Northian grammar

Northian grammar is highly synthetic.

Overview

Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not their lexical meaning, that affects most classes of words in Northian. The system is most prominent in substantives, i.e. nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Though ablaut was transparent in reconstructed Proto-Erani-Eracuran, it has been obscured by sound change and analogical replacement in the process of its evolution into Proto-Nordic-Northian and subsequently Galic Northian, the oldest attested stage of the Northian language.  In particular, the erosion of consonant clusters and sound change in unaccented and coda vowels in the immediate prehistory of Galic has made many inflectional endings unrecognizable, yet protected by poetic metre and strict tradition, Galic texts retain many archaicisms. These processes have not occurred to the same extent in the Epic language, but there the word forms were subject to more rigorous regularization.

It is generally accepted that there was a fairly rigorous system of derivation in Proto-Erani-Eracuran, extending lexical roots by various affixes, before attaching inflectional endings. In this way, roots representing abstract meanings gave rise to nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

Nouns

	Basic endings
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	-Ø, -s	-ē, [-a]	-is
Vocative	-Ø
Accusative	-m		-ns
Genitive	-ō, [-s]	-ōs, [-us]	-õ
Locative	-e	-ō, [-u]	-su
Dative	-ē, [-i]	-mō, [-ma]	-mus
Instrumental	-a

m-stems

This class is known from only three but important nouns, θéɣõ "earth", žõ "winter", and dõ "house". All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only three examples, this may not be an actual rule.

	se θéɣõ, "earth"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	θéɣõ	zθémē	zθémes
Vocative	θéɣom
Accusative	zθémum		zumūŋ
Genitive	zu̯u̯ō	zu̯ōs	zu̯õ
Locative	zθéi̯me	zu̯ō	zumsu
Dative	zu̯ē	zuŋu̯ō	zuŋu̯ō
Instrumental	zoa

θéɣõ is one of the rarer Northian words that reflects all three ablaut grades.

θéɣõ "eath" is from the full-grade stem of Proto-Erani-Eracuran *dʰeǵʰōm "earth", where final -m drops and causes the preceding long vowel to become nasalized. Gen. zu̯u̯ō and dat. zu̯ē are the results of the zero-grade stem *dʰǵʰm̥ > *zm̥- > zw-. Final *-os regularly contracts to -ō, lengthening the vowel, and *-ey monophthongized into -ē. The e-grade stem is visible in the strong cases in singular and dual, sing. loc., as well as plural nom., as zθém < *dʰǵʰem-. In the sing. loc., the lowering of final *-i triggered the regular mutation in the preceding short vowel. The plural acc. unexpectedly displays zero-grade stem; final *-n̥s regularly > *-uns > Galic -ūŋ. The stem ending in -m mutates with the initial m- of the du. and pl. dat.-ins. endings.

The behaviour of žõ "winter" is underlyingly similar to that of θéɣõ, but other phonetic changes have caused the surface forms to be altered in other ways.

	se dõ, "house"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	dõ	doma	domes
Vocative	dom
Accusative	dōm, domum		domūŋ
Genitive	dēŋ	demus	demõ
Locative	déi̯me	demu	deŋsu
Dative		dei̯ma	deŋu̯ō
Instrumental	dema

dõ "house", an extremely common noun, also displays three ablaut grades; however, its stems differ by the quantity and quality of the vowel in the same root syllable, as it has no suffix. In the sing. nom., final vowel is lengthened already in PEE. The regular strong stem is visible in the sing. acc., which has two forms. dōm stands as a poetic or dialectal term in place of expected domum sometimes; its creation is either late, as it does not have vowel nasalization, or reflects compensatory lengthening from dropping the final syllable of domum. dõ displays a paroxytone accentual pattern and has the zero-grade endings: sing. gen. dēŋ < *dems and dat. déi̯me < *demi, the latter showing regular mutation after the lowering of the final *-i.

n-stems

HD mon

	se akmō, "stone"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	akmō	akmenē	akmenes
Vocative	akmo
Accusative	akmenum		kuŋmūŋ
Genitive	kuŋmō	kuŋmōs	kuŋmõ
Locative	kumeine	kumnō	kumuŋsu
Dative	kuŋmē	kuŋmō	kuŋmus
Instrumental	kuŋma

PD mn

	tod dēmuŋ, "home"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	dēmuŋ	dēmunī	dēmnō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive	damēi̯ŋ	damenus	demõ
Locative		damenu	deŋsu
Dative	damēi̯ne	dameŋma	demnos
Instrumental	damēna

AS mn

	tod dēmuŋ, "home"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	nomuŋ	nomnī	nomnō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive	nemuŋ	nemunus	nemnõ
Locative		nemunu	nemsu
Dative	nemne	nemuŋma	nemuŋmos
Instrumental	nemna

r-stems

There are three subtypes within the r-stem group. mētur "mother" represents the group with initial accent, which persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade. βrētur "brother" is inflected in the same manner. This is a small group of nouns recognized by their unaccented endings in both nom. and gen.

	sē mētur, "mother"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	mētur	mētu̯ra	mēθres
Vocative
Accusative	mēθrum		mētu̯ruŋ
Genitive	mētūr, mētūs	mētu̯rus	mēθrõ
Locative	mēθre	mētu̯ru	mētuiru
Dative		mēturma	mēturmus
Instrumental	mēθra

Gen. mētūs < *meHtr̥s, while mētūr appears to be a later regularization, restoring the *r that has been dropped in *-rs. Dat. mētrė < *meHtri, acc. mētrum show regular forms. Loc. mēteire appears with full grade suffix.

su̯éhi̯itur "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in -er and -or. They are recognizable by their zero-grade nom. endings and full-grade -ō endings in gen. The behaviour of the word ɣenur "hand" is underlyingly identical.

	sē su̯éhi̯itur, "daughter"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	su̯éhi̯itur	duɣaterē	duɣateres
Vocative	su̯éhi̯itur
Accusative	duɣaterum		duɣateruŋ
Genitive	duɣaθrō	duɣaθrōs	duɣaθrõ
Locative	duɣaθrē	duɣaterō	duɣatuiru
Dative		duɣaturmō	duɣaturmō
Instrumental	duɣaθra

patēr "father" is a variation of the pattern of "daughter", where in the nom. the accent is on the ending instead of the stem; otherwise, it follows the pattern of "daughter" exactly.

	sē patēr, "father"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	patēr	paterē	pateres
Vocative	pater
Accusative	paterum		pateruŋ
Genitive	paθrō	paθrōs	paθrõ
Locative	paθrē	paterō	paθruiru
Dative		patu̯rmō	patu̯rmō
Instrumental	paθra

The paroxytone declension of ster "star" is unique, sg. gen. stēr < *Hsters, dat. steire, etc.

l-stems

The l-stems originally inflect as other ablauting consonant stems, but because intervocalic *-l- regularly > -y-, the resulting paradigm presents certain quirks not seen in the normal consonant-stem paradigm.

sē slō sáyum

s-stems

There are two classes in the s-stem group, one for masculine and feminine nouns, and another for neuter ones. The masculine and feminine nouns are formally indistinct but behave like other consonant-stem nouns, with or without ablaut. The noun mus "mouse" is unique in its preservation of an initial accent. The neuter nouns fall into two groups, those with oxytone or paroxytone accents.

	sē nēs, "nose"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	nēs	narē	nares
Vocative	nes
Accusative	narum		naruŋ
Genitive	narō	narōs	narõ
Locative	naere	narō	nassu
Dative	narē	nasmō	nasmus
Instrumental	nara

	tod kretos, "intellect, power"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	kretos	kretera	kretera
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive	kreterō	kreterus	kreterõ
Locative	kreteire	kreteru	kretessu
Dative		kretesma	kretesmus
Instrumental	kretera

i-stems

The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In PEE, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all contexts, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different. Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.

	sa socis, "ally"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	socis	skoi̯ē	sokoi̯is
Vocative	soci
Accusative	socim		skoin
Genitive	skiō	skiōs	skiõ
Locative	skoi̯e	skiō	skisu
Dative	skiē	skimō	skimus
Instrumental	skī

	sē mentis, "thought"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	mentis	mentēa	mentēis
Vocative	menti
Accusative	mentim		mentīn
Genitive	muntēs	muntēus	muntēõ
Locative	muntēi	muntēu	muntēsu
Dative		muntēma	muntēmus
Instrumental	muntēa

	sa potis, "master"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	potis	potī	potiis
Vocative	poti
Accusative	potim		potīn
Genitive	petis	petius	petiõ
Locative	peti	petiu	petisu
Dative		petima	petimus
Instrumental	petī

u-stems

	sē genus, "chin"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	genōs	geneu̯ē	geneu̯is
Vocative	genō
Accusative	genōm		geneu̯uŋ
Genitive	genuō	genuōs	genuõ
Locative	geneu̯i	genuō	genuru
Dative	genuē	genumō	genumus
Instrumental	genua

	sa suyus, "child" = υἱύς
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	suyus	suyeu̯a	suyeu̯is
Vocative	suyu
Accusative	suyum		suyuuŋ
Genitive	suyeu̯s	suyeu̯us	suyeu̯õ
Locative	suyeu̯i	suyeu̯u	suyeu̯su
Dative		suyeu̯ma	suyeu̯mus
Instrumental	suyū

	tod meθu, "honey" = μέθυ
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	meθu	meθū	meθū
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive	meθus	meθuus	meθuõ
Locative	meθō	meθuu	meθuru
Dative		meθuma	meθumus
Instrumental	meθū

ū-stems

	sē tenūs, "body"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	tenūs	tenōa	tunu̯ēis
Vocative
Accusative	tunu̯ēum		tunu̯ēuŋ
Genitive	tunuō	tunuōs	tunuõ
Locative	tunu̯ēi	tunuō	tunuru
Dative	tunuē	tunumō	tunumus
Instrumental	tunua

ī-stems

	sē sθerīs, "heifer"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	sθerīs	sθerīa	sθurīis
Vocative	sθerī
Accusative	sθerīum		sθurīuŋ
Genitive	sθurīō	sθurīōs	sθurīõ
Locative	sθurīē	sθurīō	sθunīru
Dative		sθurīmō	sθurīmus
Instrumental	sθurīa

	sē genatrī, "genitrix"
	Singular	Dual	Plural
Nominative	genatrī	genatrīa	genatrīis
Vocative
Accusative	genatrīum		genatrīuŋ
Genitive	gnatri̯ēs	gnatri̯ēus	gnatri̯ēõ
Locative	gnatri̯ēi	gnatri̯ēu	gnatri̯ēru
Dative		gnatri̯ēma	gnatri̯ēmus
Instrumental	gnatri̯ēa

sāu̯u̯ō

The noun sāu̯u̯ō "sun" continues the PEE heteroclitic stem in *-l/n-. The nominative is due to assimilation of approximants and the regular sound change of *wu > wo. Genitive has χu̯eīŋ, for expected *xʷvēn < *swens.

	sē sāu̯u̯ō, "Sun"
	Singular
Nominative	sāu̯u̯ō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive	χu̯eīŋ
Locative	χu̯eine
Dative
Instrumental	χu̯ena

See also

• Northian language