Education in Themiclesia
Education in Themiclesia has a lengthy, dynamic history and is under the purview of the Minister of the Right his subordinate offices. The scope of education includes mandatory schooling, technical institutes, professional education, and academic research. Modern legislation provides that all children of Themiclesian nationality undergo 12 years of primary education, which introduces pupils to a wide variety of topics and basic skills deemed necessary or beneficial for independent, daily life in Themiclesia and, to a lesser extent, abroad. Thereafter pupils may choose to pursue research in specific fields, professional training, or directly enter the employment market, the horizon of both having been broadened by foundational and seminal primary instruction.
The education and academic establishment has historically enjoyed a great degree of autonomy in Themiclesia. It has been considered unwise for political figures to involve themselves too deeply in academia, which invites criticism of factionalism. Some commentators attribute the liberal and tolerant policies that characterize modern Themiclesian universities to this ancient freedom, though the autonomy of higher schools has also impeded the introduction of more radical studies, when conservatives led the institution. The extent of academic autonomy varied in history; immediately before the modern period, the imperial academy (辟雍) was free from taxation, possessed its own courts of civil and criminal jurisdiction, controlled ingress and egress to its premises, maintained its own library of books not subject to state control, handled its own admissions and graduations, and even its own militia.
For most of history, higher education focused on history, literature, and philosophy. This selection is a product of the system's connection to the recruitment of the civil service, which assessed applicants' abilities according to their mastery of these topics, deemed most pertinent in a generalist career, prior to the advent of specific qualifications in the senior echelons of the bureaucracy. However, historical studies does branch into modern fields such as economics, finance, mathematics, astronomy, geography, and even some aspects of natural science; in this sense, "history" as a subject includes everything that happened in the past, encompassing much that would not be studied as history-proper today.
History
Pre-modern period
Philosophically, the promotion of cultivation through education occupied a prominent place in the agenda of the idealized ruler, though in real life it was not always given priority. Nevertheless, every dynasty in Themiclesian history has, on at least two occasions, issued general directions to regional administrative bodies to establish schools, hire lecturers, and maintain dormitories and libraries. Theoretically, admission was free and open to all walks of life; under financial constraints and historical prejudices, few women, slaves, and members of marginalized trades were granted access. Historical records seem to corroborate such schools' existence, in at least some places, and such facilities could be considerable in scale. At the central level, the Perilimenic Academy (辟雍) received funding from the state and consistently admitted already-established scholars for further research, a practice uninterrupted by the progression of dynasties.
Regionally, the graduated advancement system now characterizing most nations' general education system did not exist. Local schools generally placed pupils into courses that corresponded with their abilities, not age. The fundamental curriculum that applied to any pupil was called Small Studies (some translate in jest, Studies for Small Students); it included topics such as phonology, etymology, philology, music, mathematics, and "enlightenment" (a basic set of ethical guidelines). The first three subjects may be called language studies today, the first defining proper speech, the second, the meaning of words, and the third, the logic of the composition of characters. Pursuit of other, more advanced subject matter required proficiency in these areas, hence their radical placement.
At higher levels, classical texts would be introduced. Common titles include the Book of Documents, a selection of ancient Menghean records from c. 16th C. BCE, the Book of Odes, a selection of poetry from the same era, Book of Rites, a compendium on proper conduct in a multitde of social occasions, Book of Changes, a guide on divination and their philosophical interpretation, and the Annals, a year-by-year history redacted by the ancient Menghean sage Kung'-tsjo'. Instruction at this stage is both didactic and socratic: lecturers introduce textual passages and explain their meaning, and pupils were encouraged to compare and analyze instructional epexegeses and their understanding of the source material. At the highest level, in the Perilimenic Academy, scholars take on the role of both researcher and and instructor, often sent to fill educational positions in alternation with research work.
19th Century
By the early 1800s, the balance between traditional education, limited to the classics and their peripheries, and newer studies from the West reached a tipping point in the central government. There was debate whether the Perilimenic Academy should open new facilities to research these "transoceanic disciplines", such as the natural sciences were then called. Several ideas contested for approval at court, and all cited historical examples to support the legitimacy of their proposals. Incumbent Prime Minister Ghra' took the view that philosophical research was not conceptually contradictory with technical education, but the latter should be introduced to only those who needed and wanted it. The Secretary of the Civil Service took a less optimistic view and criticized the acceptance of "technical bureaucrats" as demeaning, considering all high-ranking positions the remit of those who enjoyed an education based on history and philosophy; his position would be analogous to those that emphasized "leadership and people skills" in modern terms.
Nevertheless, the Civil Secretary's dismissal of scientific education did not affect the introduction of these subjects at the Academy, and within two decades they seeped into local schools. The expansion of the demand for scientific education could be viewed in conjunction with import of foreign manufacturing machines (and later, foreign enterprise and capital), which naturally demanded a workforce that was literate in the same subject areas in which Western workers have been trained. The Minister of the Right fully endorsed these as priorities and quickly allocated funds for instructors of "transoceanic studies" to be employed at local schools. Population migration, beginning in the 1830s in response to nascent industry in the Ghar river estuary, also engendered an expanded interest in education, since it made a potential migrant much more employable, even if he had no other productive skill.
Government efforts to establish standards in foreign topics in primary education first appeared under the auspice of the moderatist government of Rar in 1847. When the government debated the selection of compulsory subject matter for children of such a young age, the financial difficulties of providing a full complement of lecturers in the sciences quickly dawned. Prime Minister Rar allegedly analogized this problem with the current principle placing Small Studies ahead of classics—proficiency with language enables further study—and pushed for the staffing of a Tyrannian lecturer in each school, hoping that the Western language would serve as a portal into Western studies at and of the pupil's choice, and, that failing, would at least increase his employment options should he (or she, since 1850) choose to migrate to the coastal areas. Rar also commissioned the writing of compendious textbooks on physics, mathematics, medicine, anatomy, economics, linguistics, mechinery (now usually called engineering), architecture, botany, zoology, chemistry, and many others, which were widely printed in the middle of his tenure and distributed. From a modern perspective, it seems naïve that distribution of textbooks alone would instigate a scientific revolution, but his successors would take more concrete steps towards modernizing the Themiclesian education system.
In 1860, primary education was made mandatory for all children aged six to fifteen, in accordance with international norms. The traditional subjects were, for the most part, retained until the end of the 19th Century. Most schools observed the rule that mornings were dedicated to Small Studies, and afternoons to the "Study of a Hundred Disciplines" (百科學, prek-k'war-ghruk), referencing the finely specialized fields of the sciences. 1860 marks a transformative year in primary education, not only on account of its universalization, but the acceptance of an age-based system of pastoral administration and graduated introduction of a range of subject matters at the same time, rather than sequentially. Some sources provide that this demonstrates the government's understanding of the value of a generalist, foundational primary education, though other sources characterize these reforms as imitative.
As an incentive to encourage original research, the government encouraged regional schools to establish Riverside Courts (泮宮, p'anh-kjung) as the homologue of the research university of the West. As the government provided relatively little funding for these ventures, pupils were at considerable liberty to define the particulars of their institutions. These Riverside Courts, under the guidance of returning students from the West, often adopted the collegiate system, under which colleges of students formed the governing body of the institution and hired faculty autonomously; though not statutorily as independent as the Perilimenic Academy, which possessed judicial and territorial autonomy, generally acted with minimal interference with the outside world. And, beyond the reach of traditionalists in the bureaucracy, they researched with much greater freedom. Without a dependable source of funding, these Riverside Courts were highly dependent on production of influential figures who would propagandize its reputation and attract more students and benefactors. Industrialists often invested in these schools, tasking them with research in a certain field. Alumni often found strong incentives to identify with and support their alma mater in significant ways, including funding, foreign contacts, and government subsidy. Many graduates of the Riverside Courts would, later in life, accept a tenure at their alma mater or work in education elsewhere, creating a considerable corpus of educators.
1900–1947
The early 20th Century is often regarded as a consolidative phase in the history of education in Themiclesia, though this does not preclude a number of innovation and achievements. The foremost change in higher education is the acceptance of Themiclesian credentials in the mainstream academic world (at least in typical fields) across Casaterra. While enrolment at foreign universities have accepted Themiclesian degrees in the past, some were conditional, and it was a rare occurence at any rate. By 1900, most major research institutions across Casaterra deemed Themiclesian credentials in parity to the local analogue, in at least a statutory sense. Part of this must be attributed to Themiclesian universities' rather indiscriminate recognition of foreign credentials and comparatively generous grants of research funding, which is supported by a maturing system of independent academic finance and administration. A deep, stable relationship solidifed with the Organized States in particular, given its treaty relationship with Themiclesia.
Political parties came to be identified with particular schools in this era. As aforementioned, schools tended to develop strong bonds with its alumni, and in political figures it was the most powerful and mutualistic. Schools readied a political-hopeful with knowledge and credentials, which the successful politician would gain allies in his class and other alumni; the more attractive his alma mater became, the more likely it would produce more individuals that would support him in politics. These relationships became endemic within the dominant ruling coalition of the day, the Liberal Party enjoyed a period of unprecedented dominance in politics but also fracture. Critics of the age derided the Liberals as the "16 Riverside Factions" (十六泮黨, djop-njed-p′anh-tang′)