Northian verbs
Root with mobile accent
gonmi, hāté, "to strike"
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | gón-mi | egónam | gónąm | gón-ō | gñ-iiā̊ | — | gān-ūm | igun-ūm | gān-ūm | gén-ą̄m | jñ-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | góŋ-hi | egṓṇġ | gṓṇġ | -ai | -iiā̊(s) | gān-θī́ | -šθoi̯ | -šθo | -šθo | -ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | gān-švō | gān-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | gón-δi | egóṇṯ | góṇṯ | -iyi | -iiāṯ | -itū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | hŋʷ-uuəíñi | egñ-uuó | gñ-uuó | -ouuiñi | -īuuó | — | gāŋ-vózθa | iguŋ-vóθa | gāŋ-vóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | — | — |
| 2 du | hā-tāḫ | egā-δõm | gā-δõm | -étāḫ | -ītõm | -θāḫ | jñ-ātiθai̯i | igñ-ātiθa | jñ-ātaθa | -ētaθai | -ītaθa | jñ-ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tḗ | -δā̊ | -δā̊ | -étiš | -ītā̊ | -θés | -ātāi̯i | igñ-ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | jñ-ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | hŋʷ-míñi | egñ-mó | gñ-mó | -omiñi | -īmó | — | gān-mózθa | igun-meθa | gān-meθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | hā-δé | egā-δé | gā-δé | -éti | -īté | gén-θi | -šθve | -šθve | -šθve | -ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | gñ-énδi | egñ-éṇṯ | gñ-éṇṯ | -ō | -iiāṯ | jñ-énθu | jñ-énθroi̯ | igñ-ónθro | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -nθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
ahmi, šté, "to be". This verb of singular importance has a rather opaque stem owing to the vagaries of *s in various phonetic positions. In principle, when *s precedes *m, *u̯, or a back vowel and when it stands in initial position and precedes any vowel, it becomes h; then any front vowel which borders h becomes a. Before a voiced consonant, *s becomes z. Thus the a-vocalism of hánθi "they are" is due to the colouring effects of h and not an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal, and so the subjunctive endings beginning in e are not coloured to a. ahmi has no attested middle voice.
| active | fut imp | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | áh-mi | é-ez-ąm | áh-ō | h-iiā̊ | — | — | |
| 2 sg | á-hi | á-ā̊-ḫ | -ayi | -iiā̊ | z-δí | z-δitóṯ | |
| 3 sg | éš-ti | é-eš-ṯ | -ai | -iiāṯ | š-tū́ | š-toṯ | |
| 1 du | h-uuəíñi | ēz-uuó | h-uuó | -ouuəíñi | h-īuuó | — | — |
| 2 du | š-tāḫ | ēš-tõm | š-tõm | -átāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -toṯ |
| 3 du | -tḗ | -tā̊ | -tā̊ | -átiš | -ītā̊ | -tā̊ | -toṯ |
| 1 pl | h-míñi | ēz-mo | h-mo | -omiñi | -īmó | — | — |
| 2 pl | s-té | ēš-té | š-te | -áti | -īté | éš-ti | -toṯ |
| 3 pl | h-ánδi | ā-h-áṇṯ | -onδi | -ii̯āṯ | h-āδu | h-āδoṯ | |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | |||||||
Root with persistent accent
āhmi, asti, "to dwell". A small but important class of root present verbs have persistent accent. Thus, rather than having an accent that shifts to the endings in the non-singular active and the entire middle, the accent persists on the root syllable; many, but not all, such verbs will have a lengthened vowel in the singular active. The 3 pl form takes the zero grade in all cases because the accent persists on the root.
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | ā̊s-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | āh-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | āh-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Root with long endings
ánaēmi, ānité, "to breath". Owing to the effects of an interconsonantal laryngeal, some roots were synchronically analyzed as taking a set of endings augmented with a vowel between the stem and ending proper, though historically the augmentation is part of the stem and not of the ending. These endings are analogous with the ṣet roots in the Tennite language, while those taking the short (normal) endings are analoogus to aṇit roots. Since there is an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal on the stem-ending border, any ending which begins with *e (bolded) is liable to be coloured by this laryngeal; in the example below the laryngeal is *h₁ and so does not colour the ending. This colouring effect may be seen as the analogue to the ending augmentation where the laryngeal is not preserved between consonants.
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | án-aēmi | aán-ą̄m | án-ą̄m | án-ō | ān-i̯ą̄m | — | ān-ūm | au̯un-ūm | ān-ūm | án-ą̄m | ān-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | án-iši | -iš | -iš | -ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | āniθī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -išθo | -ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | ān-išvō | ān-iθitoṯ |
| 3 sg | -iti | -it | -it | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | -itū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -ito | -étoi̯ | -īto | -ito | -itoṯ |
| 1 du | ān-ivíñi | au̯un-ivo | ān-ivó | -ou̯iñi | -īu̯o | — | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | — | — |
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -itõm | -étāḫ | -ītõm | -itāḫ | -ētiθai̯i | -ētiθa | -ētaθa | -ētaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ētaθa | -itoṯ |
| 3 du | -ités | -itą̄m | -itą̄m | -étiš | -ītąm | -ités | -ētāi̯i | -ētā | -ētā | -ētāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ētā | -itoṯ |
| 1 pl | -amíñi | -amo | -amo | -omiñi | -īmō | — | -amózθa | -ameθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | -ité | -ite | -ite | -éti | -īte | án-iti | -išθve | -išθve | -nušθve | -ésθve | -īšθve | -iθve | -itoṯ |
| 3 pl | ān-énθi | -éṯ | ān-éṯ | -ónθi | -ii̯āṯ | ān-énθu | -énθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo | -inθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Of a similar construction are those verbs whose historic stems terminated in *-h₂ and *-h₃, giving rise to a and o respectively, in all the bolded positions.
Root with long ending and persistent accent
While there is no obvious reason why such a combination cannot exist, there are no known roots which take both long endings and a persistent accent.
Vowel-final stems
faēmi, fité, "to protect, apologize, propitiate (middle)". In partial distinction to the situation above, stems which had a laryngeal in final position result in a lengthened vowel in the singular active. For paēmi this vowel is ā, but as in other cases the vowel becomes ē or ō. In the active optative, the initial consonant is a phonetic combination of *py-. This word is cognate to Nordic fehu "flock", via the sense a flock is animals protected by the shepherd.
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | f-aḗmi | émβā̊ | f-ā̊ | fa-ō | β-iiā̊ | — | f-ā́m | ep-ā́m | p-ā́m | p-ą̄m | p-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | -ā́hi | émβā̊ | -ā̊ | -ayi | -iiā̊ | β-θī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -išθo | -ásθoi̯ | -īšθo | p-išvō | p-iθitoṯ |
| 3 sg | -ā́ti | émβā-t | -āt | -ai | -iiāṯ | -itū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -ito | -átoi̯ | -īto | -ito | -itoṯ |
| 1 du | -ūvíñi | ep-ūvó | -ūvó | -ouuiñi | f-ūvo | — | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | — | — |
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -itõm | -átāḫ | -ītõm | -itāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | -ātaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ātaθa | -itoṯ |
| 3 du | -itḗ | -itā̊ | -itā̊ | -átiš | -ītā̊ | -itḗ | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ātāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ātā | -itoṯ |
| 1 pl | -amíñi | -amo | -amo | -omiñi | -īmō | — | -amózθa | -ameθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | -ité | -ité | -ité | -áti | -īté | fā́-ti | -išθvé | -išθvé | -išθvé | -ásθve | -īšθve | -iθve | -itoṯ |
| 3 pl | -ánδi | -áṯ | -ánṯ | -ónδi | -iyaṯ | f-inθū́ | -ánθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo | -inθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
naṓ ~ nu
xšnaōmi, xšnuθvé, "to sharpen". Present stems which vary with a nu suffix (néu̯ in strong forms) are treated as a special class as the endings are liable to become muddled with the stem-final consonant. Fundamentally, these verbs are still of the VC type and all have mobile accent. Syllabification rules in Northian requires the u in the weak form of the suffix to become a consonant in the presence of a following vowel, which in turn causes the n before it to mutate to ŋ. This ŋ may itself be syllabified in response to the want of a preceding vowel, as Northian prohibits four consecutive consonants in anlaut.
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | xš-naṓ-mi | a-xš-nā̊ | xš-náuu-ō | xš-nu-iiā̊ | hš-nūm | ekš-nūm | hš-nūm | hš-neu̯ą̄m | hš-āŋvīma | — | — | ||
| 2 sg | xš-náu-šti | -naṓ-š | -náuu-oyi | -nu-iiā̊ | xš-naṓ | -nušθoi̯ | -nušθo | -nušθo | -neu̯esθoi̯ | -āŋvīšθo | hš-nušvō | hš-nuθitoṯ | |
| 3 sg | xš-naṓ-ti | -naṓ-ṯ | -náuu-oi | -nu-iiāṯ | -nu-tū | -nutoi̯ | -nuto | -nuto | -neu̯etoi̯ | -āŋvīto | -nuto | -nutoṯ | |
| 1 du | xš-nu-voíñi | a-xš-nu-vo | -náuu-ouuiñi | -nuu-īuuo | -nuu̯ózθa | -nuu̯óθa | -nuu̯eθa | -neu̯ou̯ozθa | -āŋvīu̯óθa | — | — | ||
| 2 du | xš-nu-tāḫ | -nu-tõm | -náuu-itāḫ | -nuu-ītõm | -nu-tāḫ | -āŋvātiθai̯i | -āŋvātaθa | -āŋvātaθa | -neu̯ātaθai | -āŋvītaθa | -āŋvātaθa | -nutoṯ | |
| 3 du | xš-nu-tḗ | -nu-tā̊ | -náuu-itiš | -nuu-ītąm | -nu-tḗ | -āŋvātāi̯i | -āŋvātā | -āŋvātā | -neu̯ātāi̯i | -āŋvītā | -āŋvātā | -nutoṯ | |
| 1 pl | xš-nu-míñi | -nu-mo | -náuu-omiñi | -nuu-īmō | -numózθa | -numeθa | -numeθa | -neu̯omozθa | -āŋvīmeθa | — | — | ||
| 2 pl | xš-nu-té | -nu-té | -náuu-iti | -nuu-īte | -nu-te | -nušθve | -nušθve | -nušθve | -neu̯esθve | -āŋvīšθve | -nuθve | -nutoṯ | |
| 3 pl | xš-uu-onδi | a-xš-nuu-óṇṯ | -náuu-oṇδi | -nuu-īṯ | -nuu-ātū | -āŋvónθroi̯ | -āŋvónθro | -āŋvónθro | -neu̯onθroi̯ | -āŋvīnθro | -āŋvunθo | -nunθoṯ | |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Aorist
Aorist stems
The aorist or perfective (not to be confused with "perfect") stems belong to a relic class in Epic Northian, but they are productive in the Galic language. When used in the indicative and imperative, there are four formations as follows. But when used outside of them, and particularly in the injunctive and optative moods, aorists in s- are often "conjugated from the root", that is behave like root aorists. Roots which have this behaviour are called "split aorists" and are associated with a contrasting ablaut pattern, with only the third plural exhibiting a weak grade.
| # | Class | 1 sg. / 2 pl. | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | root | CéC-am / CØC-té | Contains roots that are inherently perfective. Most perfective verbs in the parent language appear to have been of this type, and Galic Northian has inherited about 100 lexical items inflected this way. The root syllable typically shows ablaut between *e ~ Ø. Many suffixed imperfective stems are derived from a root perfective stem. | dō- / d(i)- "to give" xraō- / xru- "to hear" |
| 2 | root | CØC-õm / CØC-té | Contains roots that are inherently perfective. This type appears to have been rare. | luδ- "to listen" |
| 3 | reduplicated | Cé-CØC-õm / Cé-CØC-iti | This pattern is known from only one root, though it is widely-attested in other Erani-Eracuran languages. | waō-š-[1] "to say" |
| 4 | s- | CḗC-s-(m) / CéC-š-ti | The s- suffix creates perfective stems from roots which were inherently imperfective; notably, the ablauting root syllable contrasts the long vowel in the strong forms and the short in the weak. | daix-s- "to show" |
- ↑ from *wau-s- < *wé-wk-
Root aorists
esedām, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Split aorists
dēkšam, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Thematic endings
dēkšam, esdté
| active | middle | fut imp | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf | inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | ā́h-mi | esed-am | áh-am | ā́h-ō | áh-i̯ą̄m | — | áh-ūm | ā́h-ūm | áh-ūm | ā́h-ą̄m | és-īma | — | — |
| 2 sg | ḗ-si | ā̊s | es | ḗs-ei̯i | -i̯āu̯ | ez-θī́ | és-šθoi̯ | ḗs-šθo | és-šθo | ḗs-ésθoi̯ | -īšθo | és-švō | és-θitoṯ |
| 3 sg | ḗs-ti | ā̊s-ṯ | es-ṯ | -ei̯ | -i̯āṯ | es-tū́ | -θoi̯ | -θo | -θo | -étoi̯ | -īto | -θo | -θoṯ |
| 1 du | áh-víñi | est-vo | áh-vó | ā́h-ou̯iñi | és-īvo | — | áh-vozθa | ā́h-voθa | áh-voθa | áh-ou̯ozθa | -īvoθa | — | — |
| 2 du | és-tāḫ | ēs-tõm | és-tõm | ḗs-etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātiθa | -ātaθa | ḗs-ētaθai | -ītaθa | -ātaθa | -θoṯ |
| 3 du | -tés | -tą̄m | -tą̄m | -etiš | -ītąm | -tiš | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātā | -ētāi̯i | -ītā | -ātā | -θoṯ |
| 1 pl | áh-míñi | est-mo | áh-mo | ā́h-omiñi | -īmō | — | -mózθa | -meθa | -meθa | ā́h-omozθa | -īmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl | és-ti | ēs-ti | és-te | ḗs-eti | -īte | ḗs-ti | és-šθve | ḗs-šθve | és-šθve | ḗs-ésθve | -īšθve | -θve | -θoṯ |
| 3 pl | áh-āṯ | ēs-eṯ | háṯ | ā́h-onθi | -ii̯āṯ | és-enθu | áh-unθroi̯ | ā́h-unθro | áh-unθro | -ónθroi̯ | -īi̯unθro | -unθo | -unθoṯ |
| inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās | inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās | ||||||||||||
Perfect
Perfect stems
The features of the perfect stem in the proto-language were reduplication and the o-vocalism in the perfect indicative. This is true of Northian as well. In the Epic language, the o-vocalism has spread into the subjunctive, but in Galic the subjunctive has the inherited e-vocalism.
| # | Class | 1 sg. / 2 pl. | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | root | CóC-a / CØC-é | This type is known from only one verb, namely u̯oi̯d- "to know". The weak stem is u̯id-. Accent is on the root syllable for strong forms, and endings for weak forms. | u̯oi̯d- / u̯id- "to know" |
| 2 | reduplicated | Ce-CóC-a / Ce-CØC-é | Creates stative stems from perfective and imperfective roots. An extra syllable is prefixed, consisting of the consonant immediately preceding the next vowel and the vowel *e. Due to phonetic change, this vowel can appear as o following a labialized consonant or become more obscure if a lost consonant such as a laryngeal is reduplicated, cf. ā̊ha "I am desiccated" < PEE *h₂e-h₂oh₂s-h₂e. The strong forms have characteristic accented o-grade in the root syllable and zero-grade there in the weak forms with accented endings. | ve-voi̯d- / ve-vid- "to believe" ko-kor- / ko-kr- "to be working" ā̊s- / ā̊s- "to be desiccated" |
| 3 | long-vowel | Ce-CṓC-a / Ce-CóC-i | This type may have developed in Northian on the pattern of the sigmatic aorist as it has no like cognates in other branches of the language. It contrasts a long vowel in the strong forms and a short vowel in the weak, and the vowel is often, but not always, the o that is characteristic of the perfect. |
Reduplicated
titóna, titné "to be growing, to increase". Perfect stems in Northian are regularly formed by reduplication of the first consonant with the vowel *e, attached to the root in o-grade in the active singular and in zero grade in the active dual and plural and the entire middle. The endings are a special set of perfect endings.
Aside from the perfect indicative or "perfect tense" in paedagogical works, various other forms are made from the perfect stem. With the exception of the perfect imperative, which is attested about as much as the indicative, other formations are considerably rarer for the reason that they may be Northian innovations rather than inherited features of the prehistoric parent language. The pluperfect (or descriptively the perfect preterite) and perfect injunctive are formed from the indicative stem, with the same ablaut behaviour, with secondary endings. The subjunctive is formed from the reduplicated stem with root in invariant e-grade, and the optative from the same stem with root in invariant zero grade.
Not all perfect stems are capable of displaying all these formations. Especially, perfect verbs with stative meaning usually do not form pluperfects or any middle forms, but they do form subjunctives and optatives. When a pluperfect meaning is required, they have a periphrastic formation of the perfect active participle with the imperfect forms of the verb es "to be". Yet it is difficult to formulate absolute rules about this matter, since the Galic corpus is of limited size, and there may have existed unattested formations in the language of its composition.
| active | middle | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ||
| 1 sg | titón-a | e-titón-ąm | titén-ō | titn-iiā̊ | p-ā́m | ep-ā́m | p-ā́m | p-ą̄m | |||
| 2 sg | -θa | e-titṓṇ-ġ | titéin-i | -iiā̊ | titā-δī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -ásθoi̯ | -īšθo | ||
| 3 sg | -i | e-titóṇ-ṯ | titén-ai | -iiāṯ | -tū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -átoi̯ | -īto | -ito | |
| 1 du | titn-uuo | e-titn-uuo | -auuiñi | -ūvo | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | |||
| 2 du | titā-tā | e-titā-tõm | -itāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātaθa | -ātaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ātaθa | |
| 3 du | -tṓ | -tā̊ | -itiš | -ītā̊ | -tḗ | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ātā | |
| 1 pl | tita-mé | e-tita-mo | -omiñi | -īmo | -amózθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | |||
| 2 pl | titn-é | e-titā-θé | -iti | -īté | tétā-ti | -išθvé | -išθvé | -ásθve | -īšθve | -iθve | |
| 3 pl | -ṓ | e-titn-áṇṯ | -ō | -iiāṯ | titn-atū | -ánθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo | |
| inf titnuuéni, pf act ptcpl titnuuā̊, titnuštṓ; titnuuṓḫ; titnuuohī, titnuźiiā̊ | inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl titaminō (I/II) | ||||||||||
Root
woida, widé "to know" is the only member of the perfect conjugation that, as a condition with good history, does not have reduplication. There are other perfect stems which do not have reduplication in Northian but do in other branch of the language; these are usually regarded as Northian innovations on the pattern of woida. It has the peculiarity of forming a full-grade root in the 3 pl, which also puts the ending in zero grade -ūš. It is as yet not known whether this feature is inherited, as it has been argued to be introduced from the root aorist injunctive, which in this form also shows full grade in the root.
| active | middle | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | plpf / inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | woid-a | auuoid-am | teten-ō | tetn-i̯ą̄m | p-ā́m | ep-ā́m | p-ą̄m | p-īma | ||
| 2 sg | wōiš-ta | auuōi-š | -esi | -i̯āu̯ | tetun-θī́ | -išθoi̯ | -išθo | -ásθoi̯ | -īšθo | p-išvō |
| 3 sg | woid-i | auuōi-št | -eti | -i̯āṯ | -tū́ | -itoi̯ | -ito | -átoi̯ | -īto | -ito |
| 1 du | wīž-uuó | auuiž-uua | -ou̯iñi | -īvo | -ivózθa | -ivóθa | -ou̯ozθa | -īvóθa | ||
| 2 du | wīš-tā | auuiš-tõm | -etāḫ | -ītõm | -tāḫ | -ātiθai̯i | -ātaθa | -ātaθai | -ii̯itaθa | -ātaθa |
| 3 du | -tṓ | -tā̊ | -itą̄m | -ītąm | -tés | -ātāi̯i | -ātā | -ātāi̯i | -ii̯itā | -ātā |
| 1 pl | wīž-mé | auuiž-mó | -omiñi | -īmō | -amózθa | -ameθa | -omozθa | -īmeθa | ||
| 2 pl | vid-é | auuiš-té | -áti | -īté | -ti | -išθvé | -išθvé | -ásθve | -īšθve | -iθve |
| 3 pl | woid-ūš | auuiž-iiáṯ | -ónθi | -ii̯āṯ | tétn-unθu | -ánθroi̯ | -ónθro | -ónθroi̯ | -ii̯unθro | -ii̯unθo |
| pf act inf wižuuéni, pf act ptcpl wáiduš, widuštōḫ; wáidū; wáiduštī, widuśiiā̊ | pf mid inf hšnuθi̯ō, pf mid ptcpl menanōḫ (I/II) | |||||||||
The other perfect verbs that fail to show reduplication are:
- u̯ṓi̯a, vii̯á "to fear"
- mṓna, mné "to recall"
It has been noted that most verbs which fail to reduplicate are verbs of internal states or emotions.
Thematic conjugation
Present
βaiδō "I trust". Cognate to Shalumite "to bide". Points of interest are:
- In the Galic material, the effects of the stem-final laryngeal are reflected quite regularly, such that the 2 and 3 sg., 2 and 3 du., and 2 pl. endings, which commence with the colouring-susceptible vowel *e, may be coloured to *a and *o, and the latter in unaccented positions becomes a. This is seen in the comparatively common verb apúpitō "fly away", whose 2 du. form is apúpitatāḫ and not *apúpititāḫ. In later materials, the laryngeal-less endings (which would be identical to those for stems ending in *h₁-) became standard.
- In the active subjunctive, the subjunctive modal suffix prehistorically merges with the thematic endings and result in long vowels; in unaccented positions these evolved differently than short vowels, to wit *ē > ā, while *ō remains unchanged.
- In the active optative, the diphthong scans short in the 1 du. and 3 pl., the cause of which is still uncertain.
- Due to phonetic change, the middle forms of the 2 and 3 sg. are not distinct, as both 2 sg. *eth₂ei and 3 sg. *etoi > -itai.
- In the middle subjunctive, the 2 and 3 du. endings lack the final -i of the primary endings and are thus identical to secondary endings; this phenomenon is widespread enough to be ruled out as a scribal error and is usually thought to reflect original variation in the conjugation system as the subjunctive is already specified by a modal morpheme and cannot be mistaken by a different set of endings. The optative, however, is always found with secondary endings.
| act | mid | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ind | impf / inj | subj | opt | imp | ind | impf / inj | subj | opt | imp | |
| 1 sg | βaiδ-ō | e-baiδ-õm | βaiδ-ō | βaiδ-ā̊ | βaiδ-aā̊i | e-baiδ-aā̊ | βaiδ-ōai | βaiδ-aiia | ||
| 2 sg | -iyi | -iš | -āyi | -aīš | βaiδi | -itai | -ita | -ātai | -aita | |
| 3 sg | -ai | -iṯ | -āi | -aīṯ | βaiδitū | -itai | -ita | -ātai | -aita | |
| 1 du | -auuiñi | -auua | -ə̄uuiñi | -aiuua | -auuazδa | -auuida | -ə̄uuazδa | -aiuuida | ||
| 2 du | -itāḫ | -itõm | -ātāḫ | -aītõm | βaiδitāḫ | -itāδāi | -itāδā | -ātāδā | -aitāδā | |
| 3 du | -itiš | -itā̊ | -ātiš | -aītā̊ | βaiδitiš | -itāyi | -itā | -ātā | -aitā | |
| 1 pl | -amiñi | -ama | -ōmiñi | -aīma | -amazδa | -amida | -ōmazδa | -aimida | ||
| 2 pl | -iti | -iti | -āti | -aīti | βaiδiti | -idūvi | -idūvi | -ādūvi | -aidūvi | |
| 3 pl | -ō | -anṯ | -ōnδi | -aiiāṯ | βaiδanδū | -aṇtrai | -aṇtra | -ōṇtrai | -aiiāθra | |
| fut imp βaiδitaṯ, βaiδanδaṯ act inf βaiδitiš, βaiδituš, act ptcpl βaiδā̊s, βaiδanδōḫ; βaiδaṯ; βaiδanδī, βaiδanδiiā̊, mid inf βaiδōi, mid ptcpl βaiδominōḫ (I/II) | ||||||||||
Aorist
| Indicative | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | ekorum | korum | korō | kāri̯ām | — | — | |
| 2 sg. | ekōr | kōr | korei | kāri̯ās | kor | kortoṯ | |
| 3 sg. | ekord | kord | korei̯ | kāri̯āt | kārto | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 du. | ekurōs | kārōs | korou̯ō | korīu̯ō | — | — | |
| 2 du. | ekurtõ | kārtõ | koretas | korītõ | kārtas | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 du. | ekurtąm | kārtą̄m | koretíš | krītąm | kārtíš | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 pl. | ekurmō | kārmō | koromõ | korīmō | — | — | |
| 2 pl. | ekurte | kārte | korete | korīte | kārte | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 pl. | ekurenṯ | kārenṯ | koronθi | koriānṯ | kārenθo | kārunθoṯ | |
| inf kāršiš, kāršuš, ptcpl korå, kronθō; korāṯ, kronθō; korunθī, krāŋθi̯ās | |||||||
| Indicative | Imperfect | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | ekurma | kārma | korōm | krīma | — | — | |
| 2 sg. | ekursθo | kārsθo | koresθoi̯ | krīšθo | kārhvō | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 sg. | ekurto | kārto | koretoi̯ | krīto | kārto | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 du. | ekurreθa | kārreθa | korou̯osθa | krīu̯eθa | — | — | |
| 2 du. | ekurātaθa | kārātaθa | korātaθai | krītaθa | kārātaθa | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 du. | ekurātā | kārātā | korātāi̯i | krītā | kārātā | kārtoṯ | |
| 1 pl. | ekurmeθa | kārmeθa | koromosθa | krīmeθa | — | — | |
| 2 pl. | ekuršθve | kāršθve | koresθve | krīšθve | kārθve | kārtoṯ | |
| 3 pl. | ekurenθro | kārenθro | koronθroi̯ | krīnθro | kārunθo | kārunθoṯ | |
| inf kārθi̯ō, kārθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kārūmnō, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnõ, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnā, kārūmnās | |||||||
Perfect
| Indicative | Pluperfect | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | kokora | ekokorum | kokorum | kokorō | kokuri̯ām | — | — |
| 2 sg. | kokošta | ekokōr | kokōr | kokorehi | kokuri̯ās | kokurθi | kokuštoṯ |
| 3 sg. | kokoré | ekokošṯ | kokošṯ | kokoreti | kokuri̯āt | kokušto | kokuštoṯ |
| 1 du. | kokurrō | ekokurre | kokurre | kokorou̯ō | kokrīu̯ō | — | — |
| 2 du. | kokuré | ekokuštõ | kokuštõ | kokoretas | kokrītõ | kokuštas | kokuštoṯ |
| 3 du. | kokrē | ekokuštą̄m | kokuštą̄m | kokoretiš | kokrītąm | kokuštes | kokuštoṯ |
| 1 pl. | kokurmé | ekokušme | kokušme | kokoromō | kokrīmō | — | — |
| 2 pl. | kokré | ekokušte | kokušte | kokorete | kokrīte | kokušte | kokuštoṯ |
| 3 pl. | kokrār | ekokurent | kokurent | kokoronθi | kokrīenṯ | kokorunθo | kokorunθoṯ |
| inf kokuršiš, kokoršuš, ptcpl kokrå, kokrušiš; kokrōṯ, kokrušiš; kokrušī, kokruši̯ās | |||||||
| Indicative | Pluperfect | Injunctive | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative | Future imp. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 sg. | kokurma | ekokurma | kokurma | kokorō | kokrīma | — | — |
| 2 sg. | kokursθo | ekokursθo | kokursθo | kokoresθoi̯ | kokrīšθo | kokurhvō | kokuštoṯ |
| 3 sg. | kokušto | ekokušto | kokušto | kokoretoi̯ | kokrīto | kokušto | kokuštoṯ |
| 1 du. | kokurreθa | ekokurreθa | kokurreθa | kokorou̯osθa | kokrīu̯eθa | — | — |
| 2 du. | kokurātaθa | ekokurātaθa | kokurātaθa | kokorātaθai | kokrītaθa | kokrātaθa | kokuštoṯ |
| 3 du. | kokurātā | ekokurātā | kokurātā | kokorātāi̯i | kokrītā | kokrātā | kokuštoṯ |
| 1 pl. | kokurmeθa | ekokurmeθa | kokurmeθa | kokoromosθa | kokrīmeθa | — | — |
| 2 pl. | kokuršθve | ekokuršθve | kokuršθve | kokoresθve | kokrīšθve | kokurθve | kokuštoṯ |
| 3 pl. | kokrenθro | ekokrenθro | kokrenθro | kokoronθroi̯ | kokrīnθro | kokrunθo | kokrunθoṯ |
| inf kokurθi̯ō, kokurθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl kokrūmnō, kokrūmnōi̯o; kokrūmnõ, kokrūmnōi̯o; kokrūmnā, kokrūmnās | |||||||