Elamite language
Modern Elamite | |
---|---|
Lisan Haltamtime | |
Pronunciation | [li.sän häl.täm.ti.me] |
Native to | Elam |
Ethnicity | Elamites |
Native speakers | 5.7 million (2018) |
Early forms | Old Elamite
|
Elamite Latin alphabet Perso-Arabic script (in Iran) | |
Official status | |
Official language in | Elam |
Recognised minority language in | |
Regulated by | Elamite College of Grammar Kuliyah Nahume Haltamtime |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | ELY |
ISO 639-3 | – |
The Elamite Language (lisan Haltamtime, [li.sän häl.täm.ti.me]), sometimes referred to as Modern Elamite to distinguish it from its historical forms, is a language spoken primarily in Elam and in bordering regions of neighbouring Iran. Linguistically, Elamite is unrelated to the other languages of the region and is a language isolate unrelated to any other known living language. The Elamites are indigenous to and primarily inhabit the region of Elam.
Native speakers of Elamite live in a contiguous area that straddles the edge of the Iranian plateau and follows the course of the Karun river to the Persian gulf. The northern and central parts of Elam and the Iranian provinces of Ilam, Khorramabad, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, and Chahar Mahaal form the core of the historically Elamite speaking area. In the southern- and westernmost parts of Elam, Arabic has either displaced Elamite or Elamite was never spoken natively to begin with.
Under Qajar rule, public use of Elamite was frowned upon and often regarded as a sign of separatism and growing nationalism. After Elam became independent in 1921, this trend reversed and education and publishing in Elamite began to flourish. As part of this process, a standardised form of the Elamite language was developed by the University of the Republic (now the Royal Elamite University) in the early 1920s. Although variation within dialects still exists, the standardised form is considered universally easy to understand and employ in formal situations (education, mass media, literature).
A language isolate, Elamite is believed to be one of the few surviving Pre-Semitic and Pre-Indo-Iranian languages of the ancient Near East. The origin of the Elamites and their language isn't conclusively known, though the most accepted theory is that early forms of Elamite developed in the area well before the arrival of Semitic peoples. A relationship to the Dravidian language family was suggested by Igor M. Diakonoff and later defended by David McAlpin; this hypothesis has not gained mainstream acceptance however. Elamite has borrowed extensively from surrounding languages over the years — particularly from Arabic following the Islamic conquest of Elam and Iran.
History and classification
Geographic distribution
Official status
Grammar
Syntax
While literary Elamite has a canonical subject-object-verb (SOV) word order, it is not strongly left-branching. However, because Elamite is a pro-drop language, the subject of a sentence is often not apparent until the end of the finite verb.
- Kitab dabantiname in berah. (I am reading the blue book)
- Kitab dabantiname in berat. (Youa are reading the blue book)
- Kitab dabantiname in beraš. (He/she is reading the blue book)
^a singular informal form.
In the colloquial language, there has been a leftward migration of the verbal element in that, in day-to-day speech, word order can often appear as subject-verb-object (SVO); this is particularly common in the southwestern part of the language area.
- Berah kitabi dabantinameyn. (I am reading the blue book)
- Berahu kitabi dabantinameyn. (We are reading the blue book[s])
This ordering of phrases is considered nonstandard and stylistically unsound in prose.
Main clauses precede subordinate clauses.
- Una iddakšu ha al'ahad inna izzinšu. (He told me that he wouldn't come on Sunday)
There exists an interrogative particle, mi, which indicates a polar question. It isn't used in the literary form of the language, but in colloquial speech it can be heard at the end of the question.
- Berat kitab in mi? (Are you reading the book?)
Grammatical modifiers, such as adjectives, follow the nouns they modify. In the literary form, the noun takes no morphological modification; in the colloquial form, an adjunct structure similar to Persian izâfah marks the relationship between the noun and its modifier. After a consonant it appears as -i, and after a vowel or y it appears as -ye.
- Literary: kitab dabantiname (blue book); arayan šilhame (powerful government); ayli šišniri (beautiful girl)
- Colloquial: kitabi dabantiname (blue book); arayani šilhame (powerful government); ayliye šišniri (beautiful girl)
Nouns
Gender
Elamite nouns and pronouns are categorised according to two grammatical genders: animate and inanimate. Nouns themselves will not display animacy distinction — the distinction will be made apparent only when modifiers are appended to the noun (or pronoun) in question. Additionally, no distinction is made in nouns between singular and plural. Plural forms are only distinguished by modifiers appended to animate nouns.
- kitab dabantiname (blue book — inanimate)
- tyut dabantinari (blue bird — animate singular)
- tyut dabantinape (blue birds — animate plural).
Appended modifiers are inflected differently when their referent is the speaker or a second-person.
- dabantinaki (I, the blue one — first person)
- dabantinati (You, the blue one — second person)
This system also applies to genitive relationships between nouns.
- u šak Ahmadiki (I, the son of Ahmad — first person)
- ni ra'is serikatiti sirime (you, the manager of the rich company — second person)
- sunki Haltamtiri (king of Elam — third person singular)
- sunki Haltamtipe (kings of Elam — third person plural)
- rahmat addame (blessing of the father — third person inanimate)
An exception exists when a genitive follows an adjective — in this case, the modifier ending is replaced with -ina after consonants and -na after vowels and y.
- u šak aki Ahmadina (I, the good son of Ahmad — first person)
- ni ra'is ibbakiti serikatina sirime (you, the powerful manager of the rich company — second person)
- sunki rišari Haltamtina (great king of Elam — third person singular)
- sunki rišape Haltamtina (great kings of Elam — third person plural)
As in other modifiers, in colloquial speech genitive nouns are often attached by means of the izâfah-like construction.
- Literary: rahmat addame (father's blessing); sunki haltamtiri (King of Elam)
- Colloquial: rahmati addame (father's blessing); sunkiye haltamtiri (King of Elam)
Cases
In modern Elamite, three morphological cases exist: the nominative case, the dative case, and accusative case. The nominative is the unmarked form of a noun; the accusative is marked by the particle in which follows the noun and all of its modifiers; similarly, the dative is marked by the particle ina. Other oblique cases are marked with postpositions.
- Kitab dabantina šaš. (The book is blue) — Kitab is the subject, and therefore governs the nominative.
- U kitab in berah. (I read the book) — Kitab is the direct object, and is therefore modified with the particle in.
- U kitab in ayli ina berah. (I read the book to the girl) — Ayli is the indirect object, and is therefore marked with the particle ine.
In colloquial speech, the accusative particle in(a) becomes the suffix -yn(a) after a, u, and e, and -n(a) after i and y.
- Literary: kazira in (blacksmith); kursi ina (chair); mutay in (case/instance)
- Colloquial: kazirayn (blacksmith); kursina (chair); mutayn (case/instance)
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Elamite is a null-subject, pro-drop language, so subject personal pronouns are largely optional. The third person pronoun distinguishes between animate and inanimate referents in the accusative and dative cases.
Person | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
1st | u | nuku |
2nd | ni | num |
3rd | i (no animacy distinction) | ap |
Person | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
1st | un | nukun |
2nd | nun | numun |
3rd | ir (animate) in (inanimate) |
appin |
Person | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
1st | una | nukuna |
2nd | nuna | numuna |
3rd | ira (animate) ina (inanimate) |
appina |
Possessive determiners
To form a possessive determiner, simply take the nominative form of a pronoun and add the adjective/genitive modifier endings.
- Kitab ume (my book); adda nukuri (our father); šappana ime (his/her grapes)
Adjectives
Adjectives typically follow the nouns they modify, taking the adjective/genitive modifier endings. There is no set order in which adjectives must be arranged after a noun, except that they must precede any genitives. Comparative forms are formed by appending the prefix mila- before consonants and mil- before vowels.
- kitab dabantiname (blue book); kitab miladabantiname (bluer/more blue book)
- ayli šišniri (beautiful girl); ayli milašišniri (more beautiful girl).
The superlative form is formed by appending the prefix unra- before consonants and unr- before vowels.
- kitab dabantiname (blue book); kitab unradabantiname (bluest book)
- ayli šišniri (beautiful girl); ayli unrašišniri (most beautiful girl).
Verbs
Verbal stems in modern Elamite must end in a vowel (e.g. arru "to grow"; rabbaka "to tie/bind"). The plain, uninflected verbal stem can act as a verbal noun or infinitive.
Elamite verbs can be conjugated into one of three simple finite conjugations. These are known as:
- conjugation I, which acts as a general present tense;
- conjugation II, which acts as a general past tense;
- conjugation III, which acts as a present subjunctive; conjugation III is...
- used for indefinite relative clauses such as the following:
- Kiri šaš, agga lisan Haltamtime in turunšu? ("Is there someone who speaks Elamite?")
- used with conjunctions such as tibbe (before) and ha (that; so that):
- Tibbe uzzuntu, han in andumantu. ("Before you go, take this.")
- also used instead of an infinitive after verbs such as 'I want', 'I can', 'I must', 'it is possible that', and in indirect commands:
- Ulluh ha uzzunut. ("I must go", literally I must that I would go)
- Appina šerakšu ha galpi huddaneš. ("He ordered them to kill", literally "He ordered them that they would kill")
- additionally, the imperative is formed by affixing the prefix an- to conjugation III.
- used for indefinite relative clauses such as the following:
Any of the three simple finite conjugations can be made into progressive tenses by adding the prefix ma- before consonants and may- before vowels.
The following tables will demonstrate the simple finite conjugations for kulla "to pray".
Person | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
1st | kullah I pray |
kullahu we pray |
2nd | kullat you (sg.) pray |
kullahet you (pl.) pray |
3rd | kullaš (s)he prays |
kullaheš they pray |
Person | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
1st | kullakut I prayed |
kullaku we prayed |
2nd | kullaktu you (sg.) prayed |
kullaket you (pl.) prayed |
3rd | kullakšu (s)he prayed |
kullakeš they prayed |
Person | Singular | Plural |
---|---|---|
1st | kullanut I may/would pray |
kullanu we may/would pray |
2nd | kullantu you (sg.) may/would pray |
kullanet you (pl.) may/would pray |
3rd | kullanšu (s)he may/would prays |
kullaneš they may/would pray |
Postpositions
Phonology
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i /i/ |
u /u/ | |
Mid | e /e/ |
||
Open | a /ä/ |
The Elamite language features only four vowels: /ä/, /e/, /i/, and /u/.
Consonants
Labial | Alveolar | Palatal or postalveolar |
Velar or labiovelar |
Uvular | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m /m/ |
n /n/ |
|||||
Plosive | voiceless | p /p/ |
t /t/ |
k /k/ |
|||
voiced | b /b/ |
d /d/ |
g /ɡ/ |
(apostrophe) /ʔ/[A] | |||
Affricate | j /d͡ʒ/[A] |
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Fricative | voiceless | f /f/ |
s /s/ |
š /ʃ/ |
x /χ/[A] |
h /h/ | |
voiced | z /z/ |
q /ʁ/[A] |
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Lateral | l /l/ |
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Approximant | y /j/ |
w /w/ |
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Rhotic | r /ɾ~r/ |
A Not found in native words; only occur in loanwords.
Vocabulary
Writing system
The Elamite language is written in a Latin alphabet that was developed in 1928 by Elamite poet Kaysar Mubali and British linguist and diplomat Edmund Gallagher Byrne. It replaced the previously dominant Perso-Arabic script, which was not standardised and often written in an ad hoc fashion. The Perso-Arabic script only marks three vowels — long ā, ū and ī — and includes several consonants which are redundant in Elamite. The omission of all short vowels made the script largely unsuitable for Elamite, which has no vowel length distinctions and also has a fourth vowel phoneme, /e/.
The reform of the script was an important step in the cultural reforms that dominated in the period. The introduction of the new Elamite alphabet was supported by public education centers opened throughout the country, cooperation with publishing companies, and by the encouragement of the Emir himself, who toured the country teaching the new alphabet to members of the public. As a result, the following decade was marked by a dramatic increase in literacy.
The modern Elamite alphabet is well suited to the sounds of the language: the spelling is for the standard form of the language entirely phonemic, with one letter corresponding to one phoneme. In neighbouring Iran, the Perso-Arabic script is still widely used.
Phoneme | Latin alphabet | Perso-Arabic script | Example | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
/ä/ | a | آ، ـا، ا | adda | ادّه | 'father' |
/e/ | e | ای، ـیـ، ـی، ی | el | ایل | 'eye' |
/i/ | i | ipši | ایپشی | 'fear' | |
/u/ | u | او، ـو، و | kidur | کدور | 'exterior' |
Phoneme | Latin alphabet | Perso-Arabic script | Example | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
/m/ | m | مـ، ـمـ، ـم، م | mawt | موت | 'deadly' |
/n/ | n | نـ، ـنـ، ـن، ن | sin | سن | 'month' |
/p/ | p | پـ، ـپـ، ـپ، پ | ipši | ایپشی | 'fear' |
/t/ | t | تـ، ـتـ، ـت، ت طـ، ـطـ، ـط، ط هٔ، ـهٔ |
taššwip | تشّویپ | 'nation' |
/k/ | k | کـ، ـکـ، ـک، ک قـ، ـقـ، ـق، ق |
kidumma | کدمّه | 'outside' |
/b/ | b | بـ، ـبـ، ـب، ب | adab | آدب | 'civilised' |
/d/ | d | د، ـد | |||
/g/ | g | گـ، ـگـ، ـگ، گ | gil | گل | 'command' |
/ʔ/ | ' | ء | ra'is | رئس | 'president' |
/j/ | j | جـ، ـجـ، ـج، ج | abjadi | ابجدی | 'alphabet' |
/f/ | f | فـ، ـفـ، ـف، ف | safir | سفیر | 'ambassador' |
/s/ | s | سـ، ـسـ، ـس، س ثـ، ـثـ، ـث، ث | |||
/ʃ/ | š | شـ، ـشـ، ـش، ش | mušnuk | مشنک | 'bad' |
/χ/ | x | خـ، ـخـ، ـخ، خ | maxluk | مخلوق | 'creature' |
/h/ | h | هـ، ـهـ، ـه، ه حـ، ـحـ، ـح، ح |
halkini | هلکنی | 'dog' |
/z/ | z | ز، ـز ذ، ـذ ضـ، ـضـ، ـض، ض ظـ، ـظـ، ـظ، ظ |
zitka | زتکه | 'dry' |
/ʁ/ | q | غـ، ـغـ، ـغ، غ | Qazawi | غزوی | Qazawi |
/l/ | l | لـ، ـلـ، ـل، ل | maxluk | مخلوق | 'creature' |
/j/ | y | یـ، ـیـ، ـی، ی | siyasat | سياسهٔ | 'policy' |
/w/ | w | و، ـو | wast | وست | 'thing' |
/ɾ~r/ | r | ر، ـر | šara | شره | 'under' |