Azania (country)

Revision as of 08:35, 28 July 2020 by StonewallGuerilla (talk | contribs) (Added Education)
Jump to navigation Jump to search

History

Independence

The country became a Dominion within the British Empire by the name Commonwealth of Azania through the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The political system was dominated by white administrators and the black majority did not enjoy the same rights as white people even though rural communities enjoyed some degree of autonomy under hereditary Kings and tribal Chiefs. In this era tribal homelands were established with nominal self rule, but they were puppet governments of the white government and black men who were citizens thereof were required to carry passports when entering Azania.

Apartheid

Apartheid was a policy of racial segregation that was aggressively implemented during the 12 year rule of Prime Minister Hendrick Verwoerd in 1948. The white settler led government implemented laws that granted exclusive access to certain areas and public amenities to white people, limited certain positions in the civil service to whites, and systemically demolished and gentrified black urban townships. The government in his rule was responsible for massive deaths of black people.

There were widespread demonstrations against the apartheid government to protest the establishment of apartheid. The apartheid government imposed marshal law and shut down liberal universities such as the University of Cape Town. In 1949, various black, liberal white and non-white leaders and civil society organizations came together to establish the Azanian Liberation Movement which was an umbrella organization to coordinate and direct the resistance to apartheid.

In the first few years of apartheid, the American and British governments did not respond to the apartheid policy instituted by the Verwoerd government. When the Civil Rights Movement began in the United States and when the decolonisation of Africa by United Kingdom gained momentum, the British and American governments publicly condemned Verwoerd's actions. Apartheid was declared a crime against humanity by the United Nations

Liberation

With widespread international condemnation, the rising prominence of black leaders such as Albert Luthuli and the resistance of liberal white and non-white members of Parliament, Verwoerd was impeached in 1958. In the same year, Dullah Omar (a Malay Muslim) was appointed caretaker Prime Minister. He oversaw the establishment of the Constituent Assembly in which black, white and brown people were represented to draft a new Constitution.

The Constitution was completed and enacted in September 1960. It abolished the British monarchy and the country was reestablished as a republic. Based on the arrangement made with India, Azania remained a part of the Commonwealth of Nations. Queen Elizabeth was the last British monarch and she lost her title when the country was declared a Republic in 1960. The first President was Albert Luthuli who took office in the same year. The Azanian Liberation Movement was dissolved in the same year. Many of the organizations that were under its umbrella ran for election as independent political parties.

Cold War

Albert Luthuli (a member of the Zulu tribe and Chief of a Zulu village) was elected as the first president at the age of 62. He was internationally recognized for his contributions toward the non-violent struggle against racial injustice and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Luthuli established the Human Rights Tribunal which prosecuted crimes perpetrated by white and black agents of the white minority government which included the arrest and imprisonment of Hendrick Verwoerd.

Azania joined the Non-Aligned Movement as the government wanted to remain neutral in the cold war between the United States and Soviet Union.

The country witnessed the assassination of President John F. Kennedy of the United States and the government expressed its condolences on behalf of the country.

The country witnessed the Cuban Missile Crisis. The government called on the Soviet Union and United States to deescalate the crisis. It joined countries advocating for the end of nuclear weapons.

Kenneth Kaunda (a Nyasa by origin, but an adopted member of the Bemba tribe) was elected at the age of 42 as the second President in 1966.

Seretse Khama (a member of the Tswana tribe and Chief of the Bangwato sub-group) was elected as the third President at the age of 49 in 1970.

During his term, the 1973 oil crisis occurred which greatly benefitted Azania because Azania was able to increase its oil exports to the United States, Canada, Japan and the United Kingdom. Moreover the Azanian National Petroleum Corporation (ANPEC) used the opportunity to attract American and British technicians to increase its oil operations and refining processes.

Robert Mugabe (a member of the Shona tribe) was elected as fourth President at the age of 50 in 1974.

Samora Machel (a member of the Shangaan tribe) was elected as the fifth President at the age of 45 in 1978.

Panic buying of petroleum during the 1979 oil crisis allowed Azania to benefit from the higher prices and the country raised substantial income and experienced a high rate of economic growth.

War with Uganda

Holden Roberto (a member of the Kongo tribe by descent) was elected as the sixth President at the age of 49 in 1978.

The Ugandan government under Idi Amin was not only highly authoritarian, but making strange threats to surrounding nations especially Tanzania in a bid to protect the power of its increasingly isolated and weak leader. Tanzania took the threats seriously and Azania supported international sanctions and condemnation of the Idi Amin regime in Uganda. It was unclear exactly what promoted fighting, but fit-for-tat economic and diplomatic measures and military encounters on the border between Tanzania and Uganda led to a Ugandan invasion of Tanzania.

With its territorial integrity, economic livelihood and citizens threatened by this aggressive military provocation, Tanzania repelled the Ugandan forces after fierce fighting. Seeking to bolster ties with Tanzania and potentially consolidate democratic gains and regional security by defeating one of the most unstable and tyrannical rulers in Africa, Azania declared war on Uganda and offered its support to Tanzania. It sent soldiers, jets and artillery under the command of its most decorated officers to assist the Tanzanian forces in repelling Ugandan forces from Tanzanian territory and overthrowing the Idi Amin government.

Together with the Tanzanian forces, Azania invaded Uganda and captured Kampala. Idi Amin tried to use his citizens as human shields. When faced with the grueling effects of the siege and fighting in and around the peripheries of the city, Amin tried to negotiate. The Tanzanians refused to negotiate. As their forces entered Kampala and defeated the Ugandan army, Amin tried to escape to Congo. Azanian forces tracked him down and intercepted him at the Congolese border where it was revealed that Mobutu had, in fact, supported Idi Amin with materiel and mercenaries to dislodge Azanian influence in central and southern Africa.

Despite denials to the contrary, the presence of a large Congolese military contingent at the border waiting to receive Amin and the discovery of Congo Army branded materiel led the Azanians to conduct an investigation. Documents were found in Amin's Kampala compound, despite unscrupulous attempts to destroy all the evidence which proved that Mobutu had been offered support to Amin as part of a broader plan to dislodge Azanian influence and potentially threaten Azanian national security.

This situation significantly embittered already fraught relations with Congo. And would provide the kiln for the war with Congo in the years to follow. In retaliation the Azanian government imposed trade sanctions and moved for Congo to be expelled from Pan-African organisations. Azania maintained a permanent presence military presence on the border with Congo ever since. The enmity sown by the incident only ended 17 years later.

Fragile peace

Steve Biko (a member of the Xhosa tribe) was elected as the seventh President in 1982 at the age of 34. He was the first President to be born after World War II and the youngest president in history and the first President to serve two terms.

Relations with Congo never improved. They generally always got worse. Congo was highly antagonistic toward the Tanzanian and Azanian supported government in Kampala under Yoweri Museveni. Although Museveni was leading his country to economic prosperity and the semblance of an electoral democracy, the international community became concerned with the stagnation of civil society and personal and political freedoms. Azania was accused of turning a blind eye toward these issues and the Mobutu regime, despite being isolated, constantly derided Azania's hyprocisy and self preservation.

Nonetheless, under Steve Biko, the country generally grew in economic strength and institutional resilience. His government was one of the most politically progressive on the continent and in some respects in the world. Under his government, homosexuality was decriminalized and discrimation on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation was explicitly written into the constitution.

This era was generally regarded as a golden age for Azania. The country was exporting its cultural products and expanding its soft power influence. On the foreign policy front, it joined many international organisations and was a major proponent of the climate change and environmental conservation agreements being negotiated and signed by world powers. On the soft power front, the advent of color television led to exportation of Azanian movies, music and television and many cultural icons such as Mbongeni Ngema emerged.

Furthermore the introduction personal computer to Azania revolutionized science and technology and engineering. The government not only embraced but encourage the proliferation of these devices. By the end of Biko's rule, over 10% of the population owned or had access to a personal computer.

Chris Hani (a member of the Zulu tribe) was elected as the eighth President at the age of 48 in 1990. He saw the fall of the Berlin Wall and the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the retaliation thereto by the United States and its allies. Azania continued to ride on the coattails of the Biko Era, enjoying economic prosperity and peace, despite the hostility with Congo and the threats posed by Congo-supported insurgents in the north.

Mohammed Barre of Somalia had grown increasingly authoritarian. Opposition forces, fed up with the oppression under his government and using the opportunity for the consolidation of their own power, fought against Mohammed Barre and his government. The Hani government supported the Somali National Movement with military aid. Nonetheless, it was dismayed and humiliated when the SNM refused to negotiate with the Barre government. Despite eventually usurping Barre, the failure to come to terms with other factions and the rise of separatists in the north, the country fell into a 10 year Civil War and was left without a central government. Distraught over his handling of the crisis Hani refused to run for a second term.

Wars with Rwanda and Congo

Cyril Ramaphosa (a member of the Venda tribe) was elected as the ninth President in 1994 at the age of 42.

There was a popular uprising in the United Republic of the Congo where protesters called for Mobutu Sese Seko to resign as president. The President had grown increasingly authoritarian and the country faced economic and security challenges that the people felt his government was unwilling and/or unable to resolve. Azania attempted to facilitate negotiations between the protesters and the government, but talks broke down.

The Rwandan Civil War occurred around the same time, and the Mobutu government supported the Hutu government and its call for genocide. The Azanian government tried to facilitate negotiations between the Hutu government and Tutsi rebels, but with Mobutu supporting them and Azania's perceived weaknesses as a mediator in the Congolese crisis, led the Hutu government to reject the offer. The war displaced thousands of people and led to hundreds of deaths, despite international condemnation and economic sanctions on the Hutu government.

When the conflict spilled over to Azania and the carnage in Rwanda became unbearable for Azania to stand, the Azanian Defence Forces invaded Rwanda and provided support and training to the Tutsi rebels. The Mobutu government intervened on behalf of the Hutu government, fighting Azanian and Tutsi forces.

To the surprise of the Mobutu government and the broader international community, Azania invaded and occupied Southern Congo. This sparked the Azanian-Congo War. Despite long and difficult battles in the beginning, Azanian air superiority eventually cut off Congolese military support to the Hutu government and its military was eventually forced to retreat. Unfortunately fighting two wars on two fronts was highly politically contentious and financially costly for Azania, stalling and in some cases reversing victories made in the fight with the Hutu government. Nonetheless, the war ended after 8 months of fighting with the surrender of the Hutu and Mobutu regimes.

Humiliated by defeat at the hands of the Azanian armed forces and already estranged from his constituents by the ineffectiveness and oppressiveness of his government, Mobutu was politically isolated. Azania funded and supported the Opposition, which deposed him in a bloodless coup d'etat. Mobutu was then intercepted at the Ugandan border, trying to escape arrest. Despite the human and financial cost of the two Wars, Congo and Rwanda held peaceful democratic elections and restored their institutions. Moreover, with Azanian humanitarian aid, investment and loans, the two countries were able to start the process of restoring their economics. These countries fell within the political orbit and sphere of influence of Azania and have become its closest allies.

Government

The Constitution of Azania is the highest law in the land. It sets out the structure of the government and protects the fundamental rights of the people. The government is made up of three branches (the executive, the judiciary and the legislative) and they have checks and balances between them.

The President is the head of state, head of government and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He is elected by the Parliament every 5 years and may serve only two terms. The President appoints Ministers of State with the approval of a majority of the Parliament. The President and Ministers of State make up the Cabinet. The Cabinet is at the apex of the executive branch. The Ministers helm government departments and formulate and develop policy over areas that fall within the jurisdiction of their portfolio as follows:

  • Minister of Foreign Affairs: handles diplomacy and foreign policy
  • Minister of Finance: handles state finances and oversees the tax collection service and central bank
  • Minister of Defence: handles defence policy and oversees the armed forces
  • Minister of Education: runs the education system and promotes science and art and protects national heritage
  • Minister for Health: handles health care
  • Minister for Home Affairs: handles human administration, social welfare and social work
  • Minister for National Security: oversees the intelligence services and handles security policy
  • Minister for Justice: oversees the police, correctional services, legal profession and judiciary
  • Minister for Agriculture: handles food security, and oversees farming, fishing and logging
  • Minister for Mining: oversees mining
  • Minister for Energy: oversees the energy sector and petroleum industry
  • Minister for Environmental Affairs: handles environmental conservation
  • Minister for Infrastructure: oversees transport, telecommunications and urban development

The Parliament is the bicameral legislative branch of the government. It is made up of two chambers: the House of Representatives which is the lower chamber and the Senate which is the upper chamber. Every four years the people elect a representative for their district to the House of Representatives, and the provincial legislatures of each province elect an equal number of senators to sit in and represent them in the Senate. The House of Representatives is the more powerful house.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. It has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution and it is the final court of appeal. The High Courts have the power to hear appeals and their decisions are binding on all courts within their province and they are courts of first instance in major cases. The Magistrates Courts are courts of first instance for almost all matters. Additional courts are created by the Parliament to handle specific matters.

Human rights

The country is among the most politically progressive in Africa. The Constitution provides that women should occupy at least 40% of the seats in Parliament and representation for certain minority groups is guaranteed in the Parliament. Discrimination on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation is expressly forbidden in the Constitution. This protects the rights of transgender and homosexual individuals and has afforded access to gender reassignment and same-sex marriages which enjoy the same rights as heterosexual marriages. The first gay Chief Justice of any country in the world, Edwin Cameron was appointed in 2012. Despite progressive LGBT legislation, queer people face social stigmatization in some areas especially rural conservative communities.

Despite the massive advances made in guaranteeing human rights for all the country still struggles with several challenges. Rural communities tend to be poor and have less access to government resources and public services which has historically undermined their access to economic and legal rights. Moreover, because traditional values influence dispute resolution, land distribution and political representation in rural communities women face challenges that would ordinarily not be found in the cities. Despite affirmative action, women continue to be underrepresented in senior management positions of major companies. Furthermore, poor males face high rates of incarceration and random searches by the police.

The country has enjoyed relatively high levels of personal and political freedoms since apartheid was abolished in 1960. The Azanian Human Rights Commission is responsible for receiving complaints of human rights abuses and has the power to order remedial action. The Azanian Public Protector is responsible for investigating corruption and has the power to order remedial action.

Military

The Azanian Defence Force is the military of Azania. It is made up of three branches: the Navy, Army and Air Force. It is responsible for defending Azania from foreign attacks. The commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the President. The Department of Defence provides administrative support. The Minister of Defence provides political oversight. The Chief of Staff is the highest ranking professional officer of the armed forces.

The military has a budget of 10 billion US dollars. The total number of active personnel is 100,000 while the reserve force is made up of 500,000 members. Conscription is not enforced except during war time. The country has an indigenous arms manufacturing industry and it exports military hardware to foreign countries. Its largest foreign suppliers are China, Russia, the United States, United Kingdom, and Brazil. The military has secondary functions such as border patrol, fighting pirates and poachers, conducting peacekeeping, providing humanitarian aid and search-and-rescue.

The military is highly battle trained and has participated in many international wars. Under a joint task force with Tanzania, it dispatched artillery, soldiers and fighter jets to Uganda to overthrow the government of Idi Amin. It also invaded Rwanda and Congo, helping to defeat both the Hutu-majority and Mobutu regimes respectively.

The navy has dispatched ships to fight pirates in the Horn of Africa and guard Azanian ships passing through those waters. It also continues to fight pirates, poachers and illegal fishing in its own waters especially in the Musumbiki Channel which is both a passage way for many ships and is rich in marine life. Because of these primary concerns and the long coastline which it must patrol, the Navy has focused on patrol boats. Nonetheless it has several corvettes, destroyers and frigates with limited expeditionary war capabilities (such as the invasion of the Comoros Island) and has a few battle-ready submarines. Regardless, conventional naval warfare is only a secondary strategic priority.

The air force on the other hand is highly instrumental in the country’s defence policy. This is because the air force provides essential cover fire for ground troops, provides speedy transportation for soldiers and materiel, is an excellent tool for ground surveillance and most battles require air superiority. The air force has been instrumental in allowing speedy victories for the Azanian military in wars fought on the continent. As such, the country has invested in strike craft, multi-purpose aircraft, combat helicopters and bombers. The arms manufacturing sector has also developed combat aircraft and related technology.

Foreign relations

Azania is a member of the African Union, the United Nations, the Organization for Indian Ocean Rim Countries, and the Commonwealth of Nations among many others. The foreign policy of Azania promotes multilateralism, Pan-African integration and human rights. The country is a signatory of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement, the Paris Climate Agreement and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. It is the largest donor and among the few donors of humanitarian aid in the continent shoulders the largest portion of the cost of running the African Union and other Pan-African bodies.

It maintains close economic and diplomatic ties with China, the United States, the United Kingdom, the European Union and India. The Department of Foreign Affairs administers Azania's diplomatic relations with other nations. Most countries' embassies are located in the capital city Tshwane. The Minister of Foreign Affairs is the highest ranking diplomat.

The government has adopted the policy that it will intervene in the internal affairs of its neighbors to protect its national security interests. For example, it intervened in the Congolese Revolution to overthrow President Mobutu Sese Seko and it invaded Rwanda during the Rwandan Civil War and supported Paul Kagame's regime. It also helped Tanzania defeat and usurp the Idi Amin-led government in Uganda.

Relations with Nigeria are complex, but generally difficult and antagonistic when it comes to geopolitical issues, even though the economic relationship is generally friendly and mutually beneficial and cultural exchanges are generally welcomed. The country's ability and willingness to militarily intervene in other nations has been criticized by other African countries especially Nigeria (even though Nigeria continues to occupy southern Niger and has intervened in the Ivory Coast). Azania and Nigeria have a mutual recognition of their hegemonic ambitions in Southern Africa and West Africa respectively. Nonetheless, they are sometimes divided over issues in the Horn of Africa, North Africa and especially Central Africa.

For instance, Azania did not support the attempted coup d'etat against Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia by the Derg communists, in contrast to Nigeria and Nigeria opposed Azania's resource support to the Emperor's forces. The two differ significantly on the Cameroonian Civil War. Azania supports a two state solution while Nigeria supports a federation of the Anglophone and Francophone segments of the country. The countries compete on oil production and disagree on using oil as a geopolitical tool. For example in 1979, Nigeria was willing to support the embargo on Israel to protest the war there in support of the Muslim majority countries, to which Azania was staunchly opposed. When Azania was slow to respond to the Iranian Revolution, Nigeria accused Azania of economic opportunism. Azania also supports and recognizes Somaliland, in contrast to Nigeria. They both agree and have worked together on the independence of Western Sahara (the Sahrawi Democratic Republic), a two state solution in Palestine and Mauritian sovereignty over the Chagos Islands.

Tanzania, Rwanda, Congo, Kenya and Ethiopia and Mauritius are generally considered Azania's closest allies in Africa. Despite being nominally neutral in the Cold War, Azania gravitated toward the United States, United Kingdom and other Western nations. After the Cold War, despite maintaining close ties to the United States, Azania has embraced China with more enthusiasm than its allies in Washington have been comfortable with and its willingness to cooperate with Russia on science and technology (especially its nuclear energy program) have been met with suspicion by Brussels and Washington. It maintains generally positive relations with most countries and its relations with Commonwealth member nations especially the United Kingdom, India, Australia, Canada and New Zealand are considered warm. In South America, Brazil is considered Azania's closest partner.

Administrative divisions

The country is divided into several provinces. Each province has the power to make laws over areas granted to it by the Constitution. In some areas, it shares the power to make laws with the national Parliament. The provinces each have an elected unicameral Provincial Assembly that forms the legislative branch and they elect the Governor of each province who appoints the Executive Council.

The Provinces are further divided into municipalities. Municipalities comprise the local government. They are responsible for delivering public services to their residents. Municipalities that rule over the largest cities have limited control over their internal affairs. The largest metropolitan municipalities are Egoli, Ethekwini, Ekapa, and Tshwane.

Political culture

The oldest political parties were once under the umbrella of the Azanian Liberation Movement and they usually ascribe to centrist ideological tenets. Newer parties tend to be closer to the right or left of the political spectrum and/or represent the interests of a small group or community.

In practice people are free to join, serve, participate in and represent political parties. Elections are competitive and fair and transitions from one President to another have been peaceful and constitutional since the 1960s. There are many smaller parties that represent special interests, but the largest two tend to take up almost three quarters of fhe seats in the provincial legislatures and Parliament. The Independent Electoral Commission administers elections and is free from political interference.

No single party has ever won enough votes to govern on its own. Instead the larger parties have been forced to form coalitions with smaller parties to govern. Because the elections to the Parliament are syncretised with the term of the President, the head of the largest coalition is usually elected as President, while the head of the second largest coalition or party is the Leader of the Opposition.

The enormous diversity of the country's religions, cultures and ideologies as well as the robust media have been attributed as part of the reason that Azania has not fallen to strongman politics. Moreover, the educated and progressive elite have been able to gather political support from a wide array of communities especially in the urban areas through their cosmopolitan and consultative style of governance.

Traditional authority

During colonization, the white minority government created reserves for black tribes based on more or less on the precolonial locations of those tribes. The new Constitution retained the tribal authorities that ran these areas, but transferred most of their powers to the provincial government. Moreover, people are no longer automatically citizens or subjects of the tribal authority that rules the tribe of their birth.

Most large tribal groups have a King or Queen who bear the style Majesty and serve as the figureheads for their people. Their heir, spouse(s), and living predecessor bear the titles of Prince or Princess of that tribe and the style of Royal Highness. Their children, grand-children and other important relatives also bear the title Prince or Princess, but have the lesser title of Highness. Village chiefs are ranked according to titles bestowed by their King based on the traditions of his or her people and are collectively referred to as Lords or Ladies. The Kings and their households are supported by a civil purse. Kings largely have a ceremonial role, but they can be assigned specific duties by the provincial or national government. Some tribes have created equivalents of European noble titles such Duke, Marquis, Earl, Viscount etc. Some peerages are linked to a sub-group such as Morena Seretse Khama Mofomahadi wa Bangwato (Lord Seretse Khama, Duke of the Bangwato), while others are linked to a place such as Mhlekazi Nelson Mandela Mncithazungu waseQunu (Lord Nelson Mandela, Earl of Qunu). Azania is one of the few republics that recognise noble and chivalrous titles (although chivalry is only bestowed by the President).

Traditional titles and symbols play a role in the modern political system. When Azania became independent in 1960, the Chiefs and kings of the different tribes bestowed the title of "Elephant of Azania" on the President and recognised him as their leader and offered him their support, both to defy their old master the United Kingdom and to display their acknowledgement of legitimacy of the new government as a whole, an action which was written into law by an act of Parliament. In broad terms, the President is recognised as the highest modern "traditional" leader, albeit democratically elected and universally accountable.

Moreover, the President has the power to grant membership to any citizen or foreigner who has contributed to the wellbeing and advancement of Azania in an order of chivalry. One who holds a senior rank in the more prestigious orders, is also bestowed the title and honorific Seaparankwe/Isithwalandwe (English: Hero of the Republic) which arises from indigenous tradition where highly distinguished warriors would receive the gift of the plumes of a rare bird as both a reward and symbol of their courage and excellence, akin to Sir or Dame in a monarchy.

Village chiefs regardless of rank generally preside over the village local assembly and chair local traditional dispute resolution tribunals. Some Chiefs can have authority over other Chiefs depending on the situation and location such as receiving reports from those Chiefs. The King can overthrow a chief but requires the consent of the local assembly over which he reigns. Generally issues of the inheritance of a chiefdom are resolved by the King.

Customary law is regarded as a legitimate source of law in the Azanian legal system and courts are able to enforce customary laws. Because laws differ substantially based on the tribe, statute and case law circumscribe the circumstances under which tribal law applies. Nonetheless, the definition for what constitutes customary law is loose, creating challenges in its enforcement and delineating its scope. Some tribes have appointed scribes and historians to research and transcribe the customs of their people. Others have created elected bodies to provide advice on what constitutes or should constitute customary law. Regardless, the legal system struggles to apply appropriate laws and apply them as rigorously as it should.

Demographics

Language

The official language and most widely spoken second language is English. There are over 200 indigenous languages and dialects, but most belong to the Southern Bantu, and Khoisan language groups. Dutch and Portuguese are spoken by descendants of European settlers. Tamil, Hindi and Gujarati are the most widely spoken languages from South Asia and they are spoken by descendants of Indian indentured laborers. Because Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam, it is spoken by many people as a third or second language especially by descendants of Malay slaves.

Provincial and local governments provide services in specific languages based on the popularity of that language in that area and the availability of resources to provide that language. This includes education, court proceedings, government documents and so on. Because of the high diversity and low population numbers, most Indigenous African languages are spoken in small areas and some are in danger of dying out especially since communication in urban areas especially wealthier neighborhoods is almost entirely in English. This process has led to English being required for many jobs and universities.

Religion

Christianity is the largest religion. The largest denomination is the Zionist Christian Church which is an African initiated church and the largest non-Orthodox church in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Roman Catholic Church, Mainline Christian Churches such as Dutch Reformed, Anglican, Methodist and Lutheran, and Pentecostal, Evangelical Protestant and Charismatic denominations make up the diverse tapestry of the Christian religion. Related off-shoots or cults such as the Nazirite Baptist Church, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses are also present.

Islam is the second-largest religion. The largest denomination, by far, is Sunni Islam but a sizeable minority are also Shia. It is predominantly practiced among descendants of Malay slaves. Hinduism is widely practiced among descendants of Indian indentured laborers. African indigenous religions are practiced by a small but significant minority of black people. Many Christians and Muslims also practice syncretism with African indigenous religion. Over a fifth of the population is atheistic, agnostic or irreligious.

The government is secular by law, and public schools must allow parents to opt their children out of religious ceremonies or teachings. Furthermore discrimination on the basis of religion in public schools is forbidden and discrimination is forbidden in private schools except in instances where it is an operational necessity such as a chaplain in a Catholic school.

Ethnicity

Most people are Bantu, who are believed to have originated from Central and West Africa over a 1000 years ago. The Southern Bantu are by far the largest segment of the population and they consist of many smaller tribes and clans and sub-tribal groups. The Khoisan and other Aboriginal groups are a small minority and are divided into hundreds of smaller groups. Most are in danger of going extinct.

Most Whites are descendants of European settlers from Portugal, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom and to a lesser extent France and Germany. Indians descend from indentured laborers who immigrated from India, the largest of whom are Tamil or Hindu. Malays descend from slaves from British colonial Malaya. There is a substantial portion of the population that is of mixed-race ancestry and does not trace its lineage to a single origin.

Urbanization

Over 60% of the population live in rural areas. Many of these areas are outside of the formal economy and lack access to the same amenities provided in cities and towns. Nonetheless, most villages are governed by a form of direct democracy where the local assembly consisting of all adults has the power to approve by-laws and ordinances. In some areas, a hereditary or elected tribal chief administers customary law. Rural areas, however, struggle to protect the rights of women and children because of the inclination of traditional values to favour men. Furthermore, economic opportunities are limited to farming and herding and developmental challenges are more severe in rural communities.

The largest urban areas are Egoli (7 million people), Ethekwini (5 million people), Ekapa (4 million people), Tshwane (3 million people), Ekurhuleni (3 million people), Luanda (2.5 million), Lusaka (2 million), Harare (1.6 million), Maputo (1.2 million people) and Ebayi (1 million people). Large urban areas tend to have slums in the periphery, due to the high influx of poor unemployed people from rural areas. The largest towns are governed by a metropolitan municipality that has limited power over internal affairs. Along with Kinshasa, Addis Ababa, Lagos and Cairo, Egoli is regarded as one of the greatest cities in Africa. Along with the Port cities of Alexandria and Port Harcourt, Ethekwini is regarded as one of the greatest coastal cities in Africa.

Society

Media

The Constitution protects fundamental human rights which are respected in practice by the government. The country has a thriving and diverse media that consists primarily of the government-owned broadcaster, the Azanian Broadcasting Corporation and the privately-owned Azanian Network Television and Radio Corporation. There are many newspapers, but the most widely read are the Standard, Star, Azania Times and the Herald. The most widely read magazines are the Black-focused Drum magazine, general periodical You magazine and women-focused magazine True Heart. The largest radio stations are Highland Stereo, City Beatz FM and the People’s Radio. Most media is in the English language, but there are regional and local papers, radio stations and magazines in a non-English language. Social media especially among the youth is highly active.

The country's performers, producers and directors have been internationally recognized for their work with pieces and performers having won and been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, Pulitzer Prize, Academy Awards, Tony Awards, Emmy Awards and the Grammy Awards. The Alan Paton Prize and the is among the most prestigious awards in the performing arts, the Irma Stern Prize is among the most prestigious in the visual arts, and the John Dube Prize is among the most prestigious awards in literature in the developing world and they are awarded by the Azanian Academy of the Performing, Visual and Literary Arts.

Education

Almost all adults can read and write. Most adults have attended some form of formal education. Primary school and high school up to grade 9 are compulsory and the government provides free education for all students up to grade 12. There are independent schools that are run as for-profit companies, non-profit non-governmental organizations and by religious bodies. Students write the National School Leaving and University Entrance Examinations in their final year and matriculate with a National Matriculation Certificate which is either administered by the Department of Education or the Independent Education Board for non-public schools.

Some students do not follow the ordinary education system and prefer to enroll in a Technical and Vocational Education and Training College where they learn technical and vocational crafts, earning the National Vocational Certification upon successful completion. Some students prefer to complete their education under the International General Education School Certification administered by Cambridge University. All students are expected to learn English regardless of the system under which they are taught.

The country has many universities and colleges. Most of the prestigious and largest universities are public but there are private institutions of higher learning as well. The most prestigious universities are the University of Fort Hare, University of Azania, University of Ekapa, University of Egoli, University of Ethekwini, University of Luanda, University of Harare and the University of Lusaka. Colleges cannot offer post-graduate qualifications unless they are examined by and their supervisors have credentials from a university. Less than 10% of the population have a post-secondary school qualification.