Northian verbs

Northian verbs are conjugated for person, number, voice, mood, aspect, and tense.

Present

Mobile accent

Most athematic verbs are of the type which has mobile accent, that is the accent falls on the root syllable in the singular forms in the active voice, and on the ending in all other forms; this accent pattern is usually accompanied by ablaut, whereby the accented root is in the full grade and originally had the vowel *e, and the unaccented form had no vowel. Where there is no vowel, an internal resonant (*m, *n, *r, *l) or semivowel (*y, *w) often becomes a vowel in Northian. This type of accent is seen in the following class of verbs:

1. Root (class 3)
2. Reduplicated (class 1)
3. Semivowel
   1. i-suffix
   2. u-suffix
4. Consonant
   1. k-suffix
   2. s-suffix
5. Nasal
   1. -ne- infix
   2. naH-suffix
   3. naw-suffix
6. Vowel suffix -aH-

Each class could further take "long" and "short" variant endings. Long endings arise from a laryngeal that stood at the end of the root, which became a separate syllable if standing before two consonants, coloured the following vowel if following one, and otherwise disappeared. Since the length of the suffix is variable, the shape of the long ending varies from class to class, and their inconsistency surely underlie some of the analogical replacement seen in the Didaskalic Material (though Galic forms are remarkable for their fidelity to etymology). Until laryngeals were theorized and accepted in the 20th century, the aberrant "long endings" were thought of as special endings associated with certain roots and eluded all rules grammarians formulated to predict their presence.

Root

ēmi, šté, "to be". This verb of singular importance has opaque forms that owe their opaqueness to the vagaries of *s in various positions. In principle, when *s precedes *u̯ or a back vowel and when it stands in initial position and precedes any vowel, it becomes h; then any *e which borders h becomes a. Before a nasal, *s becomes *z and is elided with any vowel other than /i u/; thus ēmi < *ezmi "am". In the 2 sg the syncopated form *esi is required. The dysyllabic form huweni faithfully shows the initial syllable was heavy as it began with two consonants, i.e. *h₁suwéni. The a-vocalism of *h-anti > həṇti "they are" is due to the colouring effects of [h] and not an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal, and so the subjunctive endings beginning in e are not coloured to a.

The full stem is disclosed by the 3 sg pres éšti and 1 sg impf ēzā, where the /z/ < *s is not lost before a syllabic nasal. In the singular of the imperfect a dysyllabic scansion is required, revealing the prehistoric laryngeal. In the other persons of the imperfect, the augment shows univerbation with the stem-initial laryngeal, resulting in a long initial vowel that does not occur in the singular. The 2 sg impf é-ō is the standard spelling after a vowel; where the augment is not used, it is ā, or as-tə "and you are" before an enclitic.

	active
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ā-mi	é-Hez-ā	ez-ā	áH-ō	h-iyā̊
2 sg	a-hi	é-Hā̊	ā̊	-ai		z-δí
3 sg	eš-ti	é-Heš-t	eš-ṯ	-asi	-iyāṯ	éš-tū
1 du	h-(u)wəni	ēzu-wó	h-uwó	-ouuō	-uwó
2 du	š-tā	ēš-tõm	š-tõm	-atā	-īϑõm	-tā
3 du		-tā̊	-tā̊		-īϑā̊	-tāmū
1 pl	h-uuəŋhi	ē-mo	h-mo	-omō	-īmó
2 pl	š-te	ēš-té	š-té	-áti	-īϑé	éš-te
3 pl	h-ənti	ā-h-əṇ	h-əṇ	-ənti	-iyāṯ	h-əntū
inf

nu-suffix

xšnammi, xšnute, gzawənti, "to sharpen". Present stems which vary with a -nu- suffix -náuu- in strong forms (written naō- before consonants) are treated as a special class as the endings are liable to become muddled with the stem-final consonant. Fundamentally, these verbs are still of the VC type and all have mobile accent. For the zero-grade suffix, syllabification rules generate two alloforms -nu- and -aw-, which appear in front of consonants and vowels; that is, the alloform -aw- appears before all 3 pl forms active and middle, and 2 du and 3 du forms, as well as all optative forms, in the middle.

Like other suffixed verbs, the injunctive, subjunctive, and imperative active do not display the indicative suffix in Early Galic, though their middle counterpart except the injunctive do.

	active						middle
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	xš-námmi	a-xš-nā̊	From xaš-		xš-nu-yā̊		xšt-āwái	a-xš-nua	xaza	xš-náwai	hš-āwiya
2 sg	xš-nawši					xš-ϑi	xš-nutái	-nuta	xašta	-nawatai	-āwīϑa	hš-nušvō
3 sg	xš-nawti	a-xš-nawṯ			-nu-iiāṯ	xaš-tū	-nutoi	-nuto	-to		-āwīϑo	-nuto
1 du	xš-nuwəʸni	a-xš-nuwo			xšt-awūmβó		-numβṓδa	-numβóδa	-wóδa	-naṓwōδa	-āwūmβóδa
2 du	xš-nutā	a-xš-nutõm			-av-īϑõm	xš-tāḫ	-āwātiϑayi	-āwātiϑa	-ātiϑa	-nawātiϑayi	-āwīϑéδa	-āwātiϑa
3 du		a-xš-nutā̊			-av-īϑā̊	-tāmū	-āwātāyi	-āwātā	-ātā	-nawāϑāyi	-āwīϑā	-āwātā
1 pl	xš-numəŋhi	a-xš-numo			-av-īmo		-numōiδa	-numeδa	-meδa	-naṓmōiδa	-āwīmeδa
2 pl	xš-nuté	a-xš-nuté			-av-īϑe	-te	-nužδwé	-nužδwe	-žδwe	-nawažδwe	-āwīžδwe	-nužδwé
3 pl	gz-awəṇti	e-gz-aw-ən			-nu-iiaṯ	-atū	xšt-āwātroi	-āwātro	-əntra	-nawontroi	-āwīyātró	-āwātro
act inf

Reduplicated

There is a sizeable class of verbs which have present stems made by repeating the root up to and including the root vowel before the root itself; that is, if the root has the abstraction CeC, then the present stem was formed as Ce-CeC. The stems, however, show a fair degree of irregularity because the enlargement of the stem invites phonetically conditioned divergences; there are almost no examples where the stem does not undergo mutation of some kind. While some related languages have thematic reduplicated stems, this is not true of Northian, where the reduplicated stem is always athematic.

	active					middle
	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	hihagmi	a-hən-um	hən-wōḥ	za-wiyā̊		xšt-āwái	-	xš-náwai	za-wiá
2 sg	hihakši	-uš	-woyi		xš-ϑi	xš-nutái	-nuta	-nawatai	-āwīϑa	hš-nušvō
3 sg	hihakti	-ut	-woti	-wiyāṯ	xaš-tū	-nutoi	-nuto		-āwīϑo	-nuto
1 du	hihagwəni	e-za-umβó	-wowō	-wūmβó		-numβṓδa	-numβóδa	-naṓwōδa	-āwūmβóδa
2 du	hihaktā	-utõm	-wotāḫ	-wīϑõm	xš-tāḫ	-āwātiϑayi	-āwātiϑa	-nawātiϑayi	-āwīϑéδa	-āwātiϑa
3 du		-utā̊		-wīϑā̊	-tāmū	-āwātāyi	-āwātā	-nawāϑāyi	-wīϑā	-āwātā
1 pl	hihagməŋhi	-umo	-womō	-wīmo		-numōiδa	-numeδa	-naṓmōiδa	-āwīmeδa
2 pl	hihakte	-uté	-woti	-wīϑe	-te	-nužδwé	-užδwe	-nawažδwe	-āwīžδwe	-nužδwé
3 pl	haškati	-ur	-wəṇti	-wī	-atū	xšt-āwātroi	-āwātro	-nawontroi	-āwīyātró	-āwātro
act inf

u-suffix

A small class of verbs have invariant -u- suffix. hənumi "roast" is provided as example. The main point of departure from the general pattern is the 3 pl secondary form, which reflects *-r, whose relationship with the rest of the paradigm is disputed. Any comparison with the middle or the perfect, which regularly yield some variety of this sound of uncertain interrelationship, must be troubled by the absence of much semantic connection between them and the u-suffix presents.

However, as this class is rather small and evidently in a recessive stage, it is possible that some sort of connection exists but is undetectable. Unlike the more productive suffixes, the u-suffix extends to the modal forms in both the active and the middle, which recommends the view that the suffix was no longer treated as one by Galic times, in which the productive (ablauting) suffixes were clearly detachable elements.

In the optative active, the singular forms attest the Sievers's forms -iyā̊ on account of the stem shape *senHw-, where the (lost) laryngeal and the suffix count as two consonants and trigger the insertion of an additional syllable before the semivowel. This alternation is preserved into later Northian as zawiyōyəm.

	active					middle
	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	hən-umi	a-hən-um	hən-wōḥ	za-wiyā̊		xšt-āwái	-	xš-náwai	za-wiá
2 sg	-ušti	-uš	-woyi		xš-ϑi	xš-nutái	-nuta	-nawatai	-āwīϑa	hš-nušvō
3 sg	-uti	-ut	-woti	-wiyāṯ	xaš-tū	-nutoi	-nuto		-āwīϑo	-nuto
1 du	hn-umβéñi	e-za-umβó	-wowō	-wūmβó		-numβṓδa	-numβóδa	-naṓwōδa	-āwūmβóδa
2 du	-utāḫ	-utõm	-wotāḫ	-wīϑõm	xš-tāḫ	-āwātiϑayi	-āwātiϑa	-nawātiϑayi	-āwīϑéδa	-āwātiϑa
3 du		-utā̊		-wīϑā̊	-tāmū	-āwātāyi	-āwātā	-nawāϑāyi	-wīϑā	-āwātā
1 pl	-uméni	-umo	-womō	-wīmo		-numōiδa	-numeδa	-naṓmōiδa	-āwīmeδa
2 pl	-uté	-uté	-woti	-wīϑe	-te	-nužδwé	-užδwe	-nawažδwe	-āwīžδwe	-nužδwé
3 pl	zāw-ənti	-ur	-wəṇti	-wī	-atū	xšt-āwātroi	-āwātro	-nawontroi	-āwīyātró	-āwātro
act inf

i-suffix

With a few exceptions, verbs of this class were built to vowel-final roots. There is thus intersyllabic sandhi in progress in Northian, which will be dissolved in the following chart.

The special development to note is the application of Pinault's law in the 3 pl forms, which causes the root-final laryngeal to disappear before the suffix, being non-syllabic before that ending. Thus for the example below, the form seen is syənti for *d-y-enti, not *tiyanti for *dH-y-enti. The same is true for the optative forms outside of the sing act, where the laryngeal disappears before the suffixal -i-, which is non-syllabic before the vocalic weak form of the optative sign.

	active					middle
	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ta-imi	e-ta-im	ta-yōḥ	t-iyā̊		xšt-āwái	-š	xš-náwai	za-wiá
2 sg	-išti	-iš	-yai		ta-i	xš-nutái	-nuta	-nawatai	-āwīϑa	hš-nušvō
3 sg	-isi	-it	-yasi	-iyāṯ	ta-isū	-nutoi	-nuto		-āwīϑo	-nuto
1 du	t-uwéñi	e-t-uwo	-yowō	s-yūwo		-numβṓδa	-numβóδa	-naṓwōδa	-āwūmβóδa
2 du	-isāḫ	-isõm	-yatāḫ	-yīϑõm	t-isāḫ	-āwātiϑayi	-āwātiϑa	-nawātiϑayi	-āwīϑéδa	-āwātiϑa
3 du		-isā̊		-yīϑā̊	-isāmū	-āwātāyi	-āwātā	-nawāϑāyi	-wīϑā	-āwātā
1 pl	-iméni	-imo	-yomō	-yīmo		-numōiδa	-numeδa	-naṓmōiδa	-āwīmeδa
2 pl	-isé	-isé	-yasi	-yīϑe	-ise	-nužδwé	-užδwe	-nawažδwe	-āwīžδwe	-nužδwé
3 pl	s-yənti	-ir	-yonti	-yī	s-yəntū	xšt-āwātroi	-āwātro	-nawontroi	-āwīyātró	-āwātro
act inf

Root with long endings

raōdaēmi, ruδité, "to weep". Owing to the effects of an interconsonantal laryngeal, some roots were synchronically analyzed as taking a set of endings augmented with a vowel between the stem and ending proper, though historically the augmentation is part of the stem and not of the ending. These endings are analogous with the ṣet roots in the Tennite language, while those taking the short (normal) endings are analogous to aṇit roots. Since there is an Erani-Eracuran laryngeal on the stem-ending border, any ending which begins with *e (bolded) is liable to be coloured by this laryngeal. This colouring effect was seen as the analogue to the ending augmentation where the laryngeal is not preserved between consonants.

	active					middle
	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	rəōd-aēmi	é-rəōd-am	rəōd-ōḥ	ruj-iiā̊		ruδ-ai	é-ruδ-a	rəōd-oē	ruδ-iya
2 sg	-išti	-iš	-ayi		rud-iδi	-itai	-ita	-āδo	-īta	ruδ-ižuuo
3 sg	-iti	-iṯ	-ati	-iiāṯ	rəōd-itū́	-o	-o	-átoi	-īto	-o
1 du	ruδ-umβóni	é-ruδ-iuuo	-auuōḫ	-īuuo		-umβṓδa	-umβóδa	-auuāδa	-ūmβóδa
2 du	-itāḫ	-itõm	-atāḫ	-ītõm	ruδ-itāḫ	-átiδayi	-átiδa	-aētiδayi	-itiδa	-átiδa
3 du		-itā̊	-atiš	-ītā̊	-ités	-átā	-átā	-aētāyi	-itā	-átā
1 pl	-amáŋhi	-amó	-omōḫ	-īmo		-amṓδa	-ameδa	-omōδa	-īmeδa
2 pl	-ité	-ité	-ati	-īte	-iti	-ižδuuo	-ižδuuo	-āδuua	-īžδuuo	-iδuuo
3 pl	-ánti	-ánṯ	-anti	-iianṯ	-ánθu	-árə	-árə	-óntrai	-iyaδro	-ir
act inf anitiš, anituš act ptcpl ānaṯ, anatṓḫ; ānatī, ānatīš mid inf aniźiiō mid ptcpl anaminṓḫ fut imp ániδitat, ánatat

Of a similar construction are those verbs whose historic stems terminated in *-h₂ and *-h₃, giving rise to a and o respectively, in all the bolded positions.

Vowel-final stems

These encompass those roots that ended in a vowel plus laryngeal (VH) in the parent language. Praetorianus did not notice that the long vowel was part of the stem and not of the ending—in other words, he thought the root here was merely "št" to which an augmented ending was added—and so classed these stems together with those that have a suffixed long vowel—which he too regarded as normal roots using augmented endings.

tištāmi, tištité, "stand".

	active					middle
	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ti-št-aēmi	e-ti-št-ā̊	ti-št-ōḥ	ti-ś-iiā̊		ti-št-aē	e-ti-št-á	ti-št-oē	ti-št-iyá
2 sg	-ā́hi		-ayi		ti-št-iϑí	-itaē	-itá	-átaē	-ītá	ti-št-ižuuó
3 sg	-ā́ti	e-ti-št-āt	-ati	-iiāṯ	-ā́tū	-ə̄	-ó	-átə̄	-ītó	-ó
1 du	-umβéiñi	-umβó	-ouuōḫ	ti-št-ūmβó		-umβōδa	-umβóδa	-óuuōδa	-ūmβóδa
2 du	-itāḫ	-itõm	-átāḫ	-ītõm	-itāḫ	-ātiϑayi	-ātiϑa	-ātiϑayi	-ītiϑa	-ātiϑa
3 du		-itā̊		-ītā̊	-itāmū́	-āyi	-ā	-āyi	-iyā	-ā
1 pl	-əmáŋhi	-əmó	-omōḫ	-īmó		-əmōiδa	-améδa	-omōiδa	-īméδa
2 pl	-ité	-ité	-áti	-īté	-iti	-ižδuuó	-ižδuuó	-āδuuó	-īžδuuó	-ižuuó
3 pl	-ənti	-āṯ	-ónδi	-iyaṯ	-əṇtū́	-árə	-árə	-ō	-ī	-iro
inf fut imp

Persistent accent

There is a variety of roots that take an accent that persists on the root syllable in (some forms of) the present stem. While the accent is persistent, contrast between the singular active and other forms comparable to that exhibited by verbs with mobile accent is conserved: the singular active have a lengthened vowel *ē, and others the full-grade vowel *e. The lengthened vowel grade is associated with the indicative, imperfect, and optative and disappears in the subjunctive, injunctive, and imperative, as well as any non-finite forms.

The main difference from the mobile accent is that any other ablauting elements after the root will take the zero-grade form. Thus, optative active forms are 1p yámī < *yém-ih₁-m, 2p yámīš, and 3p yámīṯ. Due to the stem-final /m/, the 1 sg secondary ending -m syncopates and created a prehistoric long vowel before final continuant that was opened. Thus the 1 sg and 2 sg forms are identical in Galic; stem is disclosed by the 3 sg form. Accounting for vowel colouring and accent colouring, the remaining forms are wholly regular.

yāmmi, yamai, "to take".

	active						middle
	pres	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	yā́m-mi	a-iiā̊	yā̊	yā́m-ō	yám-ī		yám-ay	a-iiám-a	yám-ōe	yám-ia
2 sg	-p-si			-ai	-īš	yám-δi	-tay	-ta	-itaē	-īϑa	-žuua
3 sg	-ti	a-iiām-t	yam-t	-iti	-īṯ	-tū					-ta
1 du	yám-βuuaēñi	a-yám-uua	-uua	-auuōḫ	-ūmβa		-uuōδa	-uuoδa	-auuōδa	-īvaδa
2 du	-tāḫ	-tõm	-tõm	-itāḫ	-īϑõm	-tāḫ	-tiϑaēyi	-taϑa	-taϑaēyi	-ītaϑa	-ātaϑa
3 du		-tā̊	-tā̊		-īϑā̊	-tāmū	-iϑāyi	-iϑā	-iϑāyi	-īϑā	-ātā
1 pl	-mahi	-ma	-ma	-amōḫ	-īma		-mōiδa	-miδa	-amōiδa	-īmiδa
2 pl	-ti	-ti	-ti	-iti	-īϑi	-ti	-δuwa	-δuwa	-iδwa	-īϑwa	-δuwa
3 pl	-āṯ	-āṯ	-āṯ	-ənti	-iaṯ	-ātū	-ātraē	-ātra	-óntraē	-iatra	-āta
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās

Vowel-final stems with persistent accent

These are very similar to the vowel-stems with mobile accent, only that the union vowel in the weak forms represents the e-grade root vowel, with any laryngeal colouring, that bears the accent. Thus the root vowel was long by nature in the active singular and lengthened by the following laryngeal in pre-consonantal forms. The short root vowel is only visible prevocalically. The endings are in the zero grade. There are very few roots which behave like this, and only wōimi "breathe" is well-known.

The a-vocalism of the augment is on account of initial *h₂-. The 3 du mid ending has, like the 3 pl mid, an ablauting element with the full grade pre-form of *-eh₂-, with appended -i in the present. Transitive verbs often have the additional element *-dʰH-. In the zero-grade, the ending was evidently merely *-h₂, which dropped without a trace after a laryngeal already in the parent language. This results in the 3 du impf mid form wō that synchronically had no visible ending. Interestingly, the 2 du mid ending -tiϑayi must reflect *-h₂-tH-dʰH, whose the middle element seems to appear in the 2 pl act primary ending -tha in Kankrit.

wōimi, woti, "stand".  

	active					middle
	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	wōi-mi	ā-uuā̊	wō-ōḥ	wo-ī		wo-aē	ā-uuā̊-o	wō-oē	wo-iyá
2 sg	wō-hi		-ayi	-īs	wō-ϑí	-taē	ā-uuō-ta	-átaē	-ītá	žuuó
3 sg	-ti	ā-uuō-t	-iti	-īṯ	-ā́tū	-ə̄	-a	-átə̄	-ītó	-ó
1 du	-uuiñi	-uuo	-ouuōḫ	-ūmβó		-umβōδa	-umβóδa	-óuuōδa	-ūmβóδa
2 du	-tāḫ	-tõm	-átāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-tiϑayi	-tiϑa	-ātiϑayi	-ītiϑa	-tiϑa
3 du		-tā̊		-ītā̊	-tāmū́	-i	-Ø	-āyi	-ī	-Ø
1 pl	-mahi	-mó	-omōḫ	-īmó		-mōiδa	-méδa	-omōiδa	-īméδa
2 pl	-ti	-ti	-áti	-īté	-ti	-ižδuuó	-ižδuuó	-āδuuó	-īžδuuó	-ižuuó
3 pl	wo-aṯi	wo-aṯ	-ónδi	-iyaṯ	-atū́	-árə	-árə	-ō	-ī	-ro
inf fut imp

Aorist

Root aorists

βayza, βayšte

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	βayz-a	esed-am	áh-am	ā́h-ō	áh-i̯ą̄m	—	áh-ūm	ā́h-ūm	áh-ūm	ā́h-ą̄m	és-īma	—	—
2 sg	βāyš	ā̊s	es	ḗs-ei̯i	-i̯āu̯	ez-θī́	és-šθoi̯	ḗs-šθo	és-šθo	ḗs-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	és-švō	és-θitoṯ
3 sg	βayšt	ā̊s-ṯ	es-ṯ	-ei̯	-i̯āṯ	es-tū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo	-θoṯ
1 du	βayz-wo	est-vo	áh-vó	ā́h-ou̯iñi	és-īvo	—	áh-vozθa	ā́h-voθa	áh-voθa	áh-ou̯ozθa	-īvoθa	—	—
2 du	βayš-tõm	ēs-tõm	és-tõm	ḗs-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	ḗs-ētaθai	-ītaθa	-ātaθa	-θoṯ
3 du	βayš-tā̊	-tą̄m	-tą̄m	-etiš	-ītąm	-tiš	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	-ātā	-θoṯ
1 pl	βayz-mo	est-mo	áh-mo	ā́h-omiñi	-īmō	—	-mózθa	-meθa	-meθa	ā́h-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	βayš-te	ēs-ti	és-te	ḗs-eti	-īte	ḗs-ti	és-šθve	ḗs-šθve	és-šθve	ḗs-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve	-θoṯ
3 pl	βid-ən	ēs-eṯ	háṯ	ā́h-onθi	-ii̯āṯ	és-enθu	áh-unθroi̯	ā́h-unθro	áh-unθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo	-unθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

xaŋzat-aorists

This class is named for the verb xəŋga < *kenk- "hang up", which frequently appears in the phrase "who hang up apples in the trees" (i.e. make food grow). Though classified as a type of root aorist, in historical terms they greatly differ from the normal kind in the following:

• 3 pl form has full grade in the root and zero grade in the ending; injunctive and optative of this form have the ending -r rather than the more usual -nt;
• 2 sing imperative has full grade of the root and the enigmatic ending -i (Praetorianius commented that this must be a modified optative);
• 2 pl injunctive and imperative have an extra *-s- preceding the customary ending *-te; this *-s- also appears in a few perfect imperatives;
• active subjunctive predominantly has the o-grade of the root, as some other root aorists do.

xaŋzat-aorists are often activa tantum in Galic even if their meanings are amenable to middle endings, but there do exist a handful of middle forms here and there; where they do appear, they receive the "transitive" 3 pl ending -ā̆tro < *-n̥tro regardless of meaning, suggesting the middle forms are late. Sometimes -əntro appears, which is considered even later than -ā̆tro. Nevertheless, middle participles in -min- are regularly formed even in the absence of finite forms. The sum of these clues is usually interpreted as a pointer towards an archaic h₂e-aorist conjugation that was parallel to the normal m-conjugation, at best only marginally reflected in the other daughters except Hittite. A well-known commonality with Hittite is that xaŋzat-aorists are associated with the i- and u-presents in Northian, but the reverse is not (as) true. As a result, the i- and u-presents also show the xaŋzat injunctive ending -r.

	active					middle
	ind	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf-inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	xaŋz-a		xəŋh-ōˀ	xaŋh-ī		xaŋk-ay	xaŋk-a
2 sg	xə̄nh		-aˀi		xaŋz-i	-táy	-ta	-	-
3 sg	xaŋh-t		-asi	-īṯ	xaŋk-tū	-toy	-to		-	-
1 du	xaŋz-wo		-owō	xaŋh-ūwo		xaŋz-wōδi	xaŋz-wóδi	-	-
2 du	xaŋk-tõm		-atāḫ	-īhõm	-tāḫ	xaŋk-itiha		-āŋhiha	-	-
3 du	xaŋk-tā̊			-īhā̊	-tāmū	-itā		-	-	-
1 pl	xaŋz-mo	pay-mōy	-omō	-īmo		-mōyδi	-meδi	-	-
2 pl	xaŋk-te	xaŋk-šte	-ase	-īhe	-šte	-duwoy	xaŋz-duwo	-	-	-
3 pl	xaŋz-at	xaŋz-r̥	-ənti	-iˀr̥	xaŋz-atū	-ā̆troy	-ā̆tro	-əntroy	-iˀātro	-
act inf

Split aorists

dēkšam, esdté

	active						middle						fut imp
	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	ā́h-mi	esed-am	áh-am	ā́h-ō	áh-i̯ą̄m	—	áh-ūm	ā́h-ūm	áh-ūm	ā́h-ą̄m	és-īma	—	—
2 sg	ḗ-si	ā̊s	es	ḗs-ei̯i	-i̯āu̯	ez-θī́	és-šθoi̯	ḗs-šθo	és-šθo	ḗs-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	és-švō	és-θitoṯ
3 sg	ḗs-ti	ā̊s-ṯ	es-ṯ	-ei̯	-i̯āṯ	es-tū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo	-θoṯ
1 du	áh-víñi	est-vo	áh-vó	ā́h-ou̯iñi	és-īvo	—	áh-vozθa	ā́h-voθa	áh-voθa	áh-ou̯ozθa	-īvoθa	—	—
2 du	és-tāḫ	ēs-tõm	és-tõm	ḗs-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	ḗs-ētaθai	-ītaθa	-ātaθa	-θoṯ
3 du	-tés	-tą̄m	-tą̄m	-etiš	-ītąm	-tiš	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	-ātā	-θoṯ
1 pl	áh-míñi	est-mo	áh-mo	ā́h-omiñi	-īmō	—	-mózθa	-meθa	-meθa	ā́h-omozθa	-īmeθa	—	—
2 pl	és-ti	ēs-ti	és-te	ḗs-eti	-īte	ḗs-ti	és-šθve	ḗs-šθve	és-šθve	ḗs-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve	-θoṯ
3 pl	áh-āṯ	ēs-eṯ	háṯ	ā́h-onθi	-ii̯āṯ	és-enθu	áh-unθroi̯	ā́h-unθro	áh-unθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo	-unθoṯ
inf hšnutiš, hšnéu̯tuš, ptcpl hšnéu̯å, hšnnonθō; hšnéu̯āṯ; hšnunθī, hšnnonθi̯ās							inf hšnuθi̯ō, hšnuθi̯ōi̯o, ptcpl hšnūmnō, hšnūmnōi̯o; hšnūmnõ; hšnūmnā, hšnūmnās

Thematic endings

luϑõ, esdté

	active				middle
	ind-inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf	inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	luϑ-õ	luϑ-ō	luϑ-yā̊		áh-ūm	ā́h-ūm	áh-ūm	ā́h-ą̄m	és-īma
2 sg	luϑ-ā	luϑ-aˀi		lut	és-šθoi̯	ḗs-šθo	és-šθo	ḗs-ésθoi̯	-īšθo	és-švō
3 sg	luϑ-et	luϑ-ay	luϑ-yāt	luϑ-etū́	-θoi̯	-θo	-θo	-étoi̯	-īto	-θo
1 du	luϑ-owə	luϑ-owoy	luϑ-uwə		áh-vozθa	ā́h-voθa	áh-voθa	áh-ou̯ozθa	-īvoθa
2 du	luϑ-etõ	luϑ-etā	luϑ-īhõ	luϑ-etā	-ātiθai̯i	-ātiθa	-ātaθa	ḗs-ētaθai	-ītaθa	-ātaθa
3 du	luϑ-tā̊		luϑ-īhəm	luϑ-etāmū	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātā	-ētāi̯i	-ītā	-ātā
1 pl	luϑ-əmə	luϑ-əmoy	luϑ-īmə		-mózθa	-meθa	-meθa	ā́h-omozθa	-īmeθa
2 pl	luϑ-etə	luϑ-etə	luϑ-īha	luϑ-etə	és-šθve	ḗs-šθve	és-šθve	ḗs-ésθve	-īšθve	-θve
3 pl	luϑ-ən	luϑ-ənti	luϑ-iyāṯ	luϑ-əntū	áh-unθroi̯	ā́h-unθro	áh-unθro	-ónθroi̯	-īi̯unθro	-unθo

Perfect

Reduplicated

tetóna, tetónōy "to be growing, to increase". Perfect stems in Northian are regularly formed by reduplication of the first consonant with the vowel *e, attached to the root in o-grade in the active singular and in zero grade in the active dual and plural and the entire middle. The endings are a special set of perfect endings.

Aside from the perfect indicative or "perfect tense" in paedagogical works, various other forms are made from the perfect stem. With the exception of the perfect imperative, which is attested firmly but infrequently, other formations are considerably rarer for the reason that they may be Northian innovations rather than inherited features of the parent language, even though the Northian forms are formed under like principles also found in the other daughters. The pluperfect, which is always identical to an augmented perfect injunctive, are formed from with secondary endings. The subjunctive is formed from the reduplicated stem with root in invariant e-grade, and the optative from the same stem with root in invariant zero grade.

Note that the pluperfect has accent on the reduplication syllable for the singular persons and ending elsewhere. On the one hand, provided the pluperfect is as old as the parent language, it could indicate the accent of the perfect was persistent on the initial syllable unless shifted rightwards under the kʷetwóres rule; on the other hand, it could have been imported from the reduplicated stems of the present or aorist. The perfect injunctive has exactly the same accent as the pluperfect and is not affected by the accent shift of the perfect proper: this is in agreement with the generally agreed chronology of a late origin of the perfect injunctive, which first appeared in the later Gales.

Not all perfect stems are capable of displaying all these formations. Especially, perfect verbs with stative meaning usually do not form pluperfects or any middle forms, but they do form subjunctives and optatives. When a pluperfect meaning is required, they have a periphrastic formation of the perfect active participle with the imperfect forms of the verb es "to be". Yet it is difficult to formulate absolute rules about this matter, since the Galic corpus is of limited size, and there may have existed unattested formations in the language of its composition.

	active					middle
	perf	plpf / inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	plpf / inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	te-tón-a	e-té-ton-ąm	te-tén-ō	te-δā-yā̊		p-ā́m	ep-ā́m	p-ā́m	p-ą̄m
2 sg	-ta	-h	-ai		āwā̊ žδí	-išθoi̯	-išθo	-ásθoi̯	-īšθo
3 sg	-e	-ṯ	-asi	-yāṯ	té-δā-tū	-itoi̯	-ito	-átoi̯	-īto	-ito
1 du	té-δā-wōy	e-te-δā-wó	-awōʰ	te-sn-ūwo		-ivózθa	-ivóθa	-ou̯ozθa	-īvóθa
2 du	me-món-ō	-tõm	-etāḫ	-ītõm	-tāḫ	-ātiθai̯i	-ātaθa	-ātaθai	-ii̯itaθa	-ātaθa
3 du	ə̄-ər-iϑō	-tā̊		-ītā̊	-tāmū	-ātāi̯i	-ātā	-ātāi̯i	-ii̯itā	-ātā
1 pl	té-δā-mōy	-mo	-omōʰ	-īmo		-amózθa	-ameθa	-omozθa	-īmeθa
2 pl	te-tón-ōy	-té	-ete	-īté	té-δā	-išθvé	-išθvé	-ásθve	-īšθve	-iθve
3 pl	mon-ṓ	e-té-sn-r̥š	-ō	-ī	té-sn-ātū	-ánθroi̯	-ónθro	-ónθroi̯	-ii̯unθro	-ii̯unθo
inf

Root

woida, widé "to know" is the only member of the perfect conjugation that, as a condition with good history, does not have reduplication. There are other perfect stems which do not have reduplication in Northian but do in other branch of the language; these are usually regarded as Northian innovations on the pattern of woyda. It has the peculiarity of forming a full-grade root in the 3 pl, which also puts the ending in zero grade -ūš. It is as yet not known whether this feature is inherited, as it has been argued to be introduced from the root aorist injunctive, which in this form also shows full grade in the root.

	active
	ind	plpf / inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	wóyd-a	woyd-ā	wayd-ō	wiz-yā̊
2 sg	wóyš-ta	woyš-t	-aHi		wóyš-ϑi
3 sg	wóyd-e		-eti	-yāṯ	-tū́
1 du	wiz-wé	wiž-wé	-owō	-īwé
2 du	wiš-itṓ	wiš-tõm	-etā	-ītõm	wiš-tā
3 du	wid-Hṓ	-tā̊		-ītā̊	-tāmū
1 pl	wiz-mōi	wiž-mé	-omō	-īmé
2 pl	wid-ōi	wiš-té	-ete	-īté	wiš
3 pl	wóyd-r̥	wid-ən	-ənti	-iyāṯ	wóyd-arū
pf act inf wižuuéni, pf act ptcpl wáiduš, widuštōḫ; wáidū; wáiduštī, widuśiiā̊

The other perfect verbs that fail to show reduplication are:

• u̯ṓi̯a, vii̯á "to fear"
• mṓna, mné "to recall"

It has been noted that most verbs which fail to reduplicate are verbs of internal states or emotions.

Thematic conjugation

Present

βaiδō "I trust". Cognate to Shalumite "to bide". Points of interest are:

1. In the Galic material, the effects of the stem-final laryngeal are reflected quite regularly, such that the 2 and 3 sg., 2 and 3 du., and 2 pl. endings, which commence with the colouring-susceptible vowel *e, may be coloured to *a and *o, and the latter in unaccented positions becomes a. This is seen in the comparatively common verb apúpitō "fly away", whose 2 du. form is apúpitatāḫ and not *apúpititāḫ. In later materials, the laryngeal-less endings (which would be identical to those for stems ending in *h₁-) became standard.
2. In the active subjunctive, the subjunctive modal suffix prehistorically merges with the thematic endings and result in long vowels; in unaccented positions these evolved differently than short vowels, to wit *ē > ā, while *ō remains unchanged.
3. In the active optative, the diphthong scans short in the 1 du. and 3 pl., the cause of which is still uncertain.
4. Due to phonetic change, the middle forms of the 2 and 3 sg. are not distinct, as both 2 sg. *eth₂ei and 3 sg. *etoi > -itai.
5. In the middle subjunctive, the 2 and 3 du. endings lack the final -i of the primary endings and are thus identical to secondary endings; this phenomenon is widespread enough to be ruled out as a scribal error and is usually thought to reflect original variation in the conjugation system as the subjunctive is already specified by a modal morpheme and cannot be mistaken by a different set of endings. The optative, however, is always found with secondary endings.

	act					mid
	ind	impf / inj	subj	opt	imp	ind	impf / inj	subj	opt	imp
1 sg	βaiδ-ō	e-baiδ-õm	βaiδ-ō	βaiδ-ā̊		βaiδ-aā̊i	e-baiδ-aā̊	βaiδ-ōai	βaiδ-aiia
2 sg	-iyi	-iš	-āyi	-aīš	βaiδi	-itai	-ita	-ātai	-aita
3 sg	-ai	-iṯ	-āi	-aīṯ	βaiδitū	-itai	-ita	-ātai	-aita
1 du	-auuiñi	-auua	-ə̄uuiñi	-aiuua		-auuazδa	-auuida	-ə̄uuazδa	-aiuuida
2 du	-itāḫ	-itõm	-ātāḫ	-aītõm	βaiδitāḫ	-itāδāi	-itāδā	-ātāδā	-aitāδā
3 du	-itiš	-itā̊	-ātiš	-aītā̊	βaiδitiš	-itāyi	-itā	-ātā	-aitā
1 pl	-amiñi	-ama	-ōmiñi	-aīma		-amazδa	-amida	-ōmazδa	-aimida
2 pl	-iti	-iti	-āti	-aīti	βaiδiti	-idūvi	-idūvi	-ādūvi	-aidūvi
3 pl	-ō	-anṯ	-ōnδi	-aiiāṯ	βaiδanδū	-aṇtrai	-aṇtra	-ōṇtrai	-aiiāθra
fut imp βaiδitaṯ, βaiδanδaṯ act inf βaiδitiš, βaiδituš, act ptcpl βaiδā̊s, βaiδanδōḫ; βaiδaṯ; βaiδanδī, βaiδanδiiā̊, mid inf βaiδōi, mid ptcpl βaiδominōḫ (I/II)

Aorist

		Indicative	Injunctive	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Future imp.
1 sg.		ekorum	korum	korō	kāri̯ām	—	—
2 sg.		ekōr	kōr	korei	kāri̯ās	kor	kortoṯ
3 sg.		ekord	kord	korei̯	kāri̯āt	kārto	kārtoṯ
1 du.		ekurōs	kārōs	korou̯ō	korīu̯ō	—	—
2 du.		ekurtõ	kārtõ	koretas	korītõ	kārtas	kārtoṯ
3 du.		ekurtąm	kārtą̄m	koretíš	krītąm	kārtíš	kārtoṯ
1 pl.		ekurmō	kārmō	koromõ	korīmō	—	—
2 pl.		ekurte	kārte	korete	korīte	kārte	kārtoṯ
3 pl.		ekurenṯ	kārenṯ	koronθi	koriānṯ	kārenθo	kārunθoṯ
inf kāršiš, kāršuš, ptcpl korå, kronθō; korāṯ, kronθō; korunθī, krāŋθi̯ās

	Indicative	Imperfect	Injunctive	Subjunctive	Optative	Imperative	Future imp.
1 sg.		ekurma	kārma	korōm	krīma	—	—
2 sg.		ekursθo	kārsθo	koresθoi̯	krīšθo	kārhvō	kārtoṯ
3 sg.		ekurto	kārto	koretoi̯	krīto	kārto	kārtoṯ
1 du.		ekurreθa	kārreθa	korou̯osθa	krīu̯eθa	—	—
2 du.		ekurātaθa	kārātaθa	korātaθai	krītaθa	kārātaθa	kārtoṯ
3 du.		ekurātā	kārātā	korātāi̯i	krītā	kārātā	kārtoṯ
1 pl.		ekurmeθa	kārmeθa	koromosθa	krīmeθa	—	—
2 pl.		ekuršθve	kāršθve	koresθve	krīšθve	kārθve	kārtoṯ
3 pl.		ekurenθro	kārenθro	koronθroi̯	krīnθro	kārunθo	kārunθoṯ
inf kārθi̯ō, kārθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kārūmnō, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnõ, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnā, kārūmnās

See also

• Northian language
• Northian grammar
  • Northian nominals