Parliamentary Elections. The ascension of the National Reorganization League brings both hope and apprehension. The party's rhetoric emphasizes national unity, remilitarization, and the re-establishment of order. While the remilitarization of Brazil raises concerns, the party's leader, now Grand-Rector Giovanni Guimarães, seeks to assure the public that the nation's actions are rooted in protection and stability. The slogan "Brazil: The Country of Brotherly Love" is echoed in speeches and addresses, offering reassurance amid uncertain times.

Etymology

Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, pau-brasil; brasil means "red like an ember" in Portuguese.

The standard way to refer to a citizen of Brazil is as a "Brazilian". More recently, under the 1990 Orthographic Reform, Brazilese also has been accepted as an alternative to Brazilian and is often used in a political context.

History

Pre-History of Brazil (12,000 BC - 1500 AD)

The pre-history of Brazil is a rich and diverse mixture of human occupation and cultural development that spans thousands of years before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500. This period is marked by the presence of various indigenous cultures and the gradual evolution of societies adapted to the diverse landscapes of the region. While the understanding of this era is continuously evolving, archaeological and anthropological research has shed light on the key aspects of Brazil's pre-history.

Computerized reconstruction of Luzia, the oldest fossil from the Americas

The earliest evidence of human presence in what is now Brazil dates back to the Paleoindian period, characterized by nomadic groups of hunter-gatherers who migrated across the landmass known as Beringia, connecting Siberia and North America. These early inhabitants of Brazil likely followed a route along the coast or through interior river valleys, adapting to the changing environments and resources they encountered. Archaeological sites such as Pedra Furada in the northeast of Brazil provide glimpses into the lifeways of these ancient people through rock art and stone tools. During the Archaic period, populations in Brazil began to establish more sedentary communities and developed subsistence strategies that included fishing, hunting, and plant cultivation. This period witnessed the cultivation of various plant species, such as squash and maize, which played a crucial role in the transition to more complex societies. As communities grew in size and sophistication, they started to create more elaborate tools, pottery, and other artifacts. The Sambaqui shell mounds along the coast are prominent archaeological remnants of this era, providing insights into ancient diets and lifestyles.

The Formative period in Brazil was marked by the further development of agricultural practices and the establishment of larger, more socially complex societies. Along the Amazon River and its tributaries, intricate earthworks known as geoglyphs emerged, such as the well-known Amazonian "Geoglyphs of Acre." These earthworks are thought to have had ritual and ceremonial significance. In other regions, societies constructed impressive ceremonial mounds and developed complex trade networks, as evidenced by the presence of exotic goods in archaeological sites.

Marajoara burial urn, circa 1250 AD

As the pre-Columbian era progressed, distinct cultures emerged across Brazil's diverse landscapes. In the Amazon rainforest, civilizations like the Marajoara and the Tapajônica thrived, utilizing advanced pottery techniques and creating intricate pottery vessels. Meanwhile, in the southeastern region, the Itaparica culture developed, characterized by impressive pottery decorated with intricate designs. Throughout this period, trade networks expanded, facilitating the exchange of goods over long distances.

By the time Portuguese explorers arrived in 1500, the region now known as Brazil was inhabited by a vast array of indigenous societies with diverse languages, cultures, and ways of life. These societies ranged from nomadic hunter-gatherers to complex agricultural civilizations. Some were organized into chiefdoms with hierarchical structures, while others lived in smaller, more egalitarian communities. The Tupinambá people, for instance, inhabited the coastal areas and practiced agriculture, fishing, and hunting while the Guarani people, known for their nomadic lifestyle and agricultural practices, were spread across the interior of Brazil.

Early Colonial Period (1500 - 1600)

The brazilwood tree, namasake of Brazil, has a valuable wood

The arrival of Pedro Álvares Cabral on 22 April 1500 marked the beginning of European contact and colonization in the region that would become Brazil. Pedro Álvares Cabral, leading a fleet of ships, set sail from Portugal in March 1500 with the primary goal of establishing trade routes to India. However, due to navigational errors and prevailing winds, Cabral's fleet reached the shores of a landmass he named Terra de Vera Cruz (Land of the True Cross) on April 22, 1500. This discovery was unplanned, and the Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to make contact with the indigenous peoples of the region. Upon arrival, Cabral's crew explored the coastline and interacted with the local Tupiniquim indigenous people. The explorers encountered the valuable Brazilwood tree, a resource highly sought after in Europe for its dye-producing qualities.

The First Mass in Brazil, by Victor Meirelles (1861)

After the initial voyage of Álvares Cabral, the Portuguese monarchy did not immediately prioritize the colonization of the newly discovered land. The focus remained on establishing trade routes to India and Africa. However, by the early 16th century, King Manuel I of Portugal realized the strategic importance of maintaining a presence in Brazil to secure territorial claims and access to valuable resources. As such, In 1530, King John III of Portugal decided to establish permanent settlements along the Brazilian coast. He divided the land into hereditary captaincies, granting nobles the authority to govern and colonize specific areas. However, these captaincies faced numerous challenges, including indigenous resistance, lack of resources, and conflicts among colonists. The Portuguese settlers initially focused on extracting Brazilwood for trade, which became a lucrative source of revenue. However, the demand for Brazilwood led to overexploitation and conflicts with indigenous populations. Additionally, the Portuguese began cultivating sugarcane in small quantities, foreshadowing the economic transformation that would occur in the following decades.

In the early 16th century, Jesuit missionaries arrived in Brazil with the goal of converting indigenous populations to Christianity. The Jesuits established missions, or aldeias, where indigenous people were taught European customs, Christianity, and agricultural practices. The missions played a role in cultural exchange and the adaptation of European technologies.

In 1532, Martim Afonso de Sousa established the first successful Portuguese settlement at São Vicente, near present-day Martinópolis. The settlement initially focused on subsistence farming and trade with indigenous peoples. In 1549, the Portuguese Crown established the city of Salvador as the capital of the colony. This marked a shift in focus from individual captaincies to centralized administration and control. By the mid-16th century, Portuguese settlers began to turn their attention to sugarcane cultivation as a means of economic prosperity. Sugarcane was introduced to Brazil from the archipelagos of Madeira and Cape Verde. The tropical climate and fertile soil of northeastern Brazil were highly suitable for sugarcane cultivation. Large tracts of land were cleared for plantations, often displacing indigenous communities.

A typical sugar engenho, Pernambuco

The expansion of the sugar industry required a vast labor force. Due to the high mortality rates among indigenous laborers due to disease and harsh working conditions, the Portuguese turned to enslaved Africans. The transatlantic slave trade brought millions of Africans to Brazil, where they were subjected to brutal treatment on sugar plantations. This marked the beginning of a deeply entrenched system of slavery that would persist for centuries. Sugar production was highly labor-intensive and required complex machinery and infrastructure. Plantations established engenhos, or sugar mills, which included various components such as mills, boilers, and distillation equipment. The production process involved extracting juice from sugarcane, boiling it to create crystallized sugar, and then refining the sugar. The byproducts were used to produce rum.

The success of the sugar industry led to the expansion of plantations along the northeastern coast, particularly in Pernambuco and Bahia. The demand for labor and land sparked conflicts with indigenous communities and contributed to territorial disputes. European competitors, including the French and Dutch, attempted to challenge Portuguese dominance in Brazil. The Dutch managed to seize control of parts of northeastern Brazil during the Iberian Union, leading to a period of Dutch rule known as "New Holland."

Dutch Rule and Decline of the Sugar Cycle (1600 - 1690)

John Maurice of Nassau, overnor of Dutch Brazil

During the 17th century, the Dutch Republic emerged as a major maritime and trading power, challenging the Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires, which were united under the Iberian Union. With ambitions to establish a global trading network, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) sought to gain control over valuable sugar-producing territories to secure their dominance in the sugar trade. In 1624, the Dutch launched a successful invasion of Salvador, the capital of Brazil, marking the beginning of their occupation. The Dutch established control over key sugar-producing areas, including Pernambuco, and renamed the region "New Holland." The Dutch rule over Brazil lasted for approximately 24 years.

Under Dutch rule, the sugar industry continued to flourish. The Dutch implemented efficient management practices, modernized infrastructure, and established better trading networks. This allowed them to enhance sugar production and profit from the valuable commodity, thereby challenging Portuguese dominance in the global sugar market. The Dutch invasion introduced a period of cultural exchange and interaction between the Dutch colonizers, enslaved Africans, and the local population. This interaction influenced art, architecture, and even language, as Dutch words found their way into the Portuguese spoken by the locals.

Portuguese settlers and local resistance groups, such as the Luso-Brazilian militias and indigenous communities, resisted Dutch rule. The Portuguese Crown and the local population were determined to reclaim control over their territories and resources. After years of bloody resistance and bitter conflict, the Portuguese managed to regain control over Brazil. A decisive military campaign led by Portuguese forces, combined with internal divisions among the Dutch, culminated in the recapture of Pernambuco and the expulsion of the Dutch from Brazil in 1654. The Dutch invasion left a lasting impact on Brazilian society and culture. The experience of Dutch rule introduced new ideas, technologies, and influences that would shape the trajectory of Brazilian history. The architectural legacy of the Dutch can still be seen in cities like Nassau, where remnants of their rule are evident in the urban layout and buildings. After the expulsion of the Dutch, Brazil continued to be a major player in the global sugar trade, however, it lost its monopoly. Although the sugar industry remained a crucial component of the Brazilian economy, the sugarcane cycle began to decline.

Gold Rush (1690-1807)

A Portuguese gold coin made from Brazilian gold

The Gold Rush and Economic Transformation in Brazil from 1690 to 1807 marked a pivotal era of rapid economic change and social upheaval. The discovery of gold and other precious minerals in the interior of Brazil led to a massive influx of people, the rise of mining towns, and the reshaping of the colonial economy. This period saw the expansion of Portuguese influence, the exploitation of natural resources, the establishment of mining communities, and the emergence of new social dynamics. In the late 17th century, gold was discovered in the region of Douradéria, in present-day Brazil. The news of gold's abundance spread quickly, leading to a rush of prospectors, adventurers, and settlers from various parts of Brazil and beyond.

The allure of wealth drew a diverse range of individuals to the mining region. Miners, traders, artisans, and slaves flocked to the area in search of riches. The population of Minas Gerais skyrocketed, leading to the rapid expansion of settlements and the emergence of mining towns. The gold rush led to the establishment of mining towns such as Ouro Preto, Mariana, and Sabará. These towns served as centers of economic activity, governance, and social interaction. The architectural legacy of this period can still be seen in the well-preserved colonial buildings and churches of Ouro Preto, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Brazilian Gold Rush was the world's longest gold rush period

The extraction of gold required extensive labor, and enslaved Africans were forced to work in grueling and hazardous conditions in the mines. The gold rush intensified the demand for slaves, leading to an increase in the transatlantic slave trade. The influx of people, including slaves, contributed to social stratification and cultural diversity within the mining communities. The influx of gold had a transformative effect on the Brazilian economy. The Portuguese Crown established a system of taxation known as the "quinto," which required that one-fifth of all gold mined be sent to the Crown as a tax. This revenue helped finance the Portuguese government and contributed to the economic growth of the colony. This taxation system would be one of the reasons behind the Inconfidência Mineira, widely regarded as one of the first independence movements in Brazil.

Despite the harsh conditions, the mining towns became centers of cultural and artistic expression. The Baroque style of architecture and art flourished during this period, with elaborate churches and sculptures adorning the towns. The work of artists such as Aleijadinho and Athayde is still celebrated today. However, the taxation and exploitation associated with the gold rush led to social unrest and rebellions. The most significant of these was the Vila Rica (Ouro Preto) Conspiracy of 1720, also known as the "Filipe dos Santos Conspiracy," which was a failed attempt to gain more autonomy and resist the Crown's demands. By the mid-18th century, the easily accessible gold deposits began to deplete, leading to a decline in gold production. Additionally, competition from other gold-producing regions, such as Africa, contributed to decreased profitability. As gold production waned, the Brazilian economy shifted its focus to other commodities, such as cotton.

United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and Algarves (1807 - 1822)

The early 19th century was marked by the tumultuous Napoleonic Wars in Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte, the French military and political leader who was a self-proclaimed Emperor, aimed to expand his influence across the continent. In 1807, French forces invaded Portugal, which was allied with Britain. In November 1807, fearing for their safety and the impending French invasion, the Portuguese royal family, led by Prince Regent Dom João VI, made the momentous decision to flee Portugal. They sought refuge in Brazil, their largest and wealthiest colony, with the aim of establishing a temporary base until the European situation stabilized.

In March 1808, the Portuguese court, along with a large retinue of nobles, officials, and advisers, arrived in Rio de Janeiro, officially making it the capital of the Portuguese Empire. This event marked the first time a European monarch had set foot on American soil. The presence of the royal family brought about significant changes in the colony. Dom João VI implemented a series of reforms and modernization efforts in Brazil. He opened the ports to international trade, which had previously been restricted by colonial policies. This move promoted economic growth and increased interactions between Brazil and the rest of the world. The Portuguese court's presence in Brazil also facilitated cultural and intellectual exchange. Libraries, scientific institutions, and cultural activities were established, contributing to the enrichment of Brazilian society. This period also witnessed the arrival of European artists, scholars, and scientists, leaving a lasting impact on Brazilian culture.

The presence of the Portuguese court in Brazil set in motion a series of events that would lead to Brazil's eventual declaration of independence. As the Napoleonic Wars continued in Europe, political turmoil ensued. The divisions between the Brazilian and European branches of the Portuguese monarchy, coupled with growing demands for local autonomy, set the stage for future developments. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1814, stability returned to Europe. In 1821, Dom João VI returned to Portugal, leaving his son, Dom Pedro, as regent in Brazil. The return of the court raised concerns about potential attempts to reimpose colonial restrictions on Brazil, triggering tensions between the colonial administration and Brazilian aspirations for greater self-governance. The seeds of independence had been sown during the years of the Portuguese court's presence in Brazil. In 1822, spurred by demands for autonomy and national identity, Dom Pedro I declared Brazil's independence from Portugal, leading to the establishment of the Empire of Brazil.

Early Empire (1822-1889)

On September 7, 1822, Pedro de Bragança, the son of the Portuguese King Dom João VI, proclaimed Brazil's independence from Portugal and became the country's first monarch. This declaration was a response to growing tensions with the Portuguese Crown and the aspirations of Brazilians for self-governance. Pedro I became the Emperor of Brazil, adopting the title of Dom Pedro I. The establishment of the Empire of Brazil marked a significant shift from colonial status to a sovereign nation. The monarchy aimed to balance the centralization of power with the desire for representative institutions and autonomy.

In 1824, Brazil adopted its first constitution, which established a constitutional monarchy. The Constitution of 1824 granted certain rights to citizens while also consolidating power in the hands of the emperor. It provided for a bicameral legislature, but the emperor retained significant authority, including the power to dissolve the legislature. Shortly after obtaining independence, Brazil got involved in the Brazilian-Argentine War, also known as the Cisplatine War. The conflict arose from territorial disputes between Brazil and Argentina over the region of Cisplatina (present-day Uruguay). The war ended with the independence of Uruguay following intervention from the British Empire.

After a series of political conflicts and dissatisfaction with Dom Pedro I's rule, the emperor abdicated the throne in 1831, leaving his young son Dom Pedro II as heir. As a result, a period of regency began, during which a regency council governed until Dom Pedro II came of age. This era was marked by political instability, regional conflicts, and debates over centralization versus decentralization of power. In 1840, Dom Pedro II assumed the throne as emperor, ending the regency period. His reign marked a period of relative stability and economic growth. Dom Pedro II was a well-educated and respected monarch who navigated the complexities of Brazilian politics and diplomacy.

The mid-19th century marked a period of economic growth driven by the coffee industry. Coffee production expanded rapidly, particularly in the southeastern region of São Paulo. The coffee boom brought increased wealth and prosperity to the country, transforming Brazil into one of the world's leading coffee exporters. However, the economic growth would be paralyzed by the outbreak of the Paraguayan War, also known as the War of the Triple Alliance, which was a significant conflict involving Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. Brazil played a major role in the war, and the conflict resulted in significant loss of life and resources. The war's aftermath contributed to economic challenges and social changes in Brazil. As the 19th century progressed, republicanism gained traction in Brazil. Intellectuals, military officers, and urban middle classes began advocating for the establishment of a republic and the end of the monarchy. Republican ideals were fueled by dissatisfaction with the monarchy's perceived corruption, lack of political representation, and social inequalities. The Republican Movement in Brazil gained strength following the Paraguayan War.

Slavery remained a deeply entrenched institution in Brazil, and the pressure for its abolition grew during this period. The struggle for the end of slavery gained momentum through a combination of domestic and international pressures. The Lei Áurea (Golden Law), enacted on May 13, 1888, finally abolished slavery in Brazil, making it the last country in the Americas to do so. On November 15, 1889, a group of military officers and republicans staged a coup, overthrowing the monarchy and proclaiming the United States of Brazil, a federal presidential republic. Then reigning emperor, Dom Pedro II, abdicated and went into exile. However, his eldest daughter and heir to the throne, Princess Isabel, refused to follow him and, with the support of loyalists, declared herself Empress Isabel, hence starting the Brazilian Civil War.

Brazilian Civil War and the Great Leap (1889-1931)

With the support of figures such as José do Patrocínio, Luís Gama, Joaquim Nabuco, Gaspar da Silveira Martins, José Maria da Silva Paranhos Júnior, and Afonso Celso de Assis Figueiredo, Isabel de Bragança ascended to the throne on the night of November 17, 1889. Upon learning of the attempted coup perpetrated by the republicans under the leadership of Deodoro da Fonseca, the Black Guard - a paramilitary group composed of Blacks and former slaves, founded by José do Patrocínio - mobilized and attacked the Brazilian army's headquarters in Rio de Janeiro. The attack, although costly, was successful, and the soldiers were massacred.

News of the chaos unfolding in Rio de Janeiro spread throughout Brazil. Whether in the capitals or in the countryside, republicans and loyalists began to clash. In the province of São Paulo, where the Republican Party was headquartered, the United States of Brazil was proclaimed, under the leadership of Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca. Across Brazil, the streets were stained with blood due to the violent clashes between republican militias and loyalist militias, who often confronted each other not with rifles or cannons, but with sticks and stones.

Perhaps the most violent scenario unfolded in the south of Brazil, where republican forces, led by Júlio de Castilhos, clashed with loyalists under Gaspar da Silveira Martins (who would later become the prime minister after the war). After 1891, the Northeast was almost entirely under Imperial control, but São Paulo and Minas Gerais were entirely controlled by the Republicans. As a result, the south gained prominence, since if the loyalists managed to dominate the region, the entrenched Republicans in São Paulo would have to fight on two fronts. In 1892, the Paulista and Mineiro Republicans launched an attack on Rio de Janeiro. Despite initial success, they failed to capture the imperial capital, and they had to sustain significant losses after the Battle of Ouro Preto, paving the way for a counterattack by the loyalists.

In 1893, Júlio de Castilhos was captured and killed in the Battle of Erechim. Without his imposing leadership, the Republican movement in southern Brazil collapsed, and within a few months, the entire southern region was under imperial control. In 1894, the last battles of the Brazilian Civil War took place. In July 1894, the president of the United States of Brazil, Floriano Peixoto, surrendered, bringing an end to hostilities between Republicans and loyalists.

Geography

Snow in mountains near Florianópolis, Santa Catarina

Brazil is the largest country in Latin America and the third-largest in the Americas, only behind Canada and the United States of America. It occupies 8,599,093 km2, more than half of South America. It shares land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the Southwest; Peru and Chile to the East; Colombia to the Northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and Germany (German overseas region of Guyana) to the north. Ecuador is the only South American country Brazil does not share a border with. Brazil also encompasses many archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. These archipelagos are territories of Brazil. Its size, climate, and availability of natural resources make Brazil a geographically diverse country.

The Federal Republic of Brazil spans four time zones; UTC−5 comprising the states of Acre, Antofagasta, and Petrônia, to UTC-4 in the western states, to UTC-3 in the eastern states (also the national time), and UTC-2 in the Atlantic Territories. Brazil is the longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km from its northernmost point (Oiapoque) to its southernmost point (Chuí). Most of the terrain lies between 200 meters and 800 meters in elevation, although to the west, in the States of Antofagasta and Petrônia, the elevation is significantly higher.

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers. There are eight major drainage basins, and each single one of them drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the São Francisco, Xingu, and Tapajós.

Climate

Although most of the country is tropical, Brazil comprises a varied range of weather conditions. According to the Köppen system, Brazil is home to six major climatic subtypes: desert, equatorial, tropical, semiarid, oceanic, and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce diverse environments, ranging from equatorial rainforests in the northern region, semiarid deserts in the northeast and west, temperate coniferous forests in the south, and tropical savannas in the center-west.

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls. Temperatures average 25 °C. with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons. Over central Brazil, rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate. This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude. In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimeters (31.5 in) of rain, most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought. South of Bahia, near the coasts, and in most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year. The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C; winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.

Government and Politics

Main article: List of political parties in the Federal Republic of Brazil

Main article: Federative Units of Brazil (Pax Brasiliana)

Palácio Ipiranga, official house of the Prime Minister

Brazil is a democratic federal constitutional monarchy under a parliamentary system. The Prime Minister is the head of government and the Monarch is the head of state. The prime minister usually rules for as long as his coalition stays in power. There is no term limit for offices in the parliament. The current prime minister is Giovanna Gottschalk, who was appointed by the Brazilian emperor Dom Henrique I following the resignation of Ingrid Santos' cabinet. The monarch is Dom Henrique I de Orléans e Bragança, who was directly elected by the people in the 2020 General Election. The government can be dissolved either through a vote of no confidence from the parliament or from the monarch. In 2018 the government was dissolved by the monarch following a gridlock over the issue of intervention in the Bolivarian War. In 2022 the government of Ingrid Winckler Santos resigned over the Vincenzi Letter Scandal.

Voting used to be compulsory until 2003 when it was made voluntary. Since 2010 the minimum voting age is 16. Most Brazilian citizens are allowed to vote upon reaching the minimum voting age, except for those living abroad. The Federal Parliament is composed of two houses: the Chamber of Deputies (the lower house) and the Federal Senate (the upper house). Deputies and senators are elected through proportional representation.

Brazil is composed of 41 states, one federal district, and two territories. The Federal Republic is often referred to as the "Union". The three branches of government - the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary - are clearly defined by the constitution. The Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities compose what is called the "spheres of government". The Federal Republic is built upon five fundamental principles: pluralism, sovereignty, justice, liberty, and equality. The executive and legislative branches of government are organized in all spheres of government, while the judicial branch is organized only at the Federal, State, and Federal District levels. Municipalities and territories do not have courts.

Law and Justice

Palácio do Riachuelo, seat of the Supreme Federal Court

Brazilian law is based on the civil law system. The entirety of Brazilian law is codified. The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated in 1984. As of December 2021, there have been eight amendments to the Constitution, with many other amendment proposals rejected. Each state (and the Federal District) has its own constitution, which must not contradict federal law. Since each federal unit has its own constitution, many states preserved the presidential form of government, while others adhere to a parliamentary system. Municipalities have "organic laws", whose function is similar to a constitution. Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although the judiciary and executive bodies can enact norms on special occasions. There also are specialized labor, military, sports, and electoral courts. The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court. After passing entry exams, the Judicial Committee appoints judges and other officials. The Judicial Committee is an independent body, created in 1983 by Prime Minister Roberto Santos in an attempt to curb corruption and nepotism. The Brazilian judicial system has been praised for its quick-paced rulings and efficiency. Nonetheless, the population and specialists criticize the system for the privileges that public servants and politicians receive, which can be considered one of the main factors behind corruption in Brazil.

Foreign policy

Main article: Foreign Relations of the Federal Republic of Brazil

The International Relations of Brazil are based on Article 3 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1950. According to Article 3, Brazil's official foreign policy is one of neutrality, peaceful settlement of conflicts, international cooperation, and reciprocity. On the matter of reciprocity, the article allows military intervention if a country violates Brazilian neutrality or threatens its territorial integrity, such as seen in the Bolivarian War. According to the Constitution, the president has complete control over the armed forces, although the Federal Parliament is tasked with diplomatic nominations and legislation relating to foreign policy.

Considered a hegemon in South America, Brazil has competed with the Socialist States of America for influence over Central America. The Brazilian development plans for undeveloped countries are widely regarded as a model to be followed. Brazil donates an estimated $20 billion as foreign aid to other countries. The receivers usually are Latin American countries or Portuguese-speaking territories, although other countries do receive aid in the form of expertise and diplomacy.

In December 2021, the Federal Republic of Brazil joined the World Assembly. The Brazilian prime minister, Ingrid Santos, stated the government's intention to be more active in international affairs, thus joining the World Assembly.