Northian verbs
Northian verbs are conjugated for person, number, voice, mood, aspect, and tense.
Present
Mobile accent
Most athematic verbs are of the type which has mobile accent, that is the accent falls on the root syllable in the singular forms in the active voice, and on the ending in all other forms; this accent pattern is usually accompanied by ablaut, whereby the accented root is in the full grade and originally had the vowel *e, and the unaccented form had no vowel. Where there is no vowel, an internal resonant (*m, *n, *r, *l) or semivowel (*y, *w) often becomes a vowel in Northian. This type of accent is seen in the following class of verbs:
- Root (class 3)
- Reduplicated (class 1)
- Nasal suffix, in all its varieties
- n-infix
- ne-suffix, with na- and no-variants
- nu-suffix
All suffixes are thought of as part of the ending in traditional Northian education, and particularly after the manuals of Praetorianus. Thus, xšnəōmi was analyzed as xš-nəōmi, with -nəōmi being a variant (7th class, short) of the standard -mi ending. However, it is most likely that the -nu- suffix was understood as a suffix and not as part of the ending earlier in the history of the language.
Each class of endings came with "long" and "short" variants. These arise from a laryngeal that stood at the end of the root, which, before a consonant, became a separate syllable but, before a vowel, merely coloured it. These are of course etymological artifacts of the root, but until laryngeals were understood in the 20th century, they were thought of as special endings associated with certain roots. The long endings could appear in front of most classes.
Root
ēmi, šté, "to be". This verb of singular importance has opaque forms that owe their opaqueness to the vagaries of *s in various positions. In principle, when *s precedes *u̯ or a back vowel and when it stands in initial position and precedes any vowel, it becomes h; then any *e which borders h becomes a. Before a nasal, *s becomes *z and is elided with any vowel other than /i u/; thus ēmi < *ezmi "am". In the 2 sg the syncopated form *asi is required. The a-vocalism of *h-anti > həṇti "they are" is due to the colouring effects of h and not an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal, and so the subjunctive endings beginning in e are not coloured to a.
The full stem is disclosed by the 3 sg pres éšti and 1 sg impf eząm, where the /z/ < *s is not lost before a syllabic nasal. The 2 sg impf é-ō is the standard spelling after a vowel; where the augment is not used, it is āḫ, or as-tə "and you are" before an enclitic.
| active | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | ē-mi | é-ez-ąm | áŋh-ō | h-iiā̊ | ||
| 2 sg | á-hi | é-ō | -aēyi | z-δí | ||
| 3 sg | éš-ti | é-eš-ṯ | -asi | -iiāṯ | š-tū́ | |
| 1 du | h-wéni | ēz-uuó | h-uuó | -owō | -ūmβó | |
| 2 du | š-tā | ēš-tõm | š-tõm | -atā | -īϑõm | -tā |
| 3 du | -tā̊ | -tā̊ | -īϑā̊ | -tāmū | ||
| 1 pl | h-maŋhi | ēz-mo | h-mo | -omō | -īmó | |
| 2 pl | š-té | ēš-té | š-té | -áti | -īϑé | éš-ti |
| 3 pl | h-ənti | ā-h-əṇṯ | -ənti | -iyāṯ | h-əntū | |
| inf | ||||||
nu-suffix
xšnaōmi, xšnuθvé, "to sharpen". Present stems which vary with a -nu- suffix -náuu- in strong forms (written naō- before consonants) are treated as a special class as the endings are liable to become muddled with the stem-final consonant. Fundamentally, these verbs are still of the VC type and all have mobile accent. For the zero-grade suffix, syllabification rules generate two alloforms -nu- and -aw-, which appear in front of consonants and vowels; that is, the alloform -aw- appears before all 3 pl forms active and middle, and 2 du and 3 du forms, as well as all optative forms, in the middle.
Like other suffixed verbs, the injunctive, subjunctive, and imperative active do not display the indicative suffix in Early Galic, though their middle counterpart except the injunctive do.
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | xš-námmi | a-xš-nā̊ | xazam | xaŋh-ōḥ | xš-nu-iiā̊ | xšt-āwái | a-xš-nua | xaza | xš-náwai | hš-āwiya | ||
| 2 sg | xš-náwšti | -náw-š | xā̊ | -ayi | -nu-iiā̊ | xš-ϑi | xš-nutái | -nuta | xašta | -nawatai | -āwīϑa | hš-nušvō |
| 3 sg | xš-naṓti | -nṓ | xašt | -ati | -nu-iiāṯ | xaš-tū | -nutoi | -nuto | -to | -āwīϑo | -nuto | |
| 1 du | xš-nu-voíñi | a-xš-nu-vo | xšuuo | -awiñi | xšt-awūmβó | -numβṓδa | -numβóδa | -wóδa | -naṓwōδa | -āwūmβóδa | ||
| 2 du | xš-nu-tāḫ | -nu-tõm | -tõm | -atāḫ | -av-īϑõm | xš-tāḫ | -āwātiϑayi | -āwātiϑa | -ātiϑa | -nawātiϑayi | -āwīϑéδa | -āwātiϑa |
| 3 du | -nu-tā̊ | -tā̊ | -av-īϑā̊ | -tāmū | -āwātāyi | -āwātā | -ātā | -nawāϑāyi | -āwīϑā | -āwātā | ||
| 1 pl | xš-nu-míñi | -numo | -mo | -amiñi | -av-īmo | -numōiδa | -numeδa | -meδa | -naṓmōiδa | -āwīmeδa | ||
| 2 pl | xš-nu-té | -nu-té | -té | -ati | -av-īϑe | -te | -nužδwé | -nužδwe | -žδwe | -nawažδwe | -āwīžδwe | -nužδwé |
| 3 pl | xš-uu-onδi | a-xš-ŋv-óṇṯ | xštóṇṯ | -əṇti | -nu-iiaṯ | -atū | xšt-āwātroi | -āwātro | -əntra | -nawontroi | -āwīyātró | -āwātro |
| act inf | ||||||||||||
u-suffix
A small class of verbs have invariant -u- suffix. hənumi "roast" is provided as example. The main point of departure from the general pattern is the 3 pl secondary form, which reflects *-r, whose relationship with the rest of the paradigm is disputed. Any comparison with the middle or the perfect, which regularly yield some variety of this sound of uncertain interrelationship, must be troubled by the absence of much semantic connection between them and the u-suffix presents.
However, as this class is rather small and evidently in a recessive stage, it is possible that some sort of connection exists but is undetectable. Unlike the more productive suffixes, the u-suffix extends to the modal forms in both the active and the middle, which recommends the view that the suffix was no longer treated as one by Galic times, in which the productive (ablauting) suffixes were clearly detachable elements.
In the optative active, the singular forms attest the Sievers's forms -iyā̊ on account of the stem shape *senHw-, where the (lost) laryngeal and the suffix count as two consonants and trigger the insertion of an additional syllable before the semivowel. This alternation is preserved into later Northian as zawiyōyəm.
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |||
| 1 sg | hən-umi | a-hən-um | hən-wōḥ | za-wiyā̊ | xšt-āwái | - | xš-náwai | za-wiá | ||||
| 2 sg | -ušti | -uš | -woyi | xš-ϑi | xš-nutái | -nuta | -nawatai | -āwīϑa | hš-nušvō | |||
| 3 sg | -uti | -ut | -woti | -wiyāṯ | xaš-tū | -nutoi | -nuto | -āwīϑo | -nuto | |||
| 1 du | hn-umβéñi | e-za-umβó | -wowō | -wūmβó | -numβṓδa | -numβóδa | -naṓwōδa | -āwūmβóδa | ||||
| 2 du | -utāḫ | -utõm | -wotāḫ | -wīϑõm | xš-tāḫ | -āwātiϑayi | -āwātiϑa | -nawātiϑayi | -āwīϑéδa | -āwātiϑa | ||
| 3 du | -utā̊ | -wīϑā̊ | -tāmū | -āwātāyi | -āwātā | -nawāϑāyi | -wīϑā | -āwātā | ||||
| 1 pl | -uméni | -umo | -womō | -wīmo | -numōiδa | -numeδa | -naṓmōiδa | -āwīmeδa | ||||
| 2 pl | -uté | -uté | -woti | -wīϑe | -te | -nužδwé | -užδwe | -nawažδwe | -āwīžδwe | -nužδwé | ||
| 3 pl | zāw-ənti | -ur | -wəṇti | -wī | -atū | xšt-āwātroi | -āwātro | -nawontroi | -āwīyātró | -āwātro | ||
| act inf | ||||||||||||
i-suffix
With a few exceptions, verbs of this class were built to vowel-final roots. There is thus intersyllabic sandhi in progress in Northian, which will be dissolved in the following chart.
The special development to note is the application of Pinault's law in the 3 pl forms, which causes the root-final laryngeal to disappear before the suffix, being non-syllabic before that ending. Thus for the example below, the form seen is syənti for *d-y-enti, not *tiyanti for *dH-y-enti.
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |||
| 1 sg | ta-imi | e-ta-im | hən-wōḥ | za-wiyā̊ | xšt-āwái | -š | xš-náwai | za-wiá | ||||
| 2 sg | -išti | -iš | -woyi | xš-ϑi | xš-nutái | -nuta | -nawatai | -āwīϑa | hš-nušvō | |||
| 3 sg | -isi | -it | -woti | -wiyāṯ | xaš-tū | -nutoi | -nuto | -āwīϑo | -nuto | |||
| 1 du | t-uwéñi | e-t-uwo | -wowō | -wūmβó | -numβṓδa | -numβóδa | -naṓwōδa | -āwūmβóδa | ||||
| 2 du | -isāḫ | -isõm | -wotāḫ | -wīϑõm | xš-tāḫ | -āwātiϑayi | -āwātiϑa | -nawātiϑayi | -āwīϑéδa | -āwātiϑa | ||
| 3 du | -isā̊ | -wīϑā̊ | -tāmū | -āwātāyi | -āwātā | -nawāϑāyi | -wīϑā | -āwātā | ||||
| 1 pl | -iméni | -imo | -womō | -wīmo | -numōiδa | -numeδa | -naṓmōiδa | -āwīmeδa | ||||
| 2 pl | -isé | -isé | -woti | -wīϑe | -te | -nužδwé | -užδwe | -nawažδwe | -āwīžδwe | -nužδwé | ||
| 3 pl | sy-ənti | -ir | -wəṇti | -wī | -atū | xšt-āwātroi | -āwātro | -nawontroi | -āwīyātró | -āwātro | ||
| act inf | ||||||||||||
Persistent accent
There is a variety of roots that take an accent that persists on the root syllable in (some forms of) the present stem. While the accent is persistent, the contrast between the singular active and other forms is conserved: the former have a lengthened vowel *ē, and the latter the full-grade vowel *e. The lengthened vowel grade is associated with the indicative, imperfect, subjunctive, and optative and disappears in the injunctive and imperative, as well as any non-finite forms.
The main difference from the mobile accent is that any ablauting element in the ending will take the zero-grade form, including the singular forms in the active. Thus, optative active forms are 1p yámī < *yém-ih₁-m, 2p yámīš, and 3p yámīṯ. Due to the stem-final /m/, the 1 sg secondary ending -m syncopates and created a prehistoric long vowel before final continuant that was opened. Thus the 1 sg and 2 sg forms are identical in Galic; stem is disclosed by the 3 sg form. Accounting for vowel colouring and accent colouring, the remaining forms are wholly regular.
yāmmi, yamai, "to take".
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pres | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | yā́m-mi | a-iiā̊ | yā̊ | yā́m-ō | yám-ī | yám-ay | a-iiám-a | yám-ōe | yám-ia | |||
| 2 sg | -p-si | -ai | -īš | yám-δi | -tay | -ta | -itaē | -īϑa | -žuua | |||
| 3 sg | -ti | a-iiām-t | yam-t | -iti | -īṯ | -tū | -ta | |||||
| 1 du | yám-βuuaēñi | a-yám-uua | -uua | -auuōḫ | -ūmβa | -uuōδa | -uuoδa | -auuōδa | -īvaδa | |||
| 2 du | -tāḫ | -tõm | -tõm | -itāḫ | -īϑõm | -tāḫ | -tiϑaēyi | -taϑa | -taϑaēyi | -ītaϑa | -ātaϑa | |
| 3 du | -tā̊ | -tā̊ | -īϑā̊ | -tāmū | -iϑāyi | -iϑā | -iϑāyi | -īϑā | -ātā | |||
| 1 pl | -mahi | -ma | -ma | -amōḫ | -īma | -mōiδa | -miδa | -amōiδa | -īmiδa | |||
| 2 pl | -ti | -ti | -ti | -iti | -īϑi | -ti | -δuwa | -δuwa | -iδwa | -īϑwa | -δuwa | |
| 3 pl | -āṯ | -āṯ | -āṯ | -ənti | -iaṯ | -ātū | -ātraē | -ātra | -óntraē | -iatra | -āta | |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | ||||||||||||
Root with long endings
raōdaēmi, ruδité, "to weep". Owing to the effects of an interconsonantal laryngeal, some roots were synchronically analyzed as taking a set of endings augmented with a vowel between the stem and ending proper, though historically the augmentation is part of the stem and not of the ending. These endings are analogous with the ṣet roots in the Tennite language, while those taking the short (normal) endings are analogous to aṇit roots. Since there is an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal on the stem-ending border, any ending which begins with *e (bolded) is liable to be coloured by this laryngeal. This colouring effect was seen as the analogue to the ending augmentation where the laryngeal is not preserved between consonants.
| active | middle | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | rəōd-aēmi | é-rəōd-am | rəōd-ōḥ | ruj-iiā̊ | ruδ-ai | é-ruδ-a | rəōd-oē | ruδ-iya | ||
| 2 sg | -išti | -iš | -ayi | rud-iδi | -itai | -ita | -āδo | -īta | ruδ-ižuuo | |
| 3 sg | -iti | -iṯ | -ati | -iiāṯ | rəōd-itū́ | -o | -o | -átoi | -īto | -o |
| 1 du | ruδ-umβóni | é-ruδ-iuuo | -auuōḫ | -īuuo | -umβṓδa | -umβóδa | -auuāδa | -ūmβóδa | ||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -atāḫ | -ītõm | ruδ-itāḫ | -átiδayi | -átiδa | -aētiδayi | -itiδa | -átiδa |
| 3 du | -itā̊ | -atiš | -ītā̊ | -ités | -átā | -átā | -aētāyi | -itā | -átā | |
| 1 pl | -amáŋhi | -amó | -omōḫ | -īmo | -amṓδa | -ameδa | -omōδa | -īmeδa | ||
| 2 pl | -ité | -ité | -ati | -īte | -iti | -ižδuuo | -ižδuuo | -āδuua | -īžδuuo | -iδuuo |
| 3 pl | -ánti | -ánṯ | -anti | -iianṯ | -ánθu | -árə | -árə | -óntrai | -iyaδro | -ir |
| act inf anitiš, anituš act ptcpl ānaṯ, anatṓḫ; ānatī, ānatīš mid inf aniźiiō mid ptcpl anaminṓḫ fut imp ániδitat, ánatat | ||||||||||
Of a similar construction are those verbs whose historic stems terminated in *-h₂ and *-h₃, giving rise to a and o respectively, in all the bolded positions.
Vowel-final stems
These encompass those roots that ended in a vowel plus laryngeal (VH) in the parent language. Praetorianus did not notice that the long vowel was part of the stem and not of the ending—in other words, he thought the root here was merely "št" to which an augmented ending was added—and so classed these stems together with those that have a suffixed long vowel—which he too regarded as normal roots using augmented endings.
tištāmi, tištité, "stand".
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |||
| 1 sg | ti-št-aēmi | e-ti-št-ā̊ | ti-št-ōḥ | ti-ś-iiā̊ | ti-št-aē | e-ti-št-á | ti-št-oē | ti-št-iyá | ||||
| 2 sg | -ā́hi | -ayi | ti-št-iϑí | -itaē | -itá | -átaē | -ītá | ti-št-ižuuó | ||||
| 3 sg | -ā́ti | e-ti-št-āt | -ati | -iiāṯ | -ā́tū | -ə̄ | -ó | -átə̄ | -ītó | -ó | ||
| 1 du | -umβéiñi | -umβó | -ouuōḫ | ti-št-ūmβó | -umβōδa | -umβóδa | -óuuōδa | -ūmβóδa | ||||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -átāḫ | -ītõm | -itāḫ | -ātiϑayi | -ātiϑa | -ātiϑayi | -ītiϑa | -ātiϑa | ||
| 3 du | -itā̊ | -ītā̊ | -itāmū́ | -āyi | -ā | -āyi | -iyā | -ā | ||||
| 1 pl | -əmáŋhi | -əmó | -omōḫ | -īmó | -əmōiδa | -améδa | -omōiδa | -īméδa | ||||
| 2 pl | -ité | -ité | -áti | -īté | -iti | -ižδuuó | -ižδuuó | -āδuuó | -īžδuuó | -ižuuó | ||
| 3 pl | -ənti | -āṯ | -ónδi | -iyaṯ | -əṇtū́ | -árə | -árə | -ō | -ī | -iro | ||
| inf fut imp | ||||||||||||
Vowel-final stems with persistent accent
These are very similar to the vowel-stems with mobile accent, only that the union vowel in the weak forms represents the e-grade root vowel, with any laryngeal colouring, that bears the accent. Thus the root vowel was long by nature in the active singular and lengthened by the following laryngeal in pre-consonantal forms. The short root vowel is only visible prevocalically. The endings are in the zero grade. There are very few roots which behave like this, and only wōimi "breathe" is well-known.
The a-vocalism of the augment is on account of initial *h₂-. The 3 du mid ending has, like the 3 pl mid, an ablauting element with the full grade pre-form of *-eh₂-, with appended -i in the present. Transitive verbs often have the additional element *-dʰH-. In the zero-grade, the ending was evidently merely *-h₂, which dropped without a trace after a laryngeal already in the parent language. This results in the 3 du impf mid form wō that synchronically had no visible ending. Interestingly, the 2 du mid ending -tiϑayi must reflect *-h₂-tH-dʰH, whose the middle element seems to appear in the 2 pl act primary ending -tha in Kankrit.
wōimi, woti, "stand".
| active | middle | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf-inj | subj | opt | imp | |||
| 1 sg | wōi-mi | ā-uuā̊ | wō-ōḥ | wo-ī | wo-aē | ā-uuā̊-o | wō-oē | wo-iyá | ||||
| 2 sg | wō-hi | -ayi | -īs | wō-ϑí | -taē | ā-uuō-ta | -átaē | -ītá | žuuó | |||
| 3 sg | -ti | ā-uuō-t | -iti | -īṯ | -ā́tū | -ə̄ | -a | -átə̄ | -ītó | -ó | ||
| 1 du | -uuiñi | -uuo | -ouuōḫ | -ūmβó | -umβōδa | -umβóδa | -óuuōδa | -ūmβóδa | ||||
| 2 du | -tāḫ | -tõm | -átāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -tiϑayi | -tiϑa | -ātiϑayi | -ītiϑa | -tiϑa | ||
| 3 du | -tā̊ | -ītā̊ | -tāmū́ | -i | -Ø | -āyi | -ī | -Ø | ||||
| 1 pl | -mahi | -mó | -omōḫ | -īmó | -mōiδa | -méδa | -omōiδa | -īméδa | ||||
| 2 pl | -ti | -ti | -áti | -īté | -ti | -ižδuuó | -ižδuuó | -āδuuó | -īžδuuó | -ižuuó | ||
| 3 pl | wo-aṯi | wo-aṯ | -ónδi | -iyaṯ | -atū́ | -árə | -árə | -ō | -ī | -ro | ||
| inf fut imp | ||||||||||||
Aorist
Aorist stems
The aorist or perfective (not to be confused with "perfect") stems belong to a relic class in Epic Northian, but they are productive in the Galic language. When used in the indicative and imperative, there are four formations as follows. But when used outside of them, and particularly in the injunctive and optative moods, aorists in s- are often "conjugated from the root", that is behave like root aorists. Roots which have this behaviour are called "split aorists" and are associated with a contrasting ablaut pattern, with only the third plural exhibiting a weak grade.
| # | Class | 1 sg. / 2 pl. | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | root | CéC-am / CØC-té | Contains roots that are inherently perfective. Most perfective verbs in the parent language appear to have been of this type, and Galic Northian has inherited about 100 lexical items inflected this way. The root syllable typically shows ablaut between *e ~ Ø. Many suffixed imperfective stems are derived from a root perfective stem. | dō- / d(i)- "to give" xraō- / xru- "to hear" |
| 2 | root | CØC-õm / CØC-té | Contains roots that are inherently perfective. This type appears to have been rare. | luδ- "to listen" |
| 3 | reduplicated | Cé-CØC-õm / Cé-CØC-iti | This pattern is known from only one root, though it is widely-attested in other Erani-Eracuran languages. | waō-š-[1] "to say" |
| 4 | s- | CḗC-s-(m) / CéC-š-ti | The s- suffix creates perfective stems from roots which were inherently imperfective; notably, the ablauting root syllable contrasts the long vowel in the strong forms and the short in the weak. | daix-s- "to show" |
- ↑ from *wau-s- < *wé-wk-
Root aorists
esedām, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Split aorists
dēkšam, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Thematic endings
dēkšam, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Perfect
Perfect stems
The features of the perfect stem in the proto-language were reduplication and the o-vocalism in the perfect indicative. This is true of Northian as well. In the Epic language, the o-vocalism has spread into the subjunctive, but in Galic the subjunctive has the inherited e-vocalism.
| # | Class | 1 sg. / 2 pl. | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | root | CóC-a / CØC-é | This type is known from only one verb, namely u̯oi̯d- "to know". The weak stem is u̯id-. Accent is on the root syllable for strong forms, and endings for weak forms. | u̯oi̯d- / u̯id- "to know" |
| 2 | reduplicated | Ce-CóC-a / Ce-CØC-é | Creates stative stems from perfective and imperfective roots. An extra syllable is prefixed, consisting of the consonant immediately preceding the next vowel and the vowel *e. Due to phonetic change, this vowel can appear as o following a labialized consonant or become more obscure if a lost consonant such as a laryngeal is reduplicated, cf. ā̊ha "I am desiccated" < PEE *h₂e-h₂oh₂s-h₂e. The strong forms have characteristic accented o-grade in the root syllable and zero-grade there in the weak forms with accented endings. | ve-voi̯d- / ve-vid- "to believe" ko-kor- / ko-kr- "to be working" ā̊s- / ā̊s- "to be desiccated" |
| 3 | long-vowel | Ce-CṓC-a / Ce-CóC-i | This type may have developed in Northian on the pattern of the sigmatic aorist as it has no like cognates in other branches of the language. It contrasts a long vowel in the strong forms and a short vowel in the weak, and the vowel is often, but not always, the o that is characteristic of the perfect. |
Reduplicated
titóna, titné "to be growing, to increase". Perfect stems in Northian are regularly formed by reduplication of the first consonant with the vowel *e, attached to the root in o-grade in the active singular and in zero grade in the active dual and plural and the entire middle. The endings are a special set of perfect endings.
Aside from the perfect indicative or "perfect tense" in paedagogical works, various other forms are made from the perfect stem. With the exception of the perfect imperative, which is attested about as much as the indicative, other formations are considerably rarer for the reason that they may be Northian innovations rather than inherited features of the prehistoric parent language. The pluperfect (or descriptively the perfect preterite) and perfect injunctive are formed from the indicative stem, with the same ablaut behaviour, with secondary endings. The subjunctive is formed from the reduplicated stem with root in invariant e-grade, and the optative from the same stem with root in invariant zero grade.
Not all perfect stems are capable of displaying all these formations. Especially, perfect verbs with stative meaning usually do not form pluperfects or any middle forms, but they do form subjunctives and optatives. When a pluperfect meaning is required, they have a periphrastic formation of the perfect active participle with the imperfect forms of the verb es "to be". Yet it is difficult to formulate absolute rules about this matter, since the Galic corpus is of limited size, and there may have existed unattested formations in the language of its composition.
| active | middle | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | titón-a | e-titón-ąm | titén-ō | titn-iiā̊ | p-ā́m | ep-ā́m | p-ā́m | p-ą̄m | |||
| 2 sg | -θa | e-titṓṇ-ġ | titéin-i | -iiā̊ | titā-δī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -ásθoi̯ | -īšθo | ||
| 3 sg | -i | e-titóṇ-ṯ | titén-ai | -iiāṯ | -tū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -átoi̯ | -īto | -ito | |
| 1 du | titn-uuo | e-titn-uuo | -auuiñi | -ūvo | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | |||
| 2 du | titā-tā | e-titā-tõm | -itāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātaθa | -ātaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ātaθa | |
| 3 du | -tṓ | -tā̊ | -itiš | -ītā̊ | -tḗ | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ātā | |
| 1 pl | tita-mé | e-tita-mo | -omiñi | -īmo | -amózθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | |||
| 2 pl | titn-é | e-titā-θé | -iti | -īté | tétā-ti | -išθvé | -išθvé | -ásθve | -īšθve | -iθve | |
| 3 pl | -ṓ | e-titn-áṇṯ | -ō | -iiāṯ | titn-atū | -ánθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo | |
| inf titnuuéni, pf act ptcpl titnuuā̊, titnuštṓ; titnuuṓḫ; titnuuohī, titnuźiiā̊ | inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl titaminō (I/II) | ||||||||||
Root
woida, widé "to know" is the only member of the perfect conjugation that, as a condition with good history, does not have reduplication. There are other perfect stems which do not have reduplication in Northian but do in other branch of the language; these are usually regarded as Northian innovations on the pattern of woida. It has the peculiarity of forming a full-grade root in the 3 pl, which also puts the ending in zero grade -ūš. It is as yet not known whether this feature is inherited, as it has been argued to be introduced from the root aorist injunctive, which in this form also shows full grade in the root.
| active | middle | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | woid-a | auuoid-am | teten-ō | tetn-i̯ą̄m | p-ā́m | ep-ā́m | p-ą̄m | p-īma | ||
| 2 sg | wōiš-ta | auuōi-š | -esi | -i̯āu̯ | tetun-θī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -ásθoi̯ | -īšθo | p-išvō |
| 3 sg | woid-i | auuōi-št | -eti | -i̯āṯ | -tū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -átoi̯ | -īto | -ito |
| 1 du | wīž-uuó | auuiž-uua | -ou̯iñi | -īvo | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | ||
| 2 du | wīš-tā | auuiš-tõm | -etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātaθa | -ātaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ātaθa |
| 3 du | -tṓ | -tā̊ | -itą̄m | -ītąm | -tés | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ātā |
| 1 pl | wīž-mé | auuiž-mó | -omiñi | -īmō | -amózθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | ||
| 2 pl | vid-é | auuiš-té | -áti | -īté | -ti | -išθvé | -išθvé | -ásθve | -īšθve | -iθve |
| 3 pl | woid-ūš | auuiž-iiáṯ | -ónθi | -ii̯āṯ | tétn-unθu | -ánθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo |
| pf act inf wižuuéni, pf act ptcpl wáiduš, widuštōḫ; wáidū; wáiduštī, widuśiiā̊ | pf mid inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl menanōḫ (I/II) | |||||||||
The other perfect verbs that fail to show reduplication are:
- u̯ṓi̯a, vii̯á "to fear"
- mṓna, mné "to recall"
It has been noted that most verbs which fail to reduplicate are verbs of internal states or emotions.
Thematic conjugation
Present
βaiδō "I trust". Cognate to Shalumite "to bide". Points of interest are:
- In the Galic material, the effects of the stem-final laryngeal are reflected quite regularly, such that the 2 and 3 sg., 2 and 3 du., and 2 pl. endings, which commence with the colouring-susceptible vowel *e, may be coloured to *a and *o, and the latter in unaccented positions becomes a. This is seen in the comparatively common verb apúpitō "fly away", whose 2 du. form is apúpitatāḫ and not *apúpititāḫ. In later materials, the laryngeal-less endings (which would be identical to those for stems ending in *h₁-) became standard.
- In the active subjunctive, the subjunctive modal suffix prehistorically merges with the thematic endings and result in long vowels; in unaccented positions these evolved differently than short vowels, to wit *ē > ā, while *ō remains unchanged.
- In the active optative, the diphthong scans short in the 1 du. and 3 pl., the cause of which is still uncertain.
- Due to phonetic change, the middle forms of the 2 and 3 sg. are not distinct, as both 2 sg. *eth₂ei and 3 sg. *etoi > -itai.
- In the middle subjunctive, the 2 and 3 du. endings lack the final -i of the primary endings and are thus identical to secondary endings; this phenomenon is widespread enough to be ruled out as a scribal error and is usually thought to reflect original variation in the conjugation system as the subjunctive is already specified by a modal morpheme and cannot be mistaken by a different set of endings. The optative, however, is always found with secondary endings.
| act | mid | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf / inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | βaiδ-ō | e-baiδ-õm | βaiδ-ō | βaiδ-ā̊ | βaiδ-aā̊i | e-baiδ-aā̊ | βaiδ-ōai | βaiδ-aiia | ||
| 2 sg | -iyi | -iš | -āyi | -aīš | βaiδi | -itai | -ita | -ātai | -aita | |
| 3 sg | -ai | -iṯ | -āi | -aīṯ | βaiδitū | -itai | -ita | -ātai | -aita | |
| 1 du | -auuiñi | -auua | -ə̄uuiñi | -aiuua | -auuazδa | -auuida | -ə̄uuazδa | -aiuuida | ||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -ātāḫ | -aītõm | βaiδitāḫ | -itāδāi | -itāδā | -ātāδā | -aitāδā | |
| 3 du | -itiš | -itā̊ | -ātiš | -aītā̊ | βaiδitiš | -itāyi | -itā | -ātā | -aitā | |
| 1 pl | -amiñi | -ama | -ōmiñi | -aīma | -amazδa | -amida | -ōmazδa | -aimida | ||
| 2 pl | -iti | -iti | -āti | -aīti | βaiδiti | -idūvi | -idūvi | -ādūvi | -aidūvi | |
| 3 pl | -ō | -anṯ | -ōnδi | -aiiāṯ | βaiδanδū | -aṇtrai | -aṇtra | -ōṇtrai | -aiiāθra | |
| fut imp βaiδitaṯ, βaiδanδaṯ act inf βaiδitiš, βaiδituš, act ptcpl βaiδā̊s, βaiδanδōḫ; βaiδaṯ; βaiδanδī, βaiδanδiiā̊, mid inf βaiδōi, mid ptcpl βaiδominōḫ (I/II) | ||||||||||
Aorist
| Indicative | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | ekorum | korum | korō | kāri̯ām | — | — | |
| 2 sg. | ekōr | kōr | korei | kāri̯ās | kor | kortoṯ | |
| 3 sg. | ekord | kord | korei̯ | kāri̯āt | kārto | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 du. | ekurōs | kārōs | korou̯ō | korīu̯ō | — | — | |
| 2 du. | ekurtõ | kārtõ | koretas | korītõ | kārtas | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 du. | ekurtąm | kārtą̄m | koretíš | krītąm | kārtíš | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 pl. | ekurmō | kārmō | koromõ | korīmō | — | — | |
| 2 pl. | ekurte | kārte | korete | korīte | kārte | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 pl. | ekurenṯ | kārenṯ | koronθi | koriānṯ | kārenθo | kārunθoṯ | |
| inf kāršiš, kāršuš, ptcpl korå, kronθō; korāṯ, kronθō; korunθī, krāŋθi̯ās | |||||||
| Indicative | Imperfect | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | ekurma | kārma | korōm | krīma | — | — | |
| 2 sg. | ekursθo | kārsθo | koresθoi̯ | krīšθo | kārhvō | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 sg. | ekurto | kārto | koretoi̯ | krīto | kārto | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 du. | ekurreθa | kārreθa | korou̯osθa | krīu̯eθa | — | — | |
| 2 du. | ekurātaθa | kārātaθa | korātaθai | krītaθa | kārātaθa | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 du. | ekurātā | kārātā | korātāi̯i | krītā | kārātā | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 pl. | ekurmeθa | kārmeθa | koromosθa | krīmeθa | — | — | |
| 2 pl. | ekuršθve | kāršθve | koresθve | krīšθve | kārθve | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 pl. | ekurenθro | kārenθro | koronθroi̯ | krīnθro | kārunθo | kārunθoṯ | |
| inf kārθi̯ō, kārθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kārūmnō, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnõ, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnā, kārūmnās | |||||||