Passenger rail transport in Themiclesia: Difference between revisions

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==History==
==History==
===Mining railways===
===Mining railways===
The first railway in Themiclesia was laid down in 1831 by Asikainen, a Hallian company oeprating a coal mine in Predh.  The company had relied on draft animals and barges to ship its products into the Meh but found a more profitable mine away some 16 km from the river, which a railway covered.  The line was operated with a single locomotive, the Kaveli.  The introduction of the railway made Asikainen more profitable than others relying on draft animals, and by 1840 no fewer than eight mining operations utilized railways in the Themiclesian north, where mining rights have been leased to Hallia through the [[Treaty of Kien-k'ang]] of 1796.
The first railway in Themiclesia was laid down in 1831 by Asikainen, a Hallian company oeprating a coal mine in Prets.  The company had relied on draft animals and barges to ship its products into the Meh but found a more profitable mine away some 16 km from the river, which a railway covered.  The line was operated with a single locomotive, the Kaveli.  The introduction of the railway made Asikainen more profitable than others relying on draft animals, and by 1840 no fewer than eight mining operations utilized railways in the Themiclesian north, where mining rights have been leased to Hallia through the [[Treaty of Kien-k'ang]] of 1796.


In 1844, a railway from Predh to Gra was opened, which allowed Hallian merchants to undercut coal from Themiclesian mines, transported by draft animals.  This coal was not tariffed as it was not technically imported, but it became a political crisis at the lobby of Themiclesian coal mines and merchants, who argued that the Hallian miners were outselling domestic miners.  In 1847, the government responded by awarding land to Themiclesian mines that they might lay their own lines, and a testing railway was laid down between Ngek and Kien-k'ang in 1849.
In 1844, a railway from Prets to Gra was opened, which allowed Hallian merchants to undercut coal from Themiclesian mines, transported by draft animals.  This coal was not tariffed as it was not technically imported, but it became a political crisis at the lobby of Themiclesian coal mines and merchants, who argued that the Hallian miners were outselling domestic miners.  In 1844, the government responded by awarding land to Themiclesian mines that they might lay their own lines, and a testing railway was laid down between the market town of Ngek and Kien-k'ang in 1845, spanning 65 km.


===Private era===
===1845 – 1870===
A royal commission was issued at the same time to study the effects of railways on foreign states, with the conclusion that an efficient transport system allowed more goods to be marketed domestically and would be an incentive to investment in businesses.  The government also saw value in a railway system as a component of defence logistics, as troops could be moved around the country more rapidly and without requisitioning goods from the towns they passed through.  As a result of the initially-good results of test railway and of the recommendations of the royal commission, the building of railways became the Rjai-ljang government's policy.  New railways were constructed with government grants in land and backed by high-interest bonds sold to the government.  In 1855, the first inter-city railway over 300 km opened between Kien-k'ang and Tor.
A royal commission was issued at the same time to study the effects of railways on foreign states, with the conclusion that an efficient transport system allowed more goods to be marketed domestically and would be an incentive to investment in businesses.  The government also saw value in a railway system as a component of defence logistics, as troops could be moved around the country more rapidly and without requisitioning goods from the towns they passed through.  As a result of the initially-good results of test railway and of the recommendations of the royal commission, the building of railways became the Ra-lang government's policy.  New railways were constructed with government grants in land and backed by high-interest bonds sold to the government.  In 1847, the first inter-city railway over 300 km opened between Kien-k'ang and Twar, hoping to compete with river transport and to open a passenger service, bringing individuals arriving by boat to the capital city.


In 1854 and 1855, both Menghe and Dayashina agreed to elimiate trade barriers with foreign states, with the result that the trinity of Themiclesian exports—porcelains, tea, and silks—now faced stern competition.  Themiclesian exporters became uncompetitive at Casaterran markets, triggering the Depression of 1857, which rippled to railway bonds as the first railways struggled to generate sufficient revenue to cover interest rates.  Facing dwindling customs revenue, the Rjai-ljang government diverted its money to stimulate other industries and could not continue to support the building of railways.  The first wave of railway-building thus came to a sudden halt in 1858.
In 1854 and 1855, both Menghe and Dayashina agreed to open trade with foreign states, causing the trinity of Themiclesian exports—porcelains, tea, and silks—to face competition and triggering the Depression of 1857, which rippled to railway bonds as the first railways struggled to generate revenue to cover interest.  Facing dwindling customs revenue, the Ra-lang government diverted its money to stimulate other industries and could not continue to support the building of railways.  By 1861, Themiclesian industry regained its footing, and new railways were built to transport grain from docks to the cities that experienced population boom. Manufacturing businesses began to rely more on railways to source materials from the countryside.  A second, largely privately-funded drive to build railways in the 1870s thus occurred.


Themiclesian industry regained some footing in the early 1860s.  Indeed, some exports were so astonishingly successful that a trade war began in [[Camia]] over Themiclesian goods, triggering the [[Battle of Liang-la|Battle of Liang]] of 1867.  Themiclesia's defeat resulted in the lifting of tariffs on Camian and Maverican grains.  The importation of cheap grains caused a severe depression in agriculture, forcing landlords to evict tenants who then flocked to the cities in search for work, in turn depressing labour prices and supporting the growth of manufacturing businesses.  However, new railways were built to transport grain from docks to the cities that experienced population boom, and manufacturing businesses also relied on railways to source raw materials from the countryside.  These factors promoted a second, largely privately-funded drive to build railways in the 1870s.
The 1850 – 60s also saw the first regulations appear over travelling conditions and amenities.  In 1853, it had been decreed that railways shall not carry passengers in "vehicles not made for the transport of mankind", to prohibit mining railways from carrying them in coal wagons or on carriage roofs, but the law was passed mostly on the strength of public outcry arising from a terrible accident in 1852.  This requirement was made operative in 1857 by requiring each operator to inspect the structural soundness of its coaching stock annually.  In 1865, third-class passengers obtained rights to seats, a roof above the compartment, and openings for lighting and ventilation, but this did not require glazing, a hole in the carriage wall being judged sufficient.  In 1864, the ''Railways Act'' required railways to charge no more than 1 [[Qik|grain]] per {{wp|Imperial measurements|Imperial}} mile travelled.  Though facilitating urbanization, fare restrictions also discouraged railways from offering improved coaches in third class.


The only railways that received government funding in this era were ones connecting mining towns in the northeast to the Themiclesian heartland, as distances were too long for private investment to cover; additionally, the government welcomed the establishment of businesses in the distant countryside, as it was seen to ward away territorial claims by other powers. In this respect, the Great Northeastern Railway was completed in 1884, extending over 2,200 km to reach ′An from Rak.  In these, the government took an interest in tariffing goods shipped but did not interfere with their operations.
Revenues on early railways were chiefly generated from freight, so passenger trains were not then prioritized. Yet in the 1850s, travel by railway gained in popularity against private coach as the more comfortable and punctual option, and operators increasingly used passenger services to generate revenues, evidenced by booming variety in railway coach design and manufacture. In 1859, the first express passenger service appeared, connecting Kien-k'ang, Sin, Rak, and Qwang; the train took 16 hours to cover the 402 miles between the cities.


In terms of railway operators, the operator and coachbuilder Lower Themiclesia Railroad (LTRR) achieved renown for its sleeper coaches that debuted in 1871 but national dominance after the nationalization of major railways.  Through services from Kien-k'ang to Sngrak and later to ′An required multiple-day travelling times that spanned several days in the 1880s, when trains travelled about 25 mph on average, though speeds up to 40 mph were possible on superior tracks.  LTRR also accrued considerable profit from exporting its exquisitely-appointed rolling stock, nicknamed "palace cars" on foreign railways; to accomplish this, it employed dozens of artisans, some from manufacturers of porcelains and luxury fabrics.  Though these exports were successful, it soon sparked competition, most notably in [[Tír Glas]] and adjoining states, and the domestic market remained its main source of revenue.
===1871 – 1890===
The only railways that received government funding between 1871 and 1892 were ones connecting mining towns in the northeast to the Themiclesian heartland, as distances were too long for private investment to cover; additionally, the government welcomed the establishment of homes and businesses in the distant countryside, as it was seen to ward away territorial claims by other powers.  Under these auspices, the Great Northeastern Railway was completed in 1884, extending over 2,200 km to reach ′An from Rak.  In these, the government took an interest in tariffing goods shipped but did not interfere with their operations.


===Regulated era===
In terms of railway operators, the operator and coachbuilder Lower Themiclesia Railroad (LTRR) achieved renown for its sleeper coaches that debuted in 1866, and these dominated the long-distance market owing to long running times on routes hastily laid and of poor geometry.  LTRR also accrued considerable profit from exporting its exquisitely-appointed rolling stock, nicknamed "palace cars" on foreign railways; to accomplish this, it employed skilled artisans, some from manufacturers of porcelains and luxury fabrics.  Though these exports were successful, it soon sparked competition, most notably in [[Tír Glas]] and adjoining states, and the domestic market remained its main source of revenue.
By 1890, revenue mileage of main and branch lines in Themiclesia reached 11,520 km.  Railroad had been largely an unregulated business, as it was assumed that the demands for goods would guide them towards building efficient lines.  But signs of financial difficulties appeared in 1888 when the National Trunk Railway between Kien-k'ang and Lrjeng failed to earn profits as anticipated, largely because another railway already served the nearby city of Gra and a third Ngrakw.  These existing railways took advantage of a link line and competed with the National Trunk by cutting prices or providing rebates.  By 1891, the National Trunk was bankrupt, having taken millions from investors and failing to provide a single dividend; the government was called upon to save the National Trunk.  The purchase, challenged in Parliament, resulted in a general survey of railways to determine whether the causes underlying National Trunk's bankruptcy were common.  


In 1892, a new law was passed forbidding the building of "railways in close proximity" while the government undertook to purchase the failing National Trunk by issuing bonds in expectation of extending the road to Loi and then Sn′ji. From 1892 to 1895, the government purchased a large number of failing railroads and worked to extend their lines to different areas in the hopes that more freight would be diverted through them and generate revenue. The acquired lines were transferred to a new corporation called the National Railway Company, which was funded through both stocks and bonds and acquired the staff and assets of the struggling roads it superseded.  The roads that were not acquired were permitted to use the NRC's lines for a fee. Though this purchase programme was not financially rewarding in its initial years, revenues increased in the 1900s that more railway bonds were sold, enabling the government to purchase controlling stakes in the majority of long-distance railways.   
Between 1871 and 1890, much effort was made to accelerate passenger trains as operators realized that express fares were far more profitable than those stipulated for {{wp|parliamentary trains}}. In consequence of this effort, passenger services began to diversify in terms of rolling stock, scheduling, and associated services like seat reservations. While sleeper services had boomed in the 1870s, day expresses started to challenge sleepers in the 1880s on some routes that formerly must be served by sleepers in premium services, owing to running times. The service from Kien-k'ang to Qwang, taking 16 hours in 1863, was shortened to 10:40 by 1880, making a daytime express service practical. Such changes were enabled by consistent improvements in lines, engines, and schedules.   


Many private railroads understood this government policy as an attempt to drive them out of business, though the new railway had the considerable advantage of providing through service that had not existed before, particularly through the Central Junction Railway of Kien-k'ang.  The Public Railway Act was passed in 1893, requiring the National Railway Company (NRC) to provide passenger services on all its lines in both directions, every day, and three classes of service on inter-city railways.  To compete with the NRC, the Northwestern Railway was formed by the merger of four shorter roads in 1898, and the Maritime Railway in 1899.  These two roads each underwent internal restructuring to abolish parallel lines and achieved considerable economies.  The Northwestern Railway merged with the the Great Northern Railway to form Themiclesian Railway in 1898, while National purchased Maritime Railway to form the National and Maritime Railway in 1902.
In 1877, the first reserved service (對號), where all passengers were guaranteed a reserved and assigned seat, was operated. This was only practical on trains with limited calls, as the reservation process required maintenance of a seating record (one ledger representing the seating situation between each stops), to ensure a specific seat was always available.  The practice of seat reservation was carried over from sleeper services (where each bed was sold only once per journey), but when applied to day trains, seat assignment was co-ordinated by telegraph between stations such that a single seat could be used more than once per journey; the process was labour intensive and sold for a hefty premium as an element of prestige.


By 1906, the process of consolidation had created two major railways—Themiclesian, and National & Maritime.  In 1903, the Government acquired the power to decide what was a "railway in close proximity", though one decision would be equally applicable to both railroads. Under these conditions, five more direct railways were built between 1903 and 1923, as the law did not prohibit the building of more efficient lines that connected cities; indeed, the building of railways accelerated in this period as the law all but guaranteed that, once one company was in control of one route, the other was shut out of it.  On the other hand, the two operators owned largely-parallel railways on the Rak–Sn'i–Rap–Tubh–L′in corridor and both had routes into the capital city of [[Kien-k'ang]].
In 1885, the first limited service (特快, literally "singularly express") appeared, the term "limited" indicating a schedule that brooked no yields or delays for any other train whatsoever. The limited service was alloted the highest priority on the line, and the engine and entire rolling stock were customized to maximize speed and minimize water and coal stops. Given that a limited service must have a restricted number of stops, they were similarly amenable to seat reservations, and indeed in practice seats on limited services were always sold as reserved seats. Advertisements appealed to a strong sense of prestige in travelling with a reserved seat, on a service that ranked above other trains on the same route, and with the best engines and rolling stock available. It was the general practice of the 1880s through 1900s that limited trains consisted of only first and second class coaches—third class coaches were not used on limited services.


In the first decade of the 20th century, both Rak and Kien-k'ang began construction of {{wp|urban rail transit}}. These railways had both above-ground and underground sections and required the co-operation of the city to complete railways in densely-populated areas, and a large number of evictions occurred in both cities. The development of urban railways had a profound influence on demographics in both cities, making longer commutes practical and, in the long term, encouraged suburbanization.  These railways also competed with horse-drawn omnibusses and electric tramways.  Unlike inter-city railways, urban railways were largely unregulated by the national government and fell under the purview of city councils.  In this wise, the councils, controlled by the wealthier classes, usually objected to the laying of lines into or across elite neighbourhoods to reinforce segregation amongst classes.
===Pre-war regulation===
By 1890, revenue mileage of main and branch lines in Themiclesia reached 9,520 km.  Railroad was yet an unregulated business, as it was assumed the demand would guide the efficient building of lines.  On the freight side, the laying down of parallel railways and price cutting competition cut railway profits to razor-thin margins and occasioned scandalous bankruptcies at the close of the 19th century, prompting the government regulate the building of lines, though leaving passenger services, which had higher margins (though not necessarily more profits ''in toto'') than freight, mostly untouched. The newly-inaugurated National Railway Company began its own passenger operations in 1893 using coaching stock inherited from the operators it absorbed. Under a late 1890s economic downturn, many railways folded and either merged or were sold to National Rail, which emerged as the largest Themiclesian railway by 1900.
 
National Rail's early coaching stock was inherited from absorbed railroads and thus a motley of coaches with no standard design. While Themiclesian railway laws assumed a three-class structure, actual regulations had hitherto provided only the minimum standard for Third coaches, leaving others entirely up to the private railways. Thus, non-Third coaches differed drastically between railroads, while Third coaches were often built to the absolute minimum standard. Seeking to utilize this heterogeneous fleet across its entire network, National Rail reassigned coaches to make each class consistent. The best coaches (including saloons, parlours, drawing rooms) were retained as First. Some inherited First coaches did not meeting National Rail's new standards and were relabelled Second. Padding was present on some newer Third coaches, while the majority had bare wooden seats; as it would be unfair to charge the same fare for both types, National Rail called the padded ones "New Class", giving rise to the four-class structure of First, Second, New, and Third Class.
 
In terms of passenger services, the process of consolidation eventually brought a standardized set of passenger service rules to most operators, at least on the main lines. In 1895, it was generally the case that on each line there could only be one limited service running at any given time, to satisfy the "top priority" component. If there were two, either they were day and night services (the "sleeper limited") respectively or one was a temporary/charter service. After 1900, railways sometimes ran two or more limited services that had no possible scheduling conflicts and gave them separate names (the "Coastal Reserved" and "Star Reserved" under numbers 3/4 and 15/16 are examples of two limited services on the same route). On timetables, these names trains were noted as "the ''name'' reserved", e.g. the Coastal Reserved (海對號). By the 1920s, main lines saw several limited services per day.
 
In 1907, National Rail presented drawings for its own coaches to Parliament, utilizing more steel components for added safety as well as thoroughly eliminating compartment coaches. Because the rate for Third Class was statutorily fixed, National Rail retained the New Class as an offering for which it could charge willing passengers a little more than Third for a padded seat, hoping that the surcharge could act as a buffer source of revenue in case Parliament fails to adjust fares for Third while costs rise (this happened to be quite accurate). The long-term plan, however, was that unpadded Third coaches should be retired in favour of padded ones, though this would not actually occur until 1946. Its first series of standardized coaches entered service in 1910 and still used the somewhat haphazard four-class system rather than the three-class system that the nomenclature suggests.
 
Calls for the inclusion of Third class on limited trains reached and convinced Parliament to study the option. However, lower profit margins and the large quantity of expected III passengers, which would make seat reservations very taxing, left operators hesitent to operate III limited services. It was feared that including III coaches would alienate those paying for a more exclusive mode of travel. Nevertheless, to respond to parliamentary views, National Rail operated from 1931 the very plainly named "Limited Express" with only III coaches but using the same engines and similar schedules; reserved seating was not provided, making overcrowding likely. The service was a financial success, many willing to risk a standing journey that was at least shorter—compared to a standing journey on a stopping train that could run easily for twice as long.
 
Further series of standardized coaches were introduced in 1921, 1927, and 1930. Series 4 coaches, manufactured in limited quantities in 1927, were the first to have all-steel bodies with a length of 72'; a redesigned underframe launched in 1930 was numbered series 5, which remains the longest-lasting series in the history of National Rail thus far (production continued until 1953). Increased weight of coaches in turn encouraged National Rail's engineering departments to supply more powerful engines.  In 1931, mechanical {{wp|air conditioning}} was introduced and soon spread to all First class coaches. This was achieved with electricity generated from a {{wp|dynamo}} attached to the coach's spinning axles. 1933 is often described as the peak year for railways in Themiclesia, as it captured 94% of passenger and 90% of freign traffic over 50 miles.


===Wartime===
===Wartime===
After the imposition of national mobilization to repulse the Menghean and Dayashinese invasion, inter-city railways were nationalized in 1937 to support the war effort.  Themiclesian Railways and National & Maritime continued to be operators on the nationalized rail network, but government trains took priority, and rolling stock from both entities were regularly commandeered by the government.  From 1936 to 1938, Menghean forces utilized forced labour, largely of prisoners-of-war of Casaterran descent, to construct a railway from Menghe to Themiclesia, through Dzhungestan, to ease a logistics bottleneck that had barred further deployment. Occasioning thousands of fatalities, the railway was called the "railway of death" by survivors of its construction.  By the end of 1940, it is estimated that over 60% of intercity railways were under enemy control, though a number of key points such as sheds and bridges were demolished prior to their capture, and locomotives and rolling stock had been evacuated as much as practical.
After general mobilization in response to invasion, the intercity network was nationalized in 1937, making National Rail the sole operator in the interest of efficiency and centralized planning.  Rolling stock were regularly commandeered by the government to support freight and troop movements.  Under the ''War Measures Act'', National Rail suspended I coaches (mostly FS, D, and FDB coaches) from regular service, citing concerns for the railway's efficiency, and also limited II coaches mostly to official uses. Limited and express services were suspended as they required freight trains to yield. The public operator retrofitted some premium coaches as III coaches to support troop transportation. Otherwise, National Rail took to removing the toilets and luggage racks to install even more seats. These "defence coaches" were often reviled as a "fourth class" of coaches, being even less furnished than conventional III coaches. Sleeper trains were suspended, since room and section sleepers (with capacity 12 and 32 respectively) were deemed too wasteful of schedule time and pulling power.
 
During the war, the railway networks of both operators suffered considerable damage, some self-imposed.  National Rail was granted a new Parliamentary charter and was required to re-invest a portion of proceeds into maintenance, employee welfare, and fare reductions before dividends could be paid to shareholders; to stimulate investment, the government reimbursed dividends paid to it as the major shareholder for the first 40 years of its operation.  To compensate for damages to its infrastructure, the armed forces were ordered to restore all tracks and related infrastructure that are self-damaged and transfer all spurs and branches they constructed for war purposes to National Rail by Jan. 1, 1949.


During the war, the railway networks of both operators suffered considerable damage, some self-imposed. In 1947, the two railways merged to form the National & Maritime & Themiclesian & Northwest Railways but operated under the trade name of National Rail. This new corporation operated under Parliamentary charter and was required to re-invest a portion of profits into maintenance, employee welfare, and fare reductions before dividends could be paid to shareholders; to stimulate investment, the government reimbursed dividends paid to it as the major shareholder for the first 40 years of its operation.  To compensate for damages to its infrastructure, the armed forces were ordered to transfer the industrial spurs it had constructed to National Rail.
National Rail re-introduced the Recliner coach in 1940 as a workaround for its directors and employees, who lost the ability to use sleeper coaches as they were suspended during the war. The Recliner had debuted in 1932 as a more economical alternative to the open section sleeper but was withdrawn in 1935. The coach was permissible as it technically met the description of a sitting coach even though its seats could recline to 165°, forming an almost-flat bed. With a 2+2 seating pattern, the Recliner coach could sit 44 people, more than the open section sleeper and nearly as much as a normal II coach which was acceptable under war economy. National Rail let out bedding for these coaches. Eventually, civil servants and military officers on public business necessitating overnight travel also received permission to use the Recliners―the army's regiments each received a fixed monthly quota of Recliner tickets during the late stage of the war (typically 2), which were extremely hotly contested by officers and troops on furlough.


===Postwar===
===Postwar===
To expedite the export of Themiclesian goods to Maverica and Menghe, the [[Trans-Hemithean Railway]] was completed in 1952 with the support of all three governments.  A train could travel from Kien-k'ang to Sunju in 79 hours on this route, outpacing shipping by days.  Despite its principal use as a freight railway, passenger service was also provided on this road, though it soon faced stern competition from airliners.  National Rail ran its premier train on the THR until its closure in 1959 due to Communist revolution in Maverica.   
During the early phase of the post-war reconstruction period, the authorities minimized express services, to prioritize trains carrying reconstruction materials; manual seat reservation, labour intensive, likewise remained suspended. Expresses reappeared between 1946 and 1948, but named trains operated with II coaches only, as the railroad prioritized density in passenger services. But on 1 January 1949, the 1/2 Northern was restored to its pre-war I/II consist, and other reserved trains followed suit between 1949 – 50. Objections were heard against this development at a time when rationing was not yet lifted on food and other critical resources and amidst reports that I coaches were mostly used by non-paying ministers and officials.
 
After the ban on sleepers lifted in 1947, National Rail repurposed the Recliner coach, originally an austere alternative to a sleeper on overnight services, for day service rakes. Recliners also appear to have been intended to relieve the ban on I coaches on named trains, in view of some of the ageing II stock. Recliners becoming well-received, the railroad extended them to other express services. With its airline-style layout and reclinable seats, was to have an extensive impact and gradually replaced older bay-style seating, which had non-reclinable, opposing seats.
 
===1947 to electrification===
{{Pie chart
|caption = '''Classes of travel by journey, March 1950'''
|value1 = 0.03
|label1 = First
|color1 = indianred
|value2 = 1.66
|color2 = SandyBrown
|label2 = Second (recliner)
|value3 = 2.3
|color3 = moccasin
|label3 = Second
|value4 = 22.37
|color4 = MediumAquamarine
|label4 = Third (new)
|value5 = 38.6
|color5 = lightblue
|label5 = Third
|value6 = 35.4
|color6 = LightCyan
|label6 = Third (pass or public account)}}
{{Pie chart
|caption = '''Classes of travel by journey, March 1960'''
|value1 = 0.28
|label1 = First
|color1 = indianred
|value2 = 6.77
|color2 = SandyBrown
|label2 = Second (recliner)
|value3 = 2.1
|color3 = moccasin
|label3 = Second
|value4 = 58.45
|color4 = lightblue
|label4 = Third
|value5 = 32.4
|color5 = LightCyan
|label5 = Third (pass or public account)}}In the last years of the 1940s, National Rail's ''Mid-century Modernization Plan'' (MCMP) included the replacement of Steam adhesion on all lines over 17 years, with a mixture of diesel and electric adhesion, which is agreed to reduce costs and running times. Lines with geometry that could suppert electrified speeds were earmarked for electrification, while some lines with heavy demand but poor geometry would be replaced or relieved by secondary lines (some of which would later develop into {{wp|high speed rail}} with co-operation with Dayashina). Other lines and most branches were slated to be dieselized.
 
Aside from the question of locomotive power and speed, the MCMP also included visions for improved passenger service: all long distance travel should be by express train and with reserved seats, whereas in 1950 some 75% of Themiclesians still travelled by unreserved stopping train, many of which ranked lower than goods trains, even for long-distance journeys. Such services were liable to experience long calls at stations to yield to trains with higher priority (some goods trains included).
 
To address the issue of highway competition, even still in its infancy, National Rail stressed convenience, punctuality, speed, and comfort as natural strengths of rail travel compared to highway voyage. In 1950, the principal challenge posed by car ownership was in suburban commuting and not intercity travel, because the Government intentionally built new communities where land costs were low due to their distance from towns with rail access. While the highway B1 was designed to support a maximum speed of 45 MPH, railways easily topped this speed at least on express services.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Seat pitch per side and density per coach
|-
! Coach !!colspan="2" style="width: 10em"| Series 4/5 !!colspan="2" style="width: 10em"| Series 6
|-
! Underframe !!colspan="2"| {{convert|72|ft|m|1|abbr=on}} !!colspan="2"| {{convert|84|ft|m|1|abbr=on}}
|-
| Third Open (TP) || {{convert|26|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} || 140 ||rowspan="2"| {{convert|29|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} ||rowspan="2"| 140
|-
| Third New (TPN) || {{convert|30|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} || 120
|-
| Second Open (SP) ||rowspan="2"| {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} || 48 ||rowspan="2"| {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} || 56
|-
| First Open (FP) || 20 || 24
|}Since standard underframes extended from pre-war 72' to post-war 84', the standard III Class coach gained padding and legroom from {{convert|26|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|29|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}. Other than enlarging coaches, long-criticized crowding on express trains was addressed by lengthening trains from the typical 6 coaches pre-war to 10 or 12 coaches by 1959, enabled by the improved pulling power of diesel engines.
 
Computerized ticketing appeared in 1956, powered by the DPRM 780 {{wp|vacuum tube}} computer. With ledgers between stops now checked digitally, efficient reservation of seats for more or even all passengers was now possible. Indeed, the railroad planned that all intercity travellers should travel with reserved seats and on express trains. Long-distance travel on unreserved, stopping trains was expected to appear uncompetitive in the future. Seat reservations for the formerly unreserved Limited services rolled out on July 1, 1957, to select services where demand was high, initially to the first 7 coaches of the train. Trains that offered seat reservation were renamed Reserved Limited (對號特快) and were subject to a seat reservation charge.
 
Highway B2 was planned for completion in 1957, and in view of challenges posed by road voyage on foreign railways, National Rail sought to remain competitive by improved comfort and expanded air conditioning to II Class coaches. The plan appeared successful as the first private long-distance bus operator, Highway Bus Coach, declared bankruptcy in 1960 amidst a tortured attempt to retrofit its fleet of wartime buses with AC units which turned out very prone to malfunction and leaks due to bumpy riding. The new II coaches with AC were powered by Head End Power generators behind the locomotive.
 
Effective Jan. 10, 1959, National Rail abolished the New Class fares and demoted its rolling stock to III Class status, since unpadded III Class stock have been withdrawn across the network.
 
Railway commentators have mentioned the 1950s as one of the most successful decades of the railway's history, marked by a strong effort to take advantage of the booming economy and remain competitive against road voyage. A strong fiscal foundation has been attributed to the managmenet of the 1950s that ultimately made heavier infrastructure investments possible in the two following decades.
 
The electrification of the Traverse Main Line was completed in 1960 and saw the launch of the E0 locomotive to haul trains between Kien-k'ang and Qqa'. 1960 saw the launch of the Series 6 Electric Multiple Unit Trainset (usually abbreviated 6MU) line of coache which had a distributed mode of power collection and driving. The MU6 trainsets did not break any top or average speed records in testing or operation, but their widespread adoption supported a higher average speed across the line as stopping trains no longer needed to yield so frequently to express trains making long calls.
 
===Post-electrification===
Aside from the high-speed line, six other mainlines were also electrified for conventional speeds in the 60s and 70s. Initially, these lines saw electric locomotives hauling unpowered coaches much as diesel and steam engines had done before, but experience on the high-speed line also brought the {{wp|electric multiple-unit}} trainsets or EMUs to conventional lines. Since the Inland Mainline's express passenger traffic was partly taken over by the high-speed line, the railroad rescheduled many services to make more stops, meaning the train needed to stop and then start more often. EMUs usually had acceleration performance superior to loco-hauled trains, so they would replace many loco-hauled trains on electrified lines.
 
With the expansion of Sightseer Limited services on both electrified and non-electrified lines, displacing slower but cheaper services, National Rail faced criticism as a public operator for forsaking segments of the public only looking for a fast and safe way to travel. Especially with the re-imposition of conscription in 1961, National Rail was lambasted in Parliament for rescheduling defence charter trains into awkward hours, in favour of running additional Sightseer Limited services on several line.
 
National Rail responded in Parliament that Sightseer Limited services are appropriate for an improving society, made more money for the public operator, and enabled it to keep cheaper services cheap, and on the other hand services transporting soldiers wouldn't be made less effective even if rescheduled to awkward hours. National Rail's conflicts with the Ministry of Defence resulted in an 1967 [[Cabinet of Themiclesia|Cabinet]] directive requiring National Rail to admit regimental discounts for active servicepersons all services and move some defence freight and charters trains into daytime.
 
In the 60s, the air-conditioned II coach (introduced 1959) saw increasing demand despite higher fare, while the 120-seat, non-AC III coach saw a decline in demand, despite improved legroom after coaches were extended from 72' to 84' (no added seats). In 1972, National Rail experimentally altered the layout of III coaches from 3+2 to 2+2, eliminating the disliked middle seat on one side of the corridor and increasing seat width from 18" to 20.5". This alteration only marginally improved travellers' opinions. With mainlines electrified, the provision of air conditioning was no longer constrained by head-end-power and thus apt for generalization. In the new EMUs launching 1975, National Rail introduced the AC Standard Coach as a replacement for both AC II and non-AC III coachs.
 
The new coach sat 80 people and was charged at around 1.5 times III. The Progressive government immediately hailed this as a success of deregulation, claiming that third-class travel was abolished by the forces of the market and air conditioning has thereby been made available for a lower fare. But it is also pointed out that this is only true from a II traveller's perspective, since AC was now available for a smaller fare albeit at the cost of some legroom, while a traveller formerly on III would now have to pay 50% more for AC. Equally, the "abolition" of III was only for EMUs, as most loco-hauled services still had plenty of non-AC III coaches sitting 100 passengers.
 
==Train classifications==
Passenger services are classified by National Rail into the following categories, which are based on the rolling stock used and determine the priorities trains have in allocation of right of way, particularly on single-track sections of routes or platform at stations. It should be noted that while schedulers respect train priorities, priorities are ultimately only guiding principles in drawing up the schedule and foresee and unforeseen operational issues can and regularly prompt the signal staff to grant right of way to a train of lower priority over one of higher priority.
 
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"| Service !! Composition !! Scope !! Stops !! Assigned seat !! Train # !! Description
|-
| Reserved || 澈對號客, ''tutups-qu-karak'' || First/Recliner ||rowspan="7"| Main lines only ||rowspan="2"| Variable || {{yes|Always}} ||rowspan="2"| 1 – 40 || Highest possible priority, usually named and unique to the route, may be oriented towards tourists.
|-
| Sleeper Express || 夕快客, ''laqs-kots-karak'' || Sleepers || {{yes|Always}}  || For long distance routes only
|-
| Seasons Limited || 時特快客, ''tups-de-aleq-kots-karak'' ||(EMU) Premium/Recliner/AC  ||rowspan="4"| Major cities ||{{yes|Available}} || 3000 — 4000 || MU9 stock
|-
| Centennial Limited || 百齡特快客, ''alinh-tups-qu-neleq-kots-karak'' ||(EMU) Premium/Recliner/AC  ||{{yes|Available}} || 3000 — 4000 || MU8, MU8.1, MU8.2 stock
|-
| Peace Limited || 寧特快客, ''alinh-tups-qu-neleq-kots-karak'' || (EMU) Recliner/AC  ||{{yes|Available}} || 3000 — 4000 || MU7 stock
|-
| Limited Express || 對號特快客, ''tups-qu-neleq-kots-karak'' || (LH) Recliner/AC || {{yes|Available}} || 51 – 200 || Loco-hauled limited express, on non-electrified lines
|-
| Intercity Express || 快客, ''kots-karak''|| (EMU) Premium/Recliner/AC<br>(LH) Recliner/AC || Major and medium cities || {{maybe|Some}} || 301 – 800 || MU6 or loco-hauled stock
|-
| Local Express || 縣快客, ''ghwin-kots-karak''||rowspan="2"| (EMU) Recliner/AC<br>(LH) Second/New||rowspan="2"| Main and branch lines ||Skips unmanned stations || {{maybe|Some}} || 1001 – 2000 || rowspan="2"| Generally running between two major cities on main and branch lines, serving short-distance travellers or as shuttle service to change trains at a major station
|-
| Local Ordinary || 縣客, ''ghwin-karak'' || All stations en route || {{no}} || 2001 – 3000
|}
 
===Reserved Service===
Reserved Service, usually only one or two services per route, are meant to represent the best service on that route. With few exceptions, Reserved Service include dining facilities and premium coaches in First and Recliner classes. After the 1970s, these trains are often advertised to tourists or select business travellers and may have customized rolling stock to enhance their appeal. Fares are also the highest of all services, trumping high-speed lines.
 
During the pioneering days of Themiclesian railways from 1845 to 1870, slow running speeds effectively required sleeper service to reach distant destinations in comfort, but considerable gains in speed in the 1870s and 80s allowed some journeys to be covered by a daytime service, achieved by prioritized schedules, specialized engines, and light trains. Sleeper services (where a bed is guaranteed) are always reserved, while contemporary day trains were not. Daytime reserved services thus aimed to bring the guarantee of a specific place to day services.
 
These were advertised as "limited reserved" services by then-private railways, in contradistinction to "sleeper express" services that ran on laxer schedules and often at limited speed to reduce vibrations that may prevent any rest at all; in the era of public regulation, the term "reserved" still applied to the best possible service on a given route, and most were eventually nicknamed, e.g. Coastal Reserved (longest-running service, since 1894). Given the elite status of these services, they were always combined with seat reservation service and the best-appointed coaches; third-class coaches were not regularly used on these trains.
 
Services in this category include:
*'''1/2 Northern Reserved''', between Kien-k'ang and Rak. A previous incarnation of this service had a pre-PSW route of Rak to Yannarksburg, [[Maverica]]; in the early 50s, this service was through-running to Sunju, [[Menghe]]. In this period it was called '''1/2 Hemithean Express Reserved'''.
*'''3/4 Coastal Reserved''', between Kien-k'ang and Sngrak.
*'''5/6 Upper Sleeper''', between Kien-k'ang and Srum-qlun. Summer service extends to Kir.
*'''7/8''', between Kien-k'ang and Apollonia.
*'''9/10 Star Reserved''', between Kien-k'ang and Estoria.
 
===Seasons Limited===
The '''Seasons Limited''' (時特快) is the newest (and most expensive) express EMU service currently running in Themiclesia. With rolling stock capable of reaching 120 MPH on some electrified lines, it is also the fastest.
*EMU9A (12-coach): SPC(c)-SPR(p)-TPA(m)-TPA(t)-TPA(t)-SPD(p)-TPA(m)-SPR(t)-TPA(t)-TPA(p)-TPA(m)-SPC(c)
*EMU9B (8-coach): SPC(c)-SPR(p)-TPA(m)-TPA(t)-TPA(t)-SPD(p)-TPA(m)-TPA(c)
 
===Centennial Limited===
'''Centennial Limited''' (百齡特快) was introduced in 2010 using the newly released 9MU {{wp|EMU}} trainset.
 
===Peace Limited===
The '''Peace Limited''' (甯龢特快) is an EMU service introduced in 1959 comprising of AC Recliner and III classes.
 
===Sightseer Limited===
{{main|Sightseer Limited}}
The Sightseer Limited was a limited express service that ran between 1956 and 1988 with Series 6 and 7 II Class AC Recliner stock plus a dining coach and a "skylight coach" at the end of the rake. Seats were arranged in a 2+2 airline-style layout, seat pitch being {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}.
 
Beginning in 1950, National Rail started to manufacture air conditioning to S5.2 Recliner coaches, attracting a higher fare class as "AC Recliner", exclusive on named trains . In {{wp|monocoque}} S6 coaches, provisions for AC was made for some Recliner coaches and powered by {{wp|head-end power}} instead of dynamo, though AC units were only installed gradually. In November 1955, the first service using a monoclass rake of new air-conditioned monocoque Recliner coaches ran under a Recliner Limited label. In 1957, with the attachment of a "skylight coach" and a new livery, the Recliner Limited was renamed Sightseer Limited and ran on several times a day on popular routes. Given access to the skylight coach, Sightseer tickets were hiked still 25% higher than AC Recliner.
 
The ''sine qua non'' skylight coach (SPS) featured an area with rotating seats and couches on the end connecting to the rest of the rake, while the tail end had a semicircular lounge with enlarged windows permitting an unobstructed rear view. Additionally, parts of the roof was also converted to windows to allow sunlight to enter. This arrangement was very similar to the drawing room coach (D) used on Reserved Trains (which was oriented for travellers in I class); a steward would serve passengers refreshments and snacks in the D coach, while in the skylight coach passengers self-served. 
 
The label "Sightseer Limited" became a class of services using similar rakes, rather than a specific service. In 1957, there were 2 services per day on each of the Inland and Traverse Main Lines, but by 1970 there were over 24 services using the Sightseer Limited label. Those services running with new Series 6 air-conditioned Recliner coaches but without the skylight coach were tariffed as AC Recliner instead.
 
From 1955 – 56 and still under the "AC Recliner Limited" label, the rake usually had 5 seating coaches, 1 dining coach, and 1 luggage van. When the "Sightseer Limited" label was introduced, the rake steadily increased from 5 AC Recliner coaches to 12 at peak travelling hours, by the late 60s. The lengthening of the rake thus documents increasing priority for comfort during Themiclesia's economic boom after the war. On the other hand, the "Sightseer" label reflects an post-war attitude where travelling II class, for the average Themiclesian, was still a considerable luxury and appropriate for pleasure. By the late 60s, travelling II class for long distance is typical for business and pleasure.
 
When the Series 7 coaches were still being designed, National Rail considered reducing the seat pitch from {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|45.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} and manufactured a prototype. Natiional Rail's argument is that the seat pitch was originally meant to support the seats' conversion into beds at night, but by this time Recliners no longer ran on night trains and had no reason to feature this 52" seat pitch. There were no ergonomics objections to a reduced pitch, which would also allow the insertion of two additional rows of seats to boost capacity. But public reception was poor and concentrated on the window seat passenger's ability to move to the aisle without disrupting the aisle seat passenger: at 52", window passengers could step out without requiring the aisle passenger to move. After public trials, the seat pitch was retained at {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}.
 
===Memorial Limited===
The Memorial Limited was operated with Series 7 coaches plus a buffet coach. Seats were arranged in a (first for III Class) 2+2 airline-style layout. Seat pitch is {{convert|34|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}. Some Memorial Limited services included AC Recliner and unreserved III Class coaches, subject to different charges, as well as buffet coach.
 
To compete with private cars and highway buses, National Rail introduced AC and reducing seat density from a 3+2 to 2+2 layout on improved III class coaches as part of its new Series 7 coaches, whose bodies supported speeds of 110 MPH (compared to 90 MPH on the previous generation). Additionally, a new buffet coach provided hot food options for the first time for III class passengers. Given improvements in speed and comfort, National Rail launched these coaches as the Memorial Limited.
 
Advertisements emphasized that Memorial Limited was allocated the top priority in schedules on non-electrified routes, above the Sightseer Limited services. Around the time of the launch of the Memorial Limited, National Rail's concessions policy was controversial. As many as 3 million PSW veterans were approaching retirement in the early 70s, and their combined veteran and senior benefits would put fares below cost, prompting National Rail in 1964 pre-emptively to restrict veteran benefits. To soothe outrage, National Rail opened the new Memorial Limited services  to veteran benefit-holders, and even the name ''Memorial Limited'' itself was selected with an eye for PR.
 
In 1971, Series 7 Revision 1 AC Recliner coaches launched after two years of delays and were attached to some Memorial Limited services. To protect the Sightseer's niche, National Rail did not add skylight observation coachs in Series 7, so AC Recliner coaches on Memorial Limited were tariffed at normal AC Recliner rates. Thus a somewhat incongruous situation existed where newer coaches attracted fare lower than older coaches.  These coaches had a special box of four seats available for travellers desiring increased privacy and subject to a "premium seat fee", which brought the fare up to par to Sightseer rates. The box could only be reserved as an entire unit until the day of travel, at which the seats were sold separately and without additional charge, until 1973.
 
On electrified railways, Series 7 EMU (abbr. 7MU) coaches were also labelled as Memorial Limited until they obtained their own name as Liberty Limited.
 
Originally, the Memorial Limited was launched with seat reservation throughout the entire rake. Yet into the early 70s, Parliamentary inaction allowed National Rail's fare levels to lag behind inflation while costs rose. National Rail thus sought to encourage users of ordinary services to travel instead on express services, which attracted higher fares. To reduce the ''circa'' 70% fare difference, National Rail appended unreserved III class coaches onto the express trains.
 
By the end of the 80s, National Rail was prepared to phase out non-AC stock on its limited express services. In 1988, the remaining deprecated Limited Express (on Series 5 Revision 2) coaches were demoted to unreserved express train status.  the Series 7 coaches faced obsolescence, especially with (then-upcoming but highly delayed) Series 8 coaches. In 1993, National Rail demoted both the Sightseer and Memorial Limited services to normal Limited Express fares, but in operations they retained their identity until 2005.
 
===Limited Express===
Limited Express (formal name '''Limited Express with Reservation''') services are intercity trains providing fast and frequent service, calling at only major cities. These services are aimed at travellers who intend to travel quickly between cities and beyond a normal commuting/regional distance. Technically, the Seasons, Centennial, and Peace Limited services are also Limited Express services, but in practice this term is applied (even by National Rail in public-facing literature) only to Limited Express services that are not named like the Seasons Limited etc. are.
 
The origins of the Limited Express service could be traced to July 4, 1928 when National Rail launched an all-III Class service with limited schedules and engines. The service was introduced after some legislators urged National Rail to run limited trains with III Class coaches, when hitherto limited trains were exclusively named trains with I and II coaches. Unlike named trains, whose seats were fully reserved (and thus no standing passengers), the unnamed Limited Expresses did not offer reserved seats and were often overcrowded, yet reception was reportedly very good and these ran until the intensification of the PSW in 1938.
 
After the war, the III Class Limited Express revived in 1948, and in 1951 the concept of the all III Class train (originally introduced to avoid competing with named trains) was abandoned on some service in this category favour of a Recliner or II plus III Class train. In 1954, National Rail replaced some express steam engines with diesel engines and also introduced the Series 6 monocoque coaches with improved comfort. Two years later in 1957, National Rail computerized its seat reservation system and offered assigned seating to III Class on Limited Express services, leading to its renaming (in [[Shinasthana]]) as "Limited Express with Seat Reservation").
 
With more lines electrified between the 1960s and 70s, EMU came to dominate at the expense of loco-hauled services, first in express trains and then on regional trains. Since the category of the (unnamed) Limited Express is restricted to loco-hauled services, they decreased in number on the electrified lines. These days, Limited Express services are mostly seen as second- or third-tier services on non-electrified main lines.
 
==Classes of service==
===First Class===
Available on loco-hauled Reserved services only, this is the most luxurious option in regular service, using a 1+1 seating pattern.
 
Under National Rail, there are two main types of First Class coaches: First Open "FP" and Parlour "D" (for "drawing room"). FP is similar to the conventionl II or III Class seating, with opposite seats on two sides of a crosswise bay, but in First Class there are only two seats per bay. But on sleeper trains, a D coach with swivel chairs and couches in an open setting was often attached as an leisure area, and seats here were not separately sold. D coaches came to be attached to important day trains in addition to the FP coaches, and similarly seats in the D coach were not separately sold. The entraining of FP and D coaches has varied over time and services.
 
*On Reserved services like the 11/12 Rak Evening Reserved, several FP and one D coaches would be in the rake. Even more prestigious trains like the 5/6 Northern Day Reserved could have two D coaches, the final one with open platform for observation (the normal rake for the 5/6 was SP-FSR-FP-FP-FP-D-D(B) ).   
 
*On lesser services with rakes that had I Class, D coaches were not attached. Where I Class had even lower demand, a first-second composite open (FSP) coach was used.  Since a D coach became ''de rigueur'' on Reserved services, those services with only an FP and no D coach became perceived as defective by the 1920s and were poorly patronized after then. Yet National Rail's charter required "all three classes be available on all lines, in each direction, and every day" as a commitment to service standards, so such under-utilized I Class services remained until the ''War Measures Act'' suspended the mandate.
 
After the war, the mandatory service standard was not re-imposed citing fiscal difficulties, resulting in the withdrawl of I Class in many services. Existing seats, if found in FSP composites, were often sold as II Class where the latter was in short supply. National Rail phased out I Class on stopping trains from Jan. 2, 1953. I Class remained in use on Reserved trains and select express trains where a D coach was present, though their numbers slowly declined.
 
During the electrification era (1962 – 81), National Rail's policy was to abolish I Class wherever possible, so the operator built no new I coaches of either the FP or D bodies. Yet the number of I Class passengers stopped dwindling by the 60s and slightly rebounded in the 70s, often attributed to corporate travellers. This led National Rail to introduce the Club Class on EMU services, initially to reward frequent travellers with an upgraded seat, and the design of the first Club Class coaches borrowed elements from both the FP and D coahces. The fact that Club Class was deemed a sub-type of II Class was important to corporate travellers who, under corporate policy, often could not put a I Class ticket on company account.
 
The adoption of EMU service ''en masse'' in the 70s replaced a large portion of the loco-hauled services with I Class coaches, but as National Rail never fully abolished loco-hauled intercity services, neither did I Class disappear. In 1987, National Rail authorized a small batch of I coaches to be built to replace the ageing stock dating from the mid-50s that was still moderately in demand. The two royal trains belonging to the [[Monarchy of Themiclesia|Monarch]] also consisted chiefly of I Class stock. As of 2024, there are still six services that offer I Class, two on electrified lines and four on non-electrified lines. Seats on these services are very much advertised towards luxury travel.
 
===Premium===
Noted as "Second Class Premium" (次等特別車, ''alek-bryat-sniqs-keteng-kla''), this class characteristically features a 1+2 seating pattern. Available on EMU trains only.
 
This type of seat can be traced back to a special box containing four seats present on Sightseer stock (S6.1), introduced in 1956. Unlike other seats on the Sightseer Limited, travellers could only reserve this box in its entirety up to the day of travel, wherein boxes that remained unsold were released for sale as ordinary seats. If booked as a whole box, the cost was equal to five seats on the Sightseer service, i.e. at a 25% premium on a per-seat basis. The box also made an appearance on the new AC Recliner stock in 1971 (S7.1), this time positioned at both ends of the coach. During from the late 70s to early 80s, National Rail sought to increase line speeds significantly through replacing loco-hauled services with EMU services; thus, no new premium loco-hauled services, including the special box, were introduced after the Memorial Limited in 1971.
 
Expanding the private box concept in the upcoming EMU trainsets, a Club Class coach was constituted with two private boxes on either end and a number of airline-style seats between them. The airline-style seats were originally offered as an upgrade in the loyalty programme. In the 80s, the upgrade was opened to normal ticket holders for a upgrade fee that varied according to anticipated demand. At the same time, the private box remained available for booking up to the day of travel. During off hours, upgrades from the normal recliner seat could be purchased for as little as 4% the recliner ticket, whereas during hours of peak demand or for select services an upgrade could cost as much as 30%.
 
It seems originally National Rail intended to phase out its dated I Class in favour of the Premium cabin, as the latter was introduced at a point where no I Class coaches had been built for around 20 years. The Premium cabin's official designation as a subtype of II Class also permitted corporte travellers to put the ticket on company account, since many corporations forbade putting a I Class ticket on company account but permitted the same for II Class (and its varieties). However, National Rail's plan to phase out I Class never completely came to fruition, resulting in the current situation where loco-hauled services have I Class, while EMU services have Premium.
 
Seat pitch is the same as Recliner at {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}, while seat width is between {{convert|25|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|28|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}.
 
===Recliner===
{{main|Second Recliner (Themiclesian railway)}}
Named "Second Class Recliner" (坐臥次等車) on tickets. The standard feature of this seating class is the eponymous reclining chair that can rotate to face either direction as desired, positioned in a 2+2 layout. Market positioning is as a premium cabin, being either the higher of two classes offered (recliner and standard), or the middle (premium, recliner, and standard).
 
Recliners were originally introduced on Themiclesian railways in 1931, on sleeper services that also double as day services in the great interior; in this use, they were withdrawn from service in 1933, deemed a failure. Then, in 1941, they re-entered service as an alternative for sleepers which were abolished for the war effort. After sleeper services reappeared in 1946, these coaches were repurposed as Second Class day coaches, because many conventional non-reclining Second Class coaches had during the war been converted to Third Class and were now in short supply. Recliner coaches added on Reserved trains were retrofitted in 1950 with air conditioning powered by {{wp|dynamo}} in 1952, resulting in the first Themiclesian train that had air conditioning on all coaches.
 
On the new series of monocoque coaches with {{convert|84|ft|m|1|abbr=on}} underframe introduced in 1954, designed to be used with {{wp|head-end power}}, all Recliner coaches natively had air conditioning. In the 50s, Recliner coaches came to displace conventional, non-reclining, non-AC Second Class coaches after a period of co-existence. The restoration of First Class service since Nov. 1, 1949 was slow and partial, and it never re-appeared on many services where it used to be offered.  This left the newly-air conditioned Recliner coach as the best service available on many routes.
 
Seat pitch is {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} and width {{convert|24|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}, which reflects its original design as a sleeper alternative. Maximum recline angle varies between stock but is usually 135 – 145°. On loco-hauled Series 6 stock at 84' length, capacity is 52 passengers in 13 rows; on EMU stock and loco-hauled Series 7 onwards, an extra row is present since air conditioning machinery is roof-mounted instead, providing 56 seats in 14 rows.
 
===Standard Second===
The "Normal Second" (本次等車) formed the bulk of II Class stock in the 20th century and was characterized by bay-style seating in a 2+2 layout, normally at {{convert|104|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} per bay or {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} per side. The seats are padded and, usually, lined with dark blue or dark green velvet. The headrests are usually provided with {{wp|antimacassars}}. Since passengers in adjoining bays recline against the same seat back, the seats are fixed and non-reclinable.
 
Despite the name, the Standard Second stock have been progressively phased out in main line express services since the introduction of the Series 7 stock in the late 60s, with the [[Passenger rail transport in Themiclesia#Recliner|Recliner]] stock gaining favour as the preferred kind of II Class seating. Standard Second remains in service on branch line or non-EMU local serivces on main lines, where the lack of recline is considered more acceptable due to shorter running times.
 
In the years leading up to the birth of National Rail, the privately-owned railways intensively competed in the most luxurious I Class products on select services, resulting in progressively more opulent coachwork that came to characterize I Class at the turn of the century, at least in these select services. However, I Class on other trains were often less glamorous. Under a policy for public operator to establish a consolidated, cross-network standard for the classes of service, much I Class stock (usually older or local stock, deemed substandard by main line standards) were demoted around 1900 to II Class fare, resulting in a spacious standard for II Class. This high standard for II Class was justified on the basis that it would better appeal to passengers who would have to pay twice as much as III Class to upgrade to II.
 
During the PSW, most II Class stock was converted to III Class to transport more passengers economically, resulting in a dearth of II Class stock by the end of the war. Recliners, originally a substitute for sleepers which were also suspended due to war, came to stand in for normal II stock in the early post-war years. Over the 1950s, Recliners came to eclipse the normal II stock in demand, as they provided an additional reclining functionality.
 
===AC Standard===
Formally the "New Stock Third Class with Air Conditioning" coach (參等新車轀凌車) , this also features a 2+2 seat pattern but has considerably less legroom at {{convert|34|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} seat pitch. This seating class is the standard (and lowest) level of service on all intercity EMU and loco-hauled day services and usually makes up a majority of the rake. It is not present on Reserved services.
 
Air conditioning was present on First Class coaches as far back as 1935, and head-end power allowed the introduction of AC on Recliner coaches in 1954, but AC was only made available more broadly when EMUs entered service on main lines electrified between 1960 and 1983. With electricity now available through overhead catenaries, air conditioning was possible across the entire trainset. Yet with EMU services not universal, air conditioning attracted a higher fare compared to non-air conditioned services.
 
Meanwhile, coach design also went through a phase of re-adjustment in the 1970s. Between its inception and the late 50s, National Rail's Third Class had unpadded seats and New Class, padded. Series 6 coacking stock introduced in 1954 extended padding to all Third Class coaches, thus eliminating the difference; New Class fare was abolished in 1959 as the last unpadded coaches were retired. However, improving availability and quality of highway transit (on passenger buses) led National Rail to consider a more comfortable Third Class seat in 1963, yet it eventually concluded its Third Class coaches were still well-patronized at current fare levels.
 
By 1970, the situation had changed with air conditioning generally available on private cars and highway buses, the latter presenting more spacious seats than contemporary Third Class coaches. National Rail thus re-introduced New Class in 1972 as a level between Third and Second (which was then always Recliner stock on main lines), featuring 96 seats in a 2+2 bay-style seating layout. The disliked middle seat was eliminated, and legroom was improved somewhat compared to normal Third coaches that sat 130 passengers on a 84' underframe with a 3+2 layout.
 
===New Class non-AC===
This seating class is available on short-haul local trains that do not utilize head-end power, running on non-electrified main lines and branch lines.
 
New Class originated as a special designation for Third Class coaches that, unlike others, had padded seats rather than bare wooden benches. Since it would be unfair to impose the same tariff on both types, National Rail designated padded ones as "Third Class New Stock" and charged a slightly higher fare. In 1954, all new III coahces received padded seats, and non-padded ones were all withdrawn by 1959, permitting the abolition of New Class as a separate fare class on May 30, 1959.
 
In 1968, amid concerns that highway buses were become more competitive against railway coaches, National Rail considered overhauling its III stock to a 2+2 seating pattern from the extant 3+2 pattern, but that would mean considerable lost revenues on many services that were still sold out. The alternative was to re-introduce New Class with a more spacious 2+2 pattern, albeit this also came with the problem of crowding the market for comfort-conscious travellers in Recliner coaches. In the end, the latter option was chosen but with highly curtailed legroom at {{convert|34|in|mm|abbr=on}}.
 
===Third Class===
The fare for Third Class (III) is the basis for all other fare classes, but currently it is not in general use because rakes for normal passenger services no longer contain these coaches. It is in use, however, for defence charter services transporting soldiers, since enlisted ratings are restricted to receiving free transit tickets for III. While it used to be the case that National Rail would provide actual III coaches (3+2, 28" per row) for defence charters, by the late 80s National Rail would often use more spacious coaches as actual III coaches were being retrofitted or torn down (and thus not readily available).
 
Originally, III stock on old compartment stock sat 6 abreast, and on corridor stock (becoming standard on long-distance, through-running trains by 1885) the width of one seat formed the corridor, leaving an asymetrical 3+2 seating pattern. III stock generally featured unpadded wooden benches and backs, (padded ones were tariffed as "New Stock III" or "New Class"). An act of Parliament dating to 1864 requires all III stock to have roofs, windows, and bays not less than {{convert|52|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} apart, which converted to a mere {{convert|26|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} per side. For many passengers this meant their knees would pass the centre line in bays, resulting in an awkward sideways seating angle to avoid the opposite passenger's knees or (the opposite passenger permitting) to interpose their knees; this was deemed the "compulsory scandal of the third class" in a parliamentary speech in 1878.
 
After the institution of the public operator, standard III stock continued to use 52" bays, while New Class used slightly wider 60" bays, though part of this added room was consumed by padding. On all-steel stock in Series 4 and 5, a 72' III coach sat 140 passengers. After the war, all III coaches on 84' underframes gained padding and still sat 140, the added length distributed into padding and legroom. Older 72' New Class coaches were demoted to III in 1959, resulting in the abolition of that fare class that year. These revised 84' III coaches gained padding and better legroom compared to pre-war III coaches, but compared to older New Class coaches, legroom actually decreased.
 
==Fare==
The fare displayed on passenger tickets on Themiclesian railways is generally a composite of several kinds of fees. Under the modern fare calculation system used since 1975, there is only a single base tariff for mileage, of which all other surcharges are multiples. This stands in contrast with the pre-1975 fare system which had tariffs for mileage specific to each class of travel, and surcharges multiplied the tariff of each class when applied to a ticket of that class.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 1. Ordinary train multiple
! Travel class<br>(code) !! style="width: 6em"| Third <br>(III) !! style="width: 6em"| New <br>(N) !!style="width: 6em"| AC Third<br> (ACN) !!style="width: 6em"| Second<br> (II) !!style="width: 6em"| AC Recliner <br>(ACR) !!style="width: 6em"| Premium <br>(PR) !!style="width: 6em"| First<br> (I)
|-
! Tariff
|1 ||colspan="2"| 1.2 || colspan="3"| 1.7 || 4
|-
! AC Fee
|      ||      || 0.5 || 0.5 || 0.5 || 0.5 || 0.5
|-
! Hot Water Fee
|  || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02 || 0.02
|-
! Catering Fee
|      ||      ||      || 0.15 || 0.15 || 0.15 || 0.3
|-
! Special Seat Fee<sup>1</sup>
|      ||  0.1 ||  0.1 ||      ||  0.2  || 0.5  || 1.3<sup>2</sup>
|-
! Ordinary multiplier || 1 || 1.32 || 1.82 || 2.37 || 2.57 || 2.87 || 6.12
|-
|colspan="8"|<small><sup>1</sup>The Special Seat Fee is demand-adjusted. Peak travelling times may see this fee as much as doubled. <br><sup>2</sup>Consists of a Special Seat Fee of 1x and a Wireless Fee of 0.3x (for the use of the wireless telephone in the First Class coach).</small>
|}
 
After all fees above are taken account of, the ordinary multiplier is arrived at. The ordinary multiplier represents the pre-tax multiple of the base tariff per mile that would be charged for a ticket in that seating class on an ordinary train.  Regressive express train fees are then added. The maximum express train fee is 50% of the ordinary multiply for journeys within 50 km, and the chargeable percentage decreases by 1% for each marginal 50 km travelled, to a floor of 20%.


The earlier years of the post-war period were dedicated to the restoration of the railway, with steam adhesion assumed to remain indefinitely; however, by 1953, this policy came under attack by some directors on National Rail's board. It has been asserted that diesel locomotives, though not more powerful individually, were more efficient and required less maintenance. Such a change, however, was contested by workers' unions, who argued that the abolition of steam power would result in redundancies. Thus, the propagation of diesel power would proceed incrementally, from the main lines to branch lines, where steam locomotives remained in operation until 1971. Even though diesel was accepted by National Rail in 1955, experimentation on more efficient steam locomotives continued until the 70s, and new ones were ordered as late as 1959. Steam power was withdrawn from main lines in 1961.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2a. Express fare multiple
! Range (mi) !! Marginal rate !! Blended rate !! Range (mi) !! Marginal rate !! Blended rate !! Range (mi) !! Marginal rate !! Blended rate
|-
! 50 – 100
| 49% || 49.5%
! 550 – 600
| 39% || 44.5%
!1,050 – 1,100
|29% || 39.5%
|-
! 100 – 150
|48% || 49%
! 600 – 650
| 38% || 44%
!1,100 – 1,150
| 28% || 39%
|-
! 150 – 200
| 47% || 48.5%
!650 – 700
| 37% || 43.5%
!1,150 – 1,200
| 27% || 38.5%
|-
! 200 – 250
| 46% || 48%
!700 – 750
| 36% || 43%
!1,200 – 1,250
| 26% || 38%
|-
! 250 – 300
| 45% || 47.5%
!750 – 800
| 35% || 42.5%
!1,250 – 1,300
| 25% || 37.5%
|-
! 300 – 350
| 44% || 47%
!800 – 850
| 34% || 42%
!1,300 – 1,350
| 24% || 37%
|-
! 350 – 400
| 43% || 46.5%
!850 – 900
| 33% || 41.5%
!1,350 – 1,400
| 23% || 36.5%
|-
! 400 – 450
| 42% || 46%
!900 – 950
| 32% || 41%
!1,400 – 1,450
| 22% || 36%
|-
! 450 – 500
| 41% || 45.5%
!950 – 1000
| 31% || 40.5%
!1,450 – 1,500
| 21% || 35.5%
|-
! 500 – 550
| 40% || 45%
!1,000 – 1,050
| 30% || 40%
!1,500 and above
| 20% || 35%
|}


Despite economies achieved by dieselization in the 50s, railways faced competition from air and road voyage, especially after the opening of Themiclesia's first {{wp|controlled-access highway}} in 1949.  This prompted a desire for higher speed that existing lines were considered incapable of providing due to routing issues.  National Rail, in co-operation with its analogue in [[Dayashina]], tabled a plan for an electrified main line that would support speeds not then obtainable on conventional railways. As proposed in 1957, this system was to be the sole electrified line in Themiclesia, since diesel was envisioned as the principal means of adhesion on other lines. As a parallel railway, the plan received sanction from Parliament in 1959, and work began in 1961. There was rumoured an informal competition between Dayashina and Themiclesia to realize their respective plans for {{wp|high-speed rail}}, though Dayashina was to best Themiclesia by more than three years.
Thus a Recliner ticket in an express train travelling 60 km would be subject to 2.32 × 1.5 × 50 km plus 2.32 × 1.49 × 10 km.


The first high-speed electrified line in Themiclesia opened in late 1967 after numerous delays and were capable of supporting speeds up to {{convert|230|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}. The expansion of the high-speed railway was continued after the first line, as a fixed portion of revenues from the high-speed service funded further construction. At the same time, the 24,525-kilometer network was subject to pruning in order to conserve expenditures. These cuts would eventually lead to the abandonment or sale of a quarter of that network by 1983.  Sale of land occupied by railways became an important source of revenues for National Rail, but there were concerns that it was an unsustainable source.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2b. Limited service fare multiple (on express fare)
|-
! Mileage !! style="width: 6em"|Limited !!style="width: 6em"| Peace !!style="width: 6em"| Centennial !! style="width: 6em"|Seasons
|-
! Under 500 mi
| 120% || rowspan="2"| 160% || rowspan="2"| 180%  || rowspan="4"| 210%
|-
! 501 – 1,000 mi 
| 110% 
|-
! 1,001 – 1,500 mi
| 100%  ||rowspan="2"| 130%  || rowspan="2"| 160% 
|-
!1,501 mi and above
| 90% 
|}
 
There is also Value Added Tax applicable to certain train tickets. All II Class tickets, including Recliner and Premium, attract a reduced 5% tax rate, and a I Class ticket is taxed at the full rate of 20%. III Class tickets, including New Class with or without AC, are zero-rated in VAT, deemed necessities. Similarly, II and I Class tickets are taxable under the ''Stamp Act'' at a rate of 1% the value of the ticket pre-VAT.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 3. Tax
! Travel class<br>(code) !! style="width: 6em"| Third <br>(III) !! style="width: 6em"| New <br>(N) !!style="width: 6em"| AC Third<br> (ACN) !!style="width: 6em"| Second<br> (II) !!style="width: 6em"| AC Recliner <br>(ACR) !!style="width: 6em"| Premium <br>(PR) !!style="width: 6em"| First<br> (I)
|-
! VAT
|colspan="3"| 0% || colspan="3"| 12% || 20%
|-
! Stamp Duty
|colspan="3"| 0% || colspan="4"| 1% 
|-
! Total tax
|colspan="3"| 0% ||colspan="3"| 13% || 21%
|}
 
===Sample calculation===
*'''Twa-ktsuk-men to Qwang Central via IM'''
**New Class on Local Train: 430 mi × INTL$0.11 per mi = $47.33
**Recliner on Peace Limited: 430 mi × INTL$0.11 per mi × 2.57 × (1 + 0.46 × 1.6) × 1.13 = $238.62
**First on Qwang Evening Limited: 430 mi × INTL$0.11 per mi × 6.12 × (1 + 0.46 × 1.2) × 1.21 = $543.96
 
<!--
===Tariff===
From the era of private railroading, Themiclesian railways had for the most part operated a three-class system adopted from Casaterran railways with one tariff for each class per mile travelled. Most roads had a 1:2:3 or 1:2:4 tariff ratio amongst III, II, and I class. Parliament mandated in 1901 the 1:2:4 tariff ratio for the public railroad. Until official repeal in 1977, this fare structure was mostly unmodified in the ''Public Railways Act'', though the base tariff for III was modified from time to time, bringing along with it the tariffs for the other classes. Before the [[Pan-Septentrion War]], a long-distance I class ticket could cost as much as 40 days' wages of a menial labourer.
 
Prior to the [[Pan-Septentrion War]], each class of service was actively standardized through stable coach designs, so each tariff rate more or less corresponded to a single product. National Rail abandoned standarization as policy in order to introduce more types of coaches to remain competitive with road voyage and air travel. On the mainlines this was particularly apparent, while on the branches changes occurred at a more sedate pace. Newer coaches resulted in a plethora of products that sometimes made little sense to classify within a three-class system as hitherto done. The introduction of S6/2 III express coaches in 1967, which sat only 84 passengers on reclinable seats, made the S5 II reclinable coaches (seating 56) appear unreasonably expensive, being priced over double.
 
During and after the war, the government did not amend the laws to bring tariffs into line with inflation, prompting National Rail to rely increasingly on surcharges to increase revenues. By the 60s, it was rarely possible to purchase a ticket at base tariff; such services were often simply not available. Yet the fixed proportion amongst the classes' tariffs was often felt either to make III run at a loss or I to be altogether too expensive, or both at the same time. The great disparity in ticket prices obtained by the fixed proportions also somewhat conflicted with National Rail's plans to universalize reserved seating, air conditioning, and express speeds for all long-distance travel.
 
A more flexible fare system was argued for in Parliament in the late 60s and came to pass in 1975 when the three-class structure, as far as fare structure was concerned, was abandoned. Between 1975 and 1986, a general tariff ceiling was provided, leaving National Rail free to price other services as is competitive. After 1987, the law mandated that a basic service at a fixed tariff be provided at all stations, such that it should be possible to travel across the entire network at this fixed tariff at a reasonable level of service; as with other laws of this kind, National Rail resorted to running such baseline {{wp|parliamentary trains}} to discourage patronage as much as possible.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Tariff per mile on National Rail (converted to decimal)
|-
! Date !! III !! II !! I
|-
| 1901/2/1 || 1/24 || 1/12 || 1/6
|-
| 1905/3/15 || 1/18 || 1/9 || 2/9
|-
| 1917/3/1 || 1/10 || 1/5 || 2/5
|-
| 1935/6/1 || 1/6 || 1/3 || 2/3
|-
| 1958/1/1 || 1/2 || 1 || 2
|-
| 1960/4/15 || 5/8 || 1 1/4 || 2 1/2
|-
| 1962/12/1 || 3/4 || 1 1/2 || 3
|-
| 1968/5/1 || 1 || 2 || 4
|}
 
===Surcharges===
The law left open the possibility to charge extra for additional services of value, which during the first decade of public management was mostly for reserved, express, and sleeper services. Yet to increase revenues from passengers willing to pay, National Rail introduced premium services that carried additional fees and also carved out certain services (formerly included in the ticket) to be subject to surcharges. For both I and II, the Catering Fee was assessed from 1922, nominally on services with onboard catering as opposed to meals brought in from stations, the idea being that freshly-prepared meals were more desirable.
 
A new Parlour Fee was charged on all I tickets from 1912, for use of the parlour section on D (for Drawing Room) carriages, but by 1927 all trains operating a I service included a D carriage, so the charge effectively became mandatory (even if the passenger never actually uses the Parlor section). Similarly, in 1935 air conditioning was introduced on I express stock, prompting a corresponding AC Fee on services with such air conditioned stock, yet by 1953 AC was retrofitted on all I stock, so the AC Fee became an inseparable part of the I tariff.
 
During the early stages of the PSW, National Rail reintroduced the Recliner Coach (RII) with an airline-style layout and seating 4 abreast in 13 rows (2+2 layout). These were originally a replacement for open section sleepers, which, seating 28, were not austere enough by wartime standards. The conventional II coach sat 48 at 72' length, so the capacity of 44 on Recliners was considered permissible. By 1947, open section sleepers reappeared, so National Rail started attaching the Recliner coaches on long-haul day trains. Originally tariffed the same as CII, National Rail imposed a 20% surcharge on the RII coaches, which then often co-existed with CII ''on the same train'' and thus became a new class of service.
 
On the other hand, National Rail also eagerly expanded AC from I to II in the 50s, in an effort to stay ahead of road competition in comfort terms, since contemporary cars and buses were not air conditioned. Due to the weight and size of AC units, these were roof-mounted in 1957 as part of the S5/2 (series 5, revision 2) streamlined coaches; AC units were not installed on RII coaches because this would make the coaches too heavy. To increase revenues and also betting that passengers would not mind losing some legroom for air conditioning, National Rail decreased the seat pitch to sit 64 passengers (as opposed to 56) at 84' length. These new AC coaches were priced between the RII and CII coaches.
 
Apparently, National Rail also resisted retrofitting AC units on Recliner coaches, believing if passengers wanted both reclining seats and AC, they would pay for I instead.
 
In the III department, the pre-war S4 express coaches sitting 140 and non-express coaches sitting 120 (both at 84') were quickly becoming unacceptably crowded, even though improving income levels rendered them more affordable than ever. Sensing shifting standards of comfort, National Rail simply repurposed non-express stock for express service and introduced a surcharge for the coaches with less density. The express stock was repurposed for suburban services, in which crowding was more acceptable due to short travel times.  Much criticism was levied against these changes. Between 1954 and 1961, the two types of III carriages operated together.-->
 
==Regulations==
Railways in Themiclesia are subject to a number of legal constraints passed mainly to promote efficiency in rail transport and enhance safety.  Many early regulations were made by Parliament, by whom most early routes were also authorized; however, the regulation of railways often became political, and varoius bodies such as the Board of Trade and later Ministry of Transport also became involved.  Most modern regulations are made by ministers with statutory authorization, but basic regulations such as the track gauge for intercity railways are fixed by statute.


==Standards==
===Units===
===Units===
The standard system of measurement on Themiclesian railways, for internal purposes, are {{wp|Imperial units}} from [[New Tyran|Anglia]], as much of the infrastructure and rolling stock on the earliest domestically-built railways were imported from Anglia.  The descriptor "Imperial" (rendered phonetically as 音卑羅, {{smallcaps|rf}} ''′im-pê-rjar'') is added to the corresponding Themiclesian [[Weights and measures in Themiclesia|unit]].  However, to anticipate unexpected changes by Anglia, which have not yet happened, Imperial units in Themiclesian trading were retroactively frozen by a domestic statute to their definitions on Jan. 1, 1870.  Some old lines, once under Hallian operation, had their sign-posts changed from Hallian units to Imperial ones by 1896.  However, in support of the Government's desire to promote the {{wp|Metric system}}, that system has been in use for public trade since 1957.
The standard system of measurement on Themiclesian railways, for internal purposes, are {{wp|Imperial units}} from [[New Tyran|Anglia]], as much of the technology and rolling stock on the earliest non-Hallian railways were imported from Anglia.  Railway lengths are signposted in terms of Imperial miles and chains.  The descriptor "Imperial" (rendered phonetically as 音卑麗, {{smallcaps|rf}} ''′im-pi-ryal'') is added to the corresponding Themiclesian [[Weights and measures in Themiclesia|unit]].  However, to anticipate unexpected changes by Anglia, which have not yet happened, Imperial units in Themiclesian railways were retroactively fixed by a domestic statute to their definitions on Jan. 1, 1870.  Some old lines, once under Hallian operation, had their sign-posts changed from Hallian units to Imperial ones by 1896.  However, in support of the Government's desire to promote the {{wp|Metric system}}, that system has been in use for public trade since 1957.


===Track gauge===
===Track gauge===
Line 59: Line 497:


====Narrow gauge====
====Narrow gauge====
There are several narrow gauges in Themiclesia, the majority built well after the 1851 law that established the standard gauge on lines longer than five miles.  Narrow gauges were permitted on lines shorter than five miles but also longer railways that were not open for public business.  Likewise, they were permissible for tramways.  They were often constructed in mines, farmland, factories, and private estates, where restrictive space or budget forbade the construction of wider railways.
There are several narrow gauges in Themiclesia, the majority built well after the 1851 law that established the standard gauge on lines longer than five miles.  Narrow gauges were permitted on lines shorter than five miles and not connected to any standard-gauge line, but also longer railways not open for public business or for which public business represented a insignificant portion of its revenues.  Likewise, they were permissible for tramways, which shared the road surfaces with non-rail vehicles.  Narrow-gauge lines were often constructed in mines, farmland, factories, and private estates, where restrictive space or budget forbade the construction of wider railways.


In forests, where gradients tend to be steep and turns sharp, the {{convert|3|ft|6|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} and {{convert|2|ft|6|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} gauges were popular and accounted for the majority of {{wp|forest railway|forest railways}}.  In the northeastern Kalami mountain range, there exists a 2 ft 6 in mountain railway.  There are also a number of "tourist rails" that carry tourists from one attraction to another, built in the early 20th century, that are typically in narrow gauge; these lines utilize separate sheds and vehicles and are not joined to the intercity railway network, and some also regularly carry passengers.  Some light rail and tramways are on a 3 ft 6 in gauge, including the system in [[Kien-k'ang]] and Tor.
In forests, where gradients tend to be steep and turns sharp, the {{convert|3|ft|6|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=4}} and {{convert|2|ft|6|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} gauges were popular and accounted for the majority of {{wp|forest railway|forest railways}}.  In the northeastern Kalami mountain range, there exists a 2 ft 6 in mountain railway.  There are also a number of "tourist rails" that carry tourists from one attraction to another, built in the early 20th century, that are typically in narrow gauge; these lines utilize separate sheds and vehicles and are not joined to the intercity railway network, and some also regularly carry passengers.  Some light rail and tramways are on a 3 ft 6 in gauge, including the system in [[Kien-k'ang]] and Tor.
Line 65: Line 503:
Railways within coal mines and quarries typically operate under even more restrictive gauges, of which {{convert|2|ft|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}, {{convert|1|ft|11+1/2|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}, and {{convert|1|ft|8|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} are attested in Themiclesia.  These gauges are also not unknown to other applications in salt mining, agriculture, and gardens.  Certain passenger railway operations, typically converted from industrial railway, also possess tracks in these gauges, though in recent years many of them have been regauged to more permissive dimensions.
Railways within coal mines and quarries typically operate under even more restrictive gauges, of which {{convert|2|ft|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}, {{convert|1|ft|11+1/2|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}, and {{convert|1|ft|8|in|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} are attested in Themiclesia.  These gauges are also not unknown to other applications in salt mining, agriculture, and gardens.  Certain passenger railway operations, typically converted from industrial railway, also possess tracks in these gauges, though in recent years many of them have been regauged to more permissive dimensions.


===Loading gauge===
===Loading gauges===
====Old gauge====
'''Old gauge'''
 
Prior to 1891, there was no standard loading gauge; the gauge on each private railway was decided by the narrowest point on its route.  However, for goods wagons, it was commonly accepted that a normal width which would pass through most lines was 9 ft.  The expansion of railways, however, encouraged proprietors to unify gauges across their entire network, so that a single wagon could run without the need to unload and reload.  The old gauge was formalized only after the new gauge (below) became standard in the 1890s and was defined by a {{convert|9|ft|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} and {{convert|12|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} envelope; while few lines were built to these restrictive dimensions, they were chosen for their universality applicability.  Many branch lines may accommodate 9 ft 6 in or even 10 ft 2 in vehicles, though deficiencies in one dimension or another required rolling stock in the old gauge to be used in these lines.  It is still seen on some branch lines currently, though periodic efforts have been made to upgrade them to the new gauge.
Prior to 1891, there was no standard loading gauge; the gauge on each private railway was decided by the narrowest point on its route.  However, for goods wagons, it was commonly accepted that a normal width which would pass through most lines was 9 ft.  The expansion of railways, however, encouraged proprietors to unify gauges across their entire network, so that a single wagon could run without the need to unload and reload.  The old gauge was formalized only after the new gauge (below) became standard in the 1890s and was defined by a {{convert|9|ft|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} and {{convert|12|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} envelope; while few lines were built to these restrictive dimensions, they were chosen for their universality applicability.  Many branch lines may accommodate 9 ft 6 in or even 10 ft 2 in vehicles, though deficiencies in one dimension or another required rolling stock in the old gauge to be used in these lines.  It is still seen on some branch lines currently, though periodic efforts have been made to upgrade them to the new gauge.


====New gauge====
'''New gauge'''
When the Central Junction Railway was built, half of which was underground, dimensions of {{convert|10|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} wide by {{convert|14|ft|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} tall were specified to accommodate as many operators' coaches as possible, some of which were in excess of {{convert|10|ft|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} wide.  This decision was meant to encourage railways to connect services through the Central Junction, which both allowed the government to collect a fee and reduced wagon traffic, a major source of complaints, in [[Kien-k'ang]].  Between 1897 and 1910, most main lines owned by both National & Maritime and Themiclesian & Northwest were converted to the new gauge.  Though generous by 1890s standards, the 7-mile tunnel under Kien-k'ang would by 1950 become the most restrictive point on the Inland Main Line, and widening them would require nothing less than rebuilding the entire tunnel and demolishing everything since built above it.  This loading gauge is called the "new gauge" (新規) and remains standard on main lines today.
 
When the Central Junction Railway was built, half of which was underground, dimensions of {{convert|10|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} wide by {{convert|14|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} tall were specified to accommodate the largest coaches then in use.  This decision was meant to encourage railways to connect services through the Central Junction, which both provided the government a fee and reduced wagon traffic in [[Kien-k'ang]], a major source of complaints.  Between 1897 and 1910, most main lines owned by both National & Maritime and Themiclesian & Northwest were converted to the new gauge, while new constructions met the then-named Central Junction gauge.  Because the continuous vaults of the underground sections are directly imprinted onto the limits of this gauge, it is also called the "tunnel gauge".
 
Though generous by 1890s standards, the 7-mile Central Junction tunnel under Kien-k'ang would by 1920 become the most restrictive point on the Inland Main Line, and widening or heightening the tunnel would entail rebuilding it and demolishing everything built above it.  Railway engineers noticed that the immovable height limit could be circumvented if traffic were diverted through the suburbs, where trains ran above ground and were subject to fewer height restrictions.  Such a practice led to the development of the over-tall gauge, which was seen on railways that passed through the sparsely-populated east.
 
'''New-new gauge'''
 
The new-new gauge is the electrified version of the new gauge and includes a modest 6-inch increase in vertical height, which enables {{wp|double-decker trains}} to have better headroom.  Restrictive height barriers were typically negotiated by lowering the track bed in the late 70s.
 
'''Over-tall gauge'''
 
The over-tall gauge originated in the 1920s after efforts were made to divert freight traffic from termini in major cities, as freight could travel more efficiently avoiding busy areas that are also more likely to have permanent structures that restrict gauge.  Benefiting from benign geography, several lines were converted to accommodate boxcars as much as {{convert|16|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} by {{convert|11|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}, whose heavier weight in turn encouraged larger and more powerful locomotives.  Some of the largest locomotives ever in service in Themiclesia were built specifically for lines in this gauge.  Some efforts were made to expand these railways for wartime requirements during the [[Pan-Septentrion War]], which saw a further 6 in added to the width of the gauge. Despite this, the over-tall gauge is not widespread in Themiclesia, and some were (effectively) converted back to new gauge in the 70s by way of electrification. 


====Over-tall gauge====
Non-electrified lines in this gauge are mainly found in the Themiclesian east, where lines are generally single-track and have few factors which impose restrictions, like bridges and tunnels; on these lines, where services are less frequent, the ability to carry more goods per train was at a premium.  After the 1970s, the excess height on the over-tall gauge permitted oversized rolling stock that catered to tourism that was booming in the east, formerly dominated by mining and forestry sectors.
The over-tall gauge originated in the 1920s after efforts were made to divert freight traffic from termini in major cities, as freight could travel more efficiently avoiding busy areas that are also more likely to have permanent structures that restrict gauge.  Benefiting from benign geography, several lines were converted to accommodate boxcars as much as {{convert|16|ft|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} by {{convert|11|ft|6|in|cm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}}, whose heavier weight in turn encouraged larger and more powerful locomotives.  Some of the largest locomotives ever in service in Themiclesia were built specifically for lines in this gauge.  Some efforts were made to expand these railways for wartime requirements during the [[Pan-Septentrion War]], which saw a further 6 in added to the width of the gauge.  Despite this, the over-tall gauge was not widespread in Themiclesia, and some were (effectively) converted back to new gauge in the 70s by way of electrification.


Non-electrified lines in this gauge are mainly found in the Themiclesian east, where lines are generally single-track and have few factors which impose restrictions, like bridges and tunnels; on these lines, where services are less frequent, the ability to carry more goods per train was at a premium.
'''Electric gauge'''


====Electric gauge====
The electric gauge was developed jointly with [[Dayashina]] for high-speed passenger service.  In the early 60s, Themiclesia proposed using its existing over-tall gauge to serve as the standard for a high-speed service, but Dayashinese engineers believed that those dimensions were too wide and not sufficiently tall to accommodate overhead catenaries that would be required to supply electricity.  The modern electric gauge was thus settled to be {{convert|14|ft|9|in|mm|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|11|ft|2|in|mm|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} wide.  This gauge is current on all high-speed electrified lines operated by National Rail under the {{wp|brand name}} [[Themiclesian High Speed Rail]].
The electric gauge was developed jointly with [[Dayashina]] for high-speed passenger service.


[[file:Themi loading gauges.fw.png|center|frame|Current loading gauges]]
[[file:Themi loading gauges.fw.png|center|frame|Current loading gauges]]
===Railway links to adjacent countries===
====Nukkumaa====
Themiclesia is connected to Nukkumaa by at four operational railways, three of which are located in the western part of the country, and one in the far east.  All four railways were built during the 19th century.  One railway connected Themiclesia to Nukkumaa, Suurlaakso, and Uusimaa, where an ocean liner to Hallia was the principal means of communication between the Hemithean and Casaterran continents, and the three other railways principally served freight transport to various parts of the Hallian Commonwealth.  However, there is a {{wp|break of gauge}} at the Nukko border because the Hallian gauge, which is used in that country, does not conform to the standard gauge.  Passengers typically {{wp|transloading|transloaded}} onto Hallian rolling stock at the city of Skengrak, 9 km south of the border with Nukkumaa.
====Dzhungestan====
The first rail link between Themiclesia and Dzhungestan was constructed between 1937 and 1939 by Menghean forces to strengthen its logistics in the Themiclesian theatre during the [[Pan-Septentrion War]].  The line was constructed using forced labour from {{wp|prisoner-of-war|prisoners-of-war}} captured in Maverica and [[Innominada]].  This railway was later controlled by Hallian forces operating out of Themiclesia and served a similar function in the subsequent invasion of Menghe via Dzhungestan, and under this administration its capacity was enlarged significantly.  At end of the war, the portion of the line within Themiclesia was ceded to that country.  This railway remains operational as a freight and passenger railway to a number of small towns in the Themiclesian desert but terminates in Sn′ênk and no longer extends into Dzhungestan.  A memorial has been erected in Sn′ênk in memory of the prisoners who died building this railway.
In the 2010s, the [[Trans-Hemithea High-Speed Railway]] was planned to link [[Dayashina]], [[Menghe]], [[Dzhungestan]], [[Themiclesia]], and [[Nukkumaa]].  This development was envisioned as an econmical alternative to air travel and freight that is faster than ocean transport between the states, which takes a less direct route.  In design it is capable of a top speed of 300 km/h.  The THHSR network is jointly operated by all parties involved and has been considered a remarkable success in political terms.  It has uniform signal systems and track and loading gauge, this being enabled by congruences between the high-speed railways of Dayashina, Menghe, and Themiclesia, and dedicated customs offices permit non-stop service between origin and destination.
====Maverica====
Themiclesia is connected to Maverica by the [[Trans-Hemithean Railway]], which opened in 1952 and connected further to Menghe.  This line was forced to close down in 1959 in view of disquiet in Maverica that eventually led to the establishment of a Communist administration in 1960.  Themiclesia removed railway infrastructure over several kilometer for fear of its utility to a hypothetical Maverican invasion.  This line was reopened tentatively for freight transport in the late 80s, though trains were unable to pass without stops at the border.
===Travelling direction===
Most Themiclesian railway lines distinguish between "hither" (各, ''karāks'') and "thither" (戉, ''mngwāts'') travelling directions, which are usually equivalent to "up" and "down" trains on some other networks.  During the era of private railroading, this terminology was usually applied relative to the locomotive's depot, such that journeys from the depot would be followed by the opposite journey back towards the depot.  After consolidation, which permitted locomotives and trains to be maintained or assembled at more than one place, this distinction evolved to reflect the place of the railroad's headquarters, where travel towards it was considered hither.  For National & Maritime, trains travelling towards [[Kien-k'ang]] were hither trains, while for Themiclesian Northwestern, those bound for Rak were hither.  Currently, trains bound for Kien-k'ang are considered hither by National Rail, while those travelling away from it are thither.
Railways which are not on the inter-city network are more idiosyncratic in their nomenclature.  Trains on forest and mine railways are often distinguished between trains into or out of the forest or mine.
==Rolling stock==
{{main|Themiclesian railway passenger stock}}
===History===
The first passenger train in Themiclesia, serving the route between Sngrak and Ped from 1836, offered only one class of service to the public—third class—but provided superior accommodations for the directors of the railway.  From the 1840s, a three-class system modelled after Casaterran railways was introduced.  Third-class coaches typically were open wagons fitted with benches, while second-class ones possessed glazed windows and upholstered seats.  Early coaches were laid out in an {{wp|open coach|open}} style, but soon {{wp|compartment coach|compartment}} coaches became the norm for all classes under Anglian influence in the 1840s.  Two-axle coaches were universal until bogie coaches, which permitted easier turning, appeared around 1852. In 1858, the ''Railways Act'' mandated that all rolling stock meant for passengers must be roofed. 
Prior to the public operator's entry in 1892, there was no statutory standard for operators to classify their rolling stock in any particular way, though out of necessity most operators eventually developed systems that were more or less harmonized with each other, to enable throug running and joint operations. At the onset of the [[Pan-Septentrion War]], all rolling stock was put on notice for commandeer and assigned a classification according to the Temporary Nomenclature issued in 1938; though so named, all Themiclesian operators continue to use it to this day.
Out of a desire for economy and interchangeability, the public operator National Rail had a policy of building standardized coaches for operation on all its lines, starting with wood-steel composite Series 2 (S2) in 1907; existing stock taken over from other operators were called S1 but are in reality not a standardized series. A standardized series usually shared the underframe and bogies and had similar external bodies, varying in internal layout. Series 3 was an improvement upon the S2 introduced in 1915. Series 4 saw the introduction of all-steel bodies in 1927 at 72', and Series 5, being a revision of S4, was made from 1930 onwards. It remained in production until 1954, when the streamlined and air-conditioned S6 entered production.
{| class="wikitable"
! Series !!style="width:4em"| 2 !!style="width:4em"| 3 !!style="width:4em"| 4 !!style="width:4em"| 5 !!style="width:4em"| 5.1 !!style="width:4em"| 5.2 !!style="width:4em"| 6 !!style="width:4em"| 6MU !!style="width:4em"| 6.1 !!style="width:4em"| 6.2 !!style="width:4em"| 7MU !!style="width:4em"| 8 !!style="width:4em"| 8MU !!style="width:4em"| 9 !!style="width:4em"| 9MU
|- style="text-align: center"
! Introduced
| 1901 || 1915 || 1927 || 1930 || 1936 || 1946 || 1954 || 1961 || 1963 || 1975 || 1977 || 1987 || 1992 || 2007 || 2015
|-  style="text-align: center"
! Underframe
| '''54' || '''65' ||colspan="4"| '''72' ||colspan="9| '''84'
|-
!
|- style="background-color: lightblue; text-align: center" 
! style="color: black;"| TP
| 100 || 120 || 140 || 140 || 140 || 140 || 140 || 140 || 120 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|-
!
|- style="background-color: DarkSeaGreen;text-align: center" 
!style="color: black;"|  TPN
| 90 || 100 || 100 || 100 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|- style="background-color: DarkSeaGreen; color: IndianRed;text-align: center"
!style="color: black;"| TPA
| {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 100 || 100 || 84 || 84 || 84 || 84
|-
!
|- style="background-color: BurlyWood;text-align: center" 
! SP
| 40 || 48 || 48 || 48 || {{n/a}} || 48 || 56 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|- style="background-color: BurlyWood; color: IndianRed;text-align: center" 
!style="color: black;"| SPR
| {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 44 || {{n/a}} || 44 || 52 || 52 || 52 || 52 || 52 || 52 || 52 || 52 || 52
|- style="background-color: lightsalmon;text-align: center" 
! SPC
| {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 39 || {{n/a}} || 42 || {{n/a}} || 42
|-
!
|- style="text-align: center"
! FS
| F8 + 24 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|- style="text-align: center"
! DSB
|  || 36 ||  ||  || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 40 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|-
!
|- style="background-color: indianred;text-align: center" 
! F
| 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|- style="background-color: indianred;text-align: center" 
! FP
| 24 || 20 || 20 || 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|- style="background-color: indianred;text-align: center" 
!  D
| 16 || 24 || 24 || 24 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 24 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 24 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|- style="background-color: indianred;text-align: center" 
! DB
| 16 || 24 || 24 || 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}}
|- style="background-color: indianred;text-align: center" 
! FDB
| {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 20 || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || {{n/a}} || 22 || {{n/a}}
|}
===First===
*'''First''' ('''F''') first appeared on Themiclesian railways in 1839. F coaches are usually in the compartment style, without a connecting corridor.
*'''First Open''' ('''FP''') appeared in 1856 along with long-distance, through-running express services. An open design allowed sharing of lavatories and an on-board dining carriage, obviating the need for prolonged stops for lavatories or meals. Internal layouts vary but usually had bays containing two opposing rows of seats, with a central or side corridor. There were generally two or three seats in an each row in FO stock.
*'''Drawing Room''' ('''D''') was introduced in 1875 as an alternative layout to the typical FO design at that time. Rather than rows of opposing seats, D coaches had rotating seats in an open, unobstructed layout.
**'''Drawing Room with Observation Platform''' ('''DB''') was first used as a separate designation for a coach that had a specialized open platform at one end, meant to be at the end of the entire train and to allow passengers to have an unobstructed rear view. As carriages by default came to be built with vestibules in the 1880s, this style can be regarded as an evolution of the D body. It appeared on scenic routes starting from 1900.
**'''First with Drawing Room and Observation Platform''' ('''FDB'''), a further evolution, was operated by National Rail as a composite of the older FO layout and the more popular D layout, one being present on each end of the coach. Initially, passengers were allowed to specify in which section they wished to sit, but in 1901 the Drawing Room seats were no longer separate sold, being instead regarded as a secondary area for first class passengers to utilize. FDP was used as the final coach on some Reserved Trains during the pre-PSW era.
*'''First Sleeper''' ('''FS''') appeared in 1871, providing a row of private bedrooms, for single or double occupancy, opening onto a shared corridor down one side of the coach. The number of rooms varied according to operator and coach length. In 1883 in-room toilets were provided and by 1890 was an expected feature on sleeper coaches labelled as first class. These are some of the most expensive tickets available on Themiclesian railways even today.
===First/Second===
*'''First Second Open''' ('''FSP'''), a composite coach used on trains where expected passenger volumes would not justify a complete first class carriage. The coach was divided into a first-class half and second-class half.
*'''First Second Dining''' ('''FSD'''), a composite coach used on long-distance trains which has separate sections for first and second class ticket holders.
===Second===
*'''Second''' ('''S'''), denoting a second-class coach in the compartment style. During the pre-regulation era, coach designs varied considerably in the Second range, with some railways using Second to denote what is a Third on other railways.
*'''Second Open''' ('''SP'''), denoting a second-class coach in the open style, with a central corridor separating seats. For 72' and 84' mainline coaches, there were typically 6 and 8 bays, each sitting 8, providing 48 or 56 seats straddling a central corridor.
*'''Second Open AC''' ('''SPK''') denoting second-class coach in open style, but with air conditioning. Introduced in 1957 on 84' coaches
*'''Second Recliner''' ('''SR''') was experimentally introduced in 1932, utilizing recliners that could be alternately used as a normal chair during day and as a makeshift bed at night. The design purported to be a more comfortable alternative to normal seats on overnight trains, commonly attached to serve passengers who would not pay for a sleeper. To allow the chair to recline, all rows face the same direction, and at least post-PSW the chairs could be turned to turn to face the travelling direction. Revived in the Pan-Septentrion War as a workaround for railroad directors and employees against the ban on sleeper coaches.  At 72' capacity was 11 rows, and at 84', 13 rows, of 4 seats, for a total of 44 or 52. Post-war, the SR style gained favour over the SP style, eventually becoming the dominant standard second class layout on EMU trainsets.
*'''Second Dining''' ('''SD'''), used on trains where there was no first class service.
===Third===
*'''Third''' ('''T'''), denoting a third-class coach. T coaches had no standardized design prior to the Railways Act of 1864, and many were not different from goods wagons outfitted with side benches. After the Act, T coaches were generally also built as compartment coaches to a specified minimum compartment size of 4'-8".
*'''Third Open''' ('''TP''') denoting a third-class coach in open style. Capacity varied considerably between stock but was standardized at 100 seats in 10 bays of 10 seats each.
**'''Third Open Express''' ('''TPX''') introduced in 1930 by National Rail, which started running an all-third monoclass Limited Express service. Due to the added costs of operating a service at Limited Express standards, capacity was maximized in TPX stock. At 72' length, each TPX coach accommodated 120 passengers, in 12 bays of 10 seats each; a central corridor divided each bay asymmetrically into 3-seat and 2-seat sides. For S/5.1 at 84', capacity peaked at 140 passengers, but in S/6 it was reduced to 120.
**'''Third Recliner''' ('''TPR''') introduced in 1960 as an alternative to the TPX series. These usually sat 96 passengers in chairs that provided only a moderate degree of recline.
==Ticketing and concessions==
===Single and return tickets===
#Single ticket (單程客票): valid for one journey from the origin to destination, in the designated service type and class, marked on the ticket.
#Return ticket (來回程客票): valid for two journeys from the origin to destination, in the designated service type and class, marked on the ticket and then back.
#Class-joint ticket (異等客票): like a single ticket, but where a change of class of travel happens at a specific point marked on the ticket.
#Service-joint ticket (異次客票): like a single ticket, but a chagne of service type happens at a specific point marked on the ticket.
#Return class-joint ticket (來回程異等客票): like a class-joint ticket, except good for a return trip.
#Return service-joint ticket (來回程異次客票): like a service-joint ticket, except good for a return trip.
The list of tickets above dates from a time when National Rail relied primarily on pre-printed {{wp|Edmondson tickets}}. A station would only stock tickets with the station itself as the origin. A ticket returning from the destination to the origin would thus not be stocked at the origin station, even though a traveller may wish to purchase a return ticket at the same time as the departing ticket, thus necessitating the printing of return tickets that combined both legs. Since return journeys were sold at 20% off (providing a blended discount of 10%), combining both legs on one physical ticket was also more convenient for the railway's accounting.
Joint tickets are usually used on journeys that require detraining from one service and then boarding a different service because no through service exists. A class-joint ticket combines two legs that occur on different classes of travel, e.g. First Class from Tlang-qrum to Rak and then Third Class from Rak to Ter. A service-joint ticket combines two legs that occur on different types of trains, e.g. Express service from Tlang-qrum to Rak and then Ordinary from Rak to Ter. Similarly, it is also possible to purchase a return ticket for joint tickets.
===Children's tickets===
Each of the varieties above may be issued with a child discount, which is 50% off for children aged 6 through 12 and 25% off aged 13 through 18. Children under the age of 6 travel without a ticket but must be accompanied by an adult or older child with a ticket.
Until 1950, it was not possible to purchase a return ticket for a child on the grounds that a return ticket carries a discount, which under National Rail's policy until 1977 cannot be compounded with each other. Yet in 1948 the issue was raised that barring a child from purchasing and benefiting from a return ticket was effectively discrimination against the child on account of age.  Thus from March 2, 1950, it is possible to purchase a return ticket for a child and compound their discounts.
In 1997, National Rail renamed the 25% off ticket for children aged 13 through 18 as a "youth ticket" instead of "child ticket", disambiguating the 25% off ticket from the 50%.
===Vouchers===
Vouchers (繫, ''kiks'') are issued by National Rail to support the non-recurring transport needs generated by the government, most prominently under conscription from 1961 through 1982.
To permit troops to make official travel or take advantage of leave to visit family or other cities, National Rail was required by government policy to issue vouchers to various military bases and ports, whose quartermasters granted the vouchers to troops on an as-needed basis. The voucher officially requires the issuing officer to sign for the origin and destination (i.e. the voucher is good for a trip authorized by the issuing authority), but soon after its introduction the requirement was dropped in practice, with vouchers being signed ''carte blanche'' without a specified origin and destination. Troops contested for vouchers because National Rail never issued enough to satisfy demand, while commanders often used them as prizes.
Jockeying for vouchers was a part of the military culture of Themiclesian forces, by servicepeople eager to go home or travel on limited stipends and leave. Since National Rail issued vouchers at unpredictable times and in fluctuating quantities, and because quartermasters usually play favourites with the vouchers, the ability to procure a voucher when needed was called the "voucher voodoo".
Similarly, National Rail issues vouchers to support the movement of reservists from their residence to the reservist training area, which can be distant depending on the exact arrangement. Vouchers of this kind are also issued for other gatherings that enjoy government patronage like some scouting activities, where scouts are encouraged to travel alone to enhance their experiences.
Vouchers of this kind are always specified for class of travel, which is on unreserved Third Class for the most part. Occasionally, National Rail issues reserved Recliner vouchers, which were uncommon and highly desirable even amongst officers. While an officer could afford to travel Recliner on their salary, having a Recliner voucher was a sign of access; thus, whenever National Rail issued Recliner vouchers to a military base, the officers there would especially pressure the quartermaster for them, sometimes even directing subordinates to assist the quartermaster in exchange for a Recliner voucher.
Some veterans of the [[Consolidated Army]] recount that there was widespread speculation if First Class vouchers existed, and if so, what level of commander could obtain them. National Rail addressed this suspicion in 1977 (amidst an innundation of inquiries from servicepeople) and revealed that First Class vouchers did exist, but they were only issued in limited quantities to the Board of Trade and Foreign Office, who distributed them either to senior staff or to minor diplomats and trade representatives along with invitation letters. National Rail also revealed that the Ministry of Defence has never requested for First Class vouchers owing to an austerity policy.
The voucher comes from a serialized booklet of 10 vouchers, and vouchers are ripped off when filled. Each booklet came with a piece of carbon paper since each a voucher had a stub for accounting. When the booklet is used up, the quartermaster sends the booklet with stubs remaining back to National Rail. If they fail to do so with stubs intact and signed, they incur for their unit a fine equal to the maximum value the booklet can have at market. Since there are some very long routes in Themiclesia, this fine is considerable and will usually result in financial penalties for the quartermaster.
===Passes===
====Commuter====
National Rail issues commuter passes in 1-, 2-, 3-, and 6-month durations. Each duration corresponds with a 5%, 7.5%, 12.5%, and 25% discount.
====Student====
Primary school children who rely on National Rail services to commute to and from their schools are entitled to an annual or semiannual pass priced at 5% of a 6-month commuter pass. Since this pass grants a 25% discount off single tickets, a primary student pass effectively results in a 96.25% discount. This deeply discounted fare is intended to allow even the most indigent rural families to send their children to school. However, given that primary schools are usually within close distance to their homes, this pass is also restricted to a commute of at most 25 miles.
Secondary school students are entitled to a lesser discount of 10% of a 6-month commuter pass, resulting in a net discount of 92.5%, but because secondary schools may be located further away (e.g. specialized schools), the commute is up to 75 miles. Students at vocational schools, which provide income to the student,  are not entitled to the same benefit: students here must use a 75% discount pass. Tertiary school students are not given special discounts in general, but some universities negotiate with National Rail to issue concessionary passes to students who endure particularly expensive commutes or would otherwise suffer undue hardship.
One of the main conditions on National Rail's charter as the sole operator of railways is the provision deeply discounted tickets for students commuting to and from their schools, and it is also part of the updated Social Responsibility mandate that the operator has announced.
====Official====
Railway was designated as the means of official travel for civil and military officials at least since the era of public regulation of railways, and a common means before then. To support such travel, National Rail is required to issue tickets to public servants travelling for public business. In principle, the traveller cannot select the type of ticket, which is issued based on the urgency of the journey and the official's rank.
For officials who travel frequently, a Long-term Official Travel Pass (永年公服乘用券) issued by National Rail allows them to obtain tickets at the counter free of charge, though the Pass is not a valid ticket ''per se''. It details the traveller's name, likeness, position, and type of ticket entitled.  The official's department needs to apply for the pass on the official's behalf, providing a valid reason why the public interest is better served by having a Pass rather than claiming the expense from the official's own department each journey.  With a valid pass, the economic cost of the tickets issued under it are accrued to National Rail.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Long-term Official Travel Pass
|-
! Pass type !! Ticket claimable !! Issued to
|-
| First Class || First Class seat on all day trains, single bedroom on night trains ||
Civil servants above Under Secretary<br>Military & naval officers above lieutenant general or vice admiral 
|-
| Second Class Recliner || Recliner seats  ||
|-
| Couchette || Couchette bunk on late night trains
|-
| Express || Third Class seating on day express train (unreserved)
|-
| General || Third Class seating on stopping train (unreserved)
|}
National Rail restricts each department to a certain number of Official Travel Passes in the interest of abuse prevention, which often causes consternation (particularly in the armed forces) over their distribution.
===Defence services===
Under Themiclesia's general conscription starting in 1961, National Rail inaugurated special "Defence services" (戍職客車) and "Defence Limited Express" (戍職特快) services for defence servicepeople and other authorized passengers. Normal defence charter trains provide service between military bases and major cities, with the intention that servicepeople can enjoy a discounted fare for a large leg of their journey before they transfer to an ordinary service. The limited express variety run between major cities and serve primarily officers who need to travel for official purposes to other cities.
Servicepeople who take these special trains can apply their regimental discounts towrds a discounted tariff, resulting in a lower fare than otherwise obtained by their regimental discounts only; a normal Defence Train was tariffed at only 60% Third Class fare, and assuming a 5% regimental discount, a serviceperson taking this service would pay only 57% of normal fare. Other passengers whose journeys are deemed to be of a defence-related purpose may also enjoy the discounted tariff on the defence services, including Themiclesia's {{wp|scounting}} organizations, staff at defence hospitals, cadets at junior {{wp|non-commissioned officer}} schools, reservists travelling to and from their training sessions, etc.
Defence trains do not provide reserved seating, which causes overcrowding where there is a concentration of benefit-holders travelling to a common destination. Urban reservist units were sometimes mustered by their quartermasters at stations before boarding the train to the training location, resulting in an entire unit boarding a train and conflicting with passengers already in it.  Due to school scheduling, defence services are also sometimes used by students leaving school in large groups. A frequent point of contention was whether a reservist's rucksack was entitled to a seat on an unreserved service, since inadequate baggage vans often left reservists travelling with their rucksacks as carry.
Non-servicepeople can also take defence trains, but they cannot enjoy the discounted base tariff available to servicepeople. Most travellers however avoid these trains because the coaches tend to be in a poor state of repair. Additionally, there is a persistent issue where servicepeople are unfriendly to non-servicepeople who take defence charters, even though the Ministry of Defence has announced stiff penalties for such "poor behaviour".
===Ticket medium===
*A pre-printed {{wp|Edmondson ticket}} was the primary medium for a railway ticket until the 1980s and can still be found at certain stations today. The ticket itself is a cardboard measuring about 57 × 30 mm sandwiched between two specialized paper surfaces that react to UV light as an anti-forgery measure. These tickets bear the name of the operator, the type and class of service, and the origin and destination on the obverse; a serial number, seat reservation information (if needed), and time of departure are on the reverse.
*1st generation computer tickets were experimentally introduced at a few major stations as early as 1970 and were printed on Edmondson ticket blanks by a daisy-wheel impact printer with the same information as a pre-printed Edondson ticket. Due to mechanical limitations these tickets had left-aligned text as opposed to the largely centre text on pre-printed texts.
==Subways and light rail transit==
==Inter-city network==
[[file:Themi intercity rr.fw.png|thumb|600px|The inter-city network of National Rail]]
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan="2"| Line !!rowspan="2"| Hither end !!rowspan="2"| Thither end !! colspan="2"| Length !! rowspan="2"| Electrified !! rowspan="2"| Cities served en route
|-
! Metric (km) !! Imperial
|-
| Inland Main Line || Tsin || Rak || 406.3 || 251 mi 73 ch || {{yes}} || Sin
|-
| Central Line || Tsin || Tenibh || 797.1 || 494 mi 27 ch || {{no}} || Lrêng, Ploi, Sn′i
|-
| Northwest Main Line || Tsin || T′ub || 526.7 || 326 mi 45 ch ||  {{yes}} || Kengrakw, Mgraq
|-
| Skngrak Line || Tsin || Skngrak || 833.6 || 516 mi 77 ch || {{Yes|From Ped}} || Mgraq, Ped, L′in
|-
| Coastal Main Line || Tsin || Skngrak || 1109.8 || 688 mi 2 ch || {{no}} || Ngang, R′ad, Dzep
|-
| West Main Line || Rim || De || 784.8 || 486 mi 42 ch ||  {{yes|To Ped}} || Tor, Ngang, Ped, De
|-
| Tor Line || Tsin || Tor || 235.6 || 146 mi 10 ch ||  {{no}} ||
|-
| Prjin Main Line || Tsin || Qe-pa || 702.9 || 435 mi 70 ch || {{yes|To Qe-pa}} ||  Rim, Te, Qe-pa
|-
| Eastern Line || Nek || Rak || 503.2 || 312 mi  ||  {{no}} ||K′an
|-
| P′an Line || Tsin || P′an || 1423.6 || 882 mi 55 ch ||  {{no}} ||
|-
| Southeast Line || Rim || Stseng || 808.9 || 501 mi 43 ch ||  {{no}} ||Stui, Nek
|-
| South Loop || Tsin || Nedrings || 514.6 || 319 mi 12 ch ||  {{no}} ||Nek, Gob-kri
|-
| South Main Line || Tsin || Ngwang-tu || 362.0 || 224 mi 35 ch || {{yes}} ||  Stui
|-
| North Transverse Line || Rak || Skngrak || 692.5 || 429 mi 21 ch || {{yes}} ||  Sn′i, T′ub, L′in
|-
| T′ub Line || Rak || De || 434.6 || 269 mi 45 ch ||  {{no}} ||Sn′i, Rap, T′ub
|-
| Central Transverse Line || Rak || Ngang || 449.9 || 278 mi 79 ch || {{yes}} || Ploi, Mgraq
|-
| Qong Main Line || Rak || Qong || 218.8 || 135 mi 47 ch ||  {{yes}} ||
|-
| Tenibh Line || Rak || Skngrak || 693.2 || 429 mi 69 ch ||  {{no}} ||Tenibh, Pê
|-
| Riparian Line || Rak || Kengrakw || 278.0 || 172 mi 30 ch || {{no}} || Lrêng
|-
| Sin Line || Sin || Lreng || 102.1 || 63 mi 26 ch ||  {{yes}} ||
|-
| Kengrakw Line || Kengrakw || Ploi || 113.6 || 70 mi 33 ch ||  {{yes}} ||
|-
| West Isthmus Line || Qe-pa || Sam || 494.4 || 306 mi 39 ch ||  {{no}} ||
|-
| East Isthmus Line || Te || Belong || 307.3 || 190 mi 47 ch ||  {{no}} ||
|-
| L′in Main Line || Rim || Mek || 793.5 || 491 mi 77 ch ||  {{no}} || Loi, Ngang, Tats, Ped, Hrip, De, Pê
|-
| Prabay Line || Qong || Prabay || 773.5 || 479 mi 45 ch ||  {{no}} ||
|-
| Great Eastern Line || Rak || Sakarna || 2235.8 || 1386 mi 17 ch || {{yes|To ′An}} ||  ′An
|-
| Great Northern Line || Qong || Tiba || 2336.5 || 1448 mi 43 ch ||  {{no}} ||′An, Apollonia
|-
| Ka-ra Line || Apollonia || Ka-ra || 303.9 || 188 mi 31 ch ||  {{no}} ||
|-
| Southwest Line || Tsin || Nedrings || 281.8 || 174 mi 51 ch ||  {{no}} ||Prit
|-
| [[Trans-Hemithean Railway]] || Rim || Doi || 341.1 || 211 mi 44 ch ||  {{no}} ||Nedrings, Ngwang-tu
|-
! Total || || || 19518.6 || 12102 mi ||
|}
==In Themiclesian culture==


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Themiclesia]]
*[[Themiclesia]]
 
*[[Twa-ts'uk-men Station]]
[[Category:Septentrion]][[Category:Themiclesia]]
[[Category:Septentrion]][[Category:Themiclesia]]

Latest revision as of 08:41, 25 July 2024

Rail transport in Themiclesia originated in 1829 for shipping coal and now encompasses a large network of railways serving both passengers and freight. Inter-city railways grew with government support from 1853 and accompanied the Industrial Revolution to support long-distance commerce and modernizing manufacturing needs; these inter-city railways were bought by the government between 1892 and 1898 to prevent the laying of redundant railways, but private companies continued to operate trains on nationalized railways and branch lines. Improved revenues were taxed by the government to support expansion and maintenance of infrastructure. Urban railways and trams appeared the late 19th century. More recently, branch lines have seen development, and a high speed rail with speeds up to 300 km/h was introduced in 1967.

Despite a decline in ridership in the 1960s, the railway continues to be a principal means of both urban, suburban, and inter-city travel in Themiclesia. Inter-city transport is mainly offered by National Railway, a joint venture of public and private investment, but excursion trains are regularly operated by private companies. The railway accounts for nearly half of all inter-city freight by weight, but less by value as it is better suited to bulk goods in loose or containerized format.

History

Mining railways

The first railway in Themiclesia was laid down in 1831 by Asikainen, a Hallian company oeprating a coal mine in Prets. The company had relied on draft animals and barges to ship its products into the Meh but found a more profitable mine away some 16 km from the river, which a railway covered. The line was operated with a single locomotive, the Kaveli. The introduction of the railway made Asikainen more profitable than others relying on draft animals, and by 1840 no fewer than eight mining operations utilized railways in the Themiclesian north, where mining rights have been leased to Hallia through the Treaty of Kien-k'ang of 1796.

In 1844, a railway from Prets to Gra was opened, which allowed Hallian merchants to undercut coal from Themiclesian mines, transported by draft animals. This coal was not tariffed as it was not technically imported, but it became a political crisis at the lobby of Themiclesian coal mines and merchants, who argued that the Hallian miners were outselling domestic miners. In 1844, the government responded by awarding land to Themiclesian mines that they might lay their own lines, and a testing railway was laid down between the market town of Ngek and Kien-k'ang in 1845, spanning 65 km.

1845 – 1870

A royal commission was issued at the same time to study the effects of railways on foreign states, with the conclusion that an efficient transport system allowed more goods to be marketed domestically and would be an incentive to investment in businesses. The government also saw value in a railway system as a component of defence logistics, as troops could be moved around the country more rapidly and without requisitioning goods from the towns they passed through. As a result of the initially-good results of test railway and of the recommendations of the royal commission, the building of railways became the Ra-lang government's policy. New railways were constructed with government grants in land and backed by high-interest bonds sold to the government. In 1847, the first inter-city railway over 300 km opened between Kien-k'ang and Twar, hoping to compete with river transport and to open a passenger service, bringing individuals arriving by boat to the capital city.

In 1854 and 1855, both Menghe and Dayashina agreed to open trade with foreign states, causing the trinity of Themiclesian exports—porcelains, tea, and silks—to face competition and triggering the Depression of 1857, which rippled to railway bonds as the first railways struggled to generate revenue to cover interest. Facing dwindling customs revenue, the Ra-lang government diverted its money to stimulate other industries and could not continue to support the building of railways. By 1861, Themiclesian industry regained its footing, and new railways were built to transport grain from docks to the cities that experienced population boom. Manufacturing businesses began to rely more on railways to source materials from the countryside. A second, largely privately-funded drive to build railways in the 1870s thus occurred.

The 1850 – 60s also saw the first regulations appear over travelling conditions and amenities. In 1853, it had been decreed that railways shall not carry passengers in "vehicles not made for the transport of mankind", to prohibit mining railways from carrying them in coal wagons or on carriage roofs, but the law was passed mostly on the strength of public outcry arising from a terrible accident in 1852. This requirement was made operative in 1857 by requiring each operator to inspect the structural soundness of its coaching stock annually. In 1865, third-class passengers obtained rights to seats, a roof above the compartment, and openings for lighting and ventilation, but this did not require glazing, a hole in the carriage wall being judged sufficient. In 1864, the Railways Act required railways to charge no more than 1 grain per Imperial mile travelled. Though facilitating urbanization, fare restrictions also discouraged railways from offering improved coaches in third class.

Revenues on early railways were chiefly generated from freight, so passenger trains were not then prioritized. Yet in the 1850s, travel by railway gained in popularity against private coach as the more comfortable and punctual option, and operators increasingly used passenger services to generate revenues, evidenced by booming variety in railway coach design and manufacture. In 1859, the first express passenger service appeared, connecting Kien-k'ang, Sin, Rak, and Qwang; the train took 16 hours to cover the 402 miles between the cities.

1871 – 1890

The only railways that received government funding between 1871 and 1892 were ones connecting mining towns in the northeast to the Themiclesian heartland, as distances were too long for private investment to cover; additionally, the government welcomed the establishment of homes and businesses in the distant countryside, as it was seen to ward away territorial claims by other powers. Under these auspices, the Great Northeastern Railway was completed in 1884, extending over 2,200 km to reach ′An from Rak. In these, the government took an interest in tariffing goods shipped but did not interfere with their operations.

In terms of railway operators, the operator and coachbuilder Lower Themiclesia Railroad (LTRR) achieved renown for its sleeper coaches that debuted in 1866, and these dominated the long-distance market owing to long running times on routes hastily laid and of poor geometry. LTRR also accrued considerable profit from exporting its exquisitely-appointed rolling stock, nicknamed "palace cars" on foreign railways; to accomplish this, it employed skilled artisans, some from manufacturers of porcelains and luxury fabrics. Though these exports were successful, it soon sparked competition, most notably in Tír Glas and adjoining states, and the domestic market remained its main source of revenue.

Between 1871 and 1890, much effort was made to accelerate passenger trains as operators realized that express fares were far more profitable than those stipulated for parliamentary trains. In consequence of this effort, passenger services began to diversify in terms of rolling stock, scheduling, and associated services like seat reservations. While sleeper services had boomed in the 1870s, day expresses started to challenge sleepers in the 1880s on some routes that formerly must be served by sleepers in premium services, owing to running times. The service from Kien-k'ang to Qwang, taking 16 hours in 1863, was shortened to 10:40 by 1880, making a daytime express service practical. Such changes were enabled by consistent improvements in lines, engines, and schedules.

In 1877, the first reserved service (對號), where all passengers were guaranteed a reserved and assigned seat, was operated. This was only practical on trains with limited calls, as the reservation process required maintenance of a seating record (one ledger representing the seating situation between each stops), to ensure a specific seat was always available. The practice of seat reservation was carried over from sleeper services (where each bed was sold only once per journey), but when applied to day trains, seat assignment was co-ordinated by telegraph between stations such that a single seat could be used more than once per journey; the process was labour intensive and sold for a hefty premium as an element of prestige.

In 1885, the first limited service (特快, literally "singularly express") appeared, the term "limited" indicating a schedule that brooked no yields or delays for any other train whatsoever. The limited service was alloted the highest priority on the line, and the engine and entire rolling stock were customized to maximize speed and minimize water and coal stops. Given that a limited service must have a restricted number of stops, they were similarly amenable to seat reservations, and indeed in practice seats on limited services were always sold as reserved seats. Advertisements appealed to a strong sense of prestige in travelling with a reserved seat, on a service that ranked above other trains on the same route, and with the best engines and rolling stock available. It was the general practice of the 1880s through 1900s that limited trains consisted of only first and second class coaches—third class coaches were not used on limited services.

Pre-war regulation

By 1890, revenue mileage of main and branch lines in Themiclesia reached 9,520 km. Railroad was yet an unregulated business, as it was assumed the demand would guide the efficient building of lines. On the freight side, the laying down of parallel railways and price cutting competition cut railway profits to razor-thin margins and occasioned scandalous bankruptcies at the close of the 19th century, prompting the government regulate the building of lines, though leaving passenger services, which had higher margins (though not necessarily more profits in toto) than freight, mostly untouched. The newly-inaugurated National Railway Company began its own passenger operations in 1893 using coaching stock inherited from the operators it absorbed. Under a late 1890s economic downturn, many railways folded and either merged or were sold to National Rail, which emerged as the largest Themiclesian railway by 1900.

National Rail's early coaching stock was inherited from absorbed railroads and thus a motley of coaches with no standard design. While Themiclesian railway laws assumed a three-class structure, actual regulations had hitherto provided only the minimum standard for Third coaches, leaving others entirely up to the private railways. Thus, non-Third coaches differed drastically between railroads, while Third coaches were often built to the absolute minimum standard. Seeking to utilize this heterogeneous fleet across its entire network, National Rail reassigned coaches to make each class consistent. The best coaches (including saloons, parlours, drawing rooms) were retained as First. Some inherited First coaches did not meeting National Rail's new standards and were relabelled Second. Padding was present on some newer Third coaches, while the majority had bare wooden seats; as it would be unfair to charge the same fare for both types, National Rail called the padded ones "New Class", giving rise to the four-class structure of First, Second, New, and Third Class.

In terms of passenger services, the process of consolidation eventually brought a standardized set of passenger service rules to most operators, at least on the main lines. In 1895, it was generally the case that on each line there could only be one limited service running at any given time, to satisfy the "top priority" component. If there were two, either they were day and night services (the "sleeper limited") respectively or one was a temporary/charter service. After 1900, railways sometimes ran two or more limited services that had no possible scheduling conflicts and gave them separate names (the "Coastal Reserved" and "Star Reserved" under numbers 3/4 and 15/16 are examples of two limited services on the same route). On timetables, these names trains were noted as "the name reserved", e.g. the Coastal Reserved (海對號). By the 1920s, main lines saw several limited services per day.

In 1907, National Rail presented drawings for its own coaches to Parliament, utilizing more steel components for added safety as well as thoroughly eliminating compartment coaches. Because the rate for Third Class was statutorily fixed, National Rail retained the New Class as an offering for which it could charge willing passengers a little more than Third for a padded seat, hoping that the surcharge could act as a buffer source of revenue in case Parliament fails to adjust fares for Third while costs rise (this happened to be quite accurate). The long-term plan, however, was that unpadded Third coaches should be retired in favour of padded ones, though this would not actually occur until 1946. Its first series of standardized coaches entered service in 1910 and still used the somewhat haphazard four-class system rather than the three-class system that the nomenclature suggests.

Calls for the inclusion of Third class on limited trains reached and convinced Parliament to study the option. However, lower profit margins and the large quantity of expected III passengers, which would make seat reservations very taxing, left operators hesitent to operate III limited services. It was feared that including III coaches would alienate those paying for a more exclusive mode of travel. Nevertheless, to respond to parliamentary views, National Rail operated from 1931 the very plainly named "Limited Express" with only III coaches but using the same engines and similar schedules; reserved seating was not provided, making overcrowding likely. The service was a financial success, many willing to risk a standing journey that was at least shorter—compared to a standing journey on a stopping train that could run easily for twice as long.

Further series of standardized coaches were introduced in 1921, 1927, and 1930. Series 4 coaches, manufactured in limited quantities in 1927, were the first to have all-steel bodies with a length of 72'; a redesigned underframe launched in 1930 was numbered series 5, which remains the longest-lasting series in the history of National Rail thus far (production continued until 1953). Increased weight of coaches in turn encouraged National Rail's engineering departments to supply more powerful engines. In 1931, mechanical air conditioning was introduced and soon spread to all First class coaches. This was achieved with electricity generated from a dynamo attached to the coach's spinning axles. 1933 is often described as the peak year for railways in Themiclesia, as it captured 94% of passenger and 90% of freign traffic over 50 miles.

Wartime

After general mobilization in response to invasion, the intercity network was nationalized in 1937, making National Rail the sole operator in the interest of efficiency and centralized planning. Rolling stock were regularly commandeered by the government to support freight and troop movements. Under the War Measures Act, National Rail suspended I coaches (mostly FS, D, and FDB coaches) from regular service, citing concerns for the railway's efficiency, and also limited II coaches mostly to official uses. Limited and express services were suspended as they required freight trains to yield. The public operator retrofitted some premium coaches as III coaches to support troop transportation. Otherwise, National Rail took to removing the toilets and luggage racks to install even more seats. These "defence coaches" were often reviled as a "fourth class" of coaches, being even less furnished than conventional III coaches. Sleeper trains were suspended, since room and section sleepers (with capacity 12 and 32 respectively) were deemed too wasteful of schedule time and pulling power.

During the war, the railway networks of both operators suffered considerable damage, some self-imposed. National Rail was granted a new Parliamentary charter and was required to re-invest a portion of proceeds into maintenance, employee welfare, and fare reductions before dividends could be paid to shareholders; to stimulate investment, the government reimbursed dividends paid to it as the major shareholder for the first 40 years of its operation. To compensate for damages to its infrastructure, the armed forces were ordered to restore all tracks and related infrastructure that are self-damaged and transfer all spurs and branches they constructed for war purposes to National Rail by Jan. 1, 1949.

National Rail re-introduced the Recliner coach in 1940 as a workaround for its directors and employees, who lost the ability to use sleeper coaches as they were suspended during the war. The Recliner had debuted in 1932 as a more economical alternative to the open section sleeper but was withdrawn in 1935. The coach was permissible as it technically met the description of a sitting coach even though its seats could recline to 165°, forming an almost-flat bed. With a 2+2 seating pattern, the Recliner coach could sit 44 people, more than the open section sleeper and nearly as much as a normal II coach which was acceptable under war economy. National Rail let out bedding for these coaches. Eventually, civil servants and military officers on public business necessitating overnight travel also received permission to use the Recliners―the army's regiments each received a fixed monthly quota of Recliner tickets during the late stage of the war (typically 2), which were extremely hotly contested by officers and troops on furlough.

Postwar

During the early phase of the post-war reconstruction period, the authorities minimized express services, to prioritize trains carrying reconstruction materials; manual seat reservation, labour intensive, likewise remained suspended. Expresses reappeared between 1946 and 1948, but named trains operated with II coaches only, as the railroad prioritized density in passenger services. But on 1 January 1949, the 1/2 Northern was restored to its pre-war I/II consist, and other reserved trains followed suit between 1949 – 50. Objections were heard against this development at a time when rationing was not yet lifted on food and other critical resources and amidst reports that I coaches were mostly used by non-paying ministers and officials.

After the ban on sleepers lifted in 1947, National Rail repurposed the Recliner coach, originally an austere alternative to a sleeper on overnight services, for day service rakes. Recliners also appear to have been intended to relieve the ban on I coaches on named trains, in view of some of the ageing II stock. Recliners becoming well-received, the railroad extended them to other express services. With its airline-style layout and reclinable seats, was to have an extensive impact and gradually replaced older bay-style seating, which had non-reclinable, opposing seats.

1947 to electrification

Classes of travel by journey, March 1950

  First (0.03%)
  Second (recliner) (1.66%)
  Second (2.3%)
  Third (new) (22.37%)
  Third (38.6%)
  Third (pass or public account) (35.4%)

Classes of travel by journey, March 1960

  First (0.28%)
  Second (recliner) (6.77%)
  Second (2.1%)
  Third (58.45%)
  Third (pass or public account) (32.4%)

In the last years of the 1940s, National Rail's Mid-century Modernization Plan (MCMP) included the replacement of Steam adhesion on all lines over 17 years, with a mixture of diesel and electric adhesion, which is agreed to reduce costs and running times. Lines with geometry that could suppert electrified speeds were earmarked for electrification, while some lines with heavy demand but poor geometry would be replaced or relieved by secondary lines (some of which would later develop into high speed rail with co-operation with Dayashina). Other lines and most branches were slated to be dieselized.

Aside from the question of locomotive power and speed, the MCMP also included visions for improved passenger service: all long distance travel should be by express train and with reserved seats, whereas in 1950 some 75% of Themiclesians still travelled by unreserved stopping train, many of which ranked lower than goods trains, even for long-distance journeys. Such services were liable to experience long calls at stations to yield to trains with higher priority (some goods trains included).

To address the issue of highway competition, even still in its infancy, National Rail stressed convenience, punctuality, speed, and comfort as natural strengths of rail travel compared to highway voyage. In 1950, the principal challenge posed by car ownership was in suburban commuting and not intercity travel, because the Government intentionally built new communities where land costs were low due to their distance from towns with rail access. While the highway B1 was designed to support a maximum speed of 45 MPH, railways easily topped this speed at least on express services.

Seat pitch per side and density per coach
Coach Series 4/5 Series 6
Underframe 72 ft (21.9 m) 84 ft (25.6 m)
Third Open (TP) 26 in (660 mm) 140 29 in (737 mm) 140
Third New (TPN) 30 in (762 mm) 120
Second Open (SP) 52 in (1,321 mm) 48 52 in (1,321 mm) 56
First Open (FP) 20 24

Since standard underframes extended from pre-war 72' to post-war 84', the standard III Class coach gained padding and legroom from 26 in (660 mm) to 29 in (737 mm). Other than enlarging coaches, long-criticized crowding on express trains was addressed by lengthening trains from the typical 6 coaches pre-war to 10 or 12 coaches by 1959, enabled by the improved pulling power of diesel engines.

Computerized ticketing appeared in 1956, powered by the DPRM 780 vacuum tube computer. With ledgers between stops now checked digitally, efficient reservation of seats for more or even all passengers was now possible. Indeed, the railroad planned that all intercity travellers should travel with reserved seats and on express trains. Long-distance travel on unreserved, stopping trains was expected to appear uncompetitive in the future. Seat reservations for the formerly unreserved Limited services rolled out on July 1, 1957, to select services where demand was high, initially to the first 7 coaches of the train. Trains that offered seat reservation were renamed Reserved Limited (對號特快) and were subject to a seat reservation charge.

Highway B2 was planned for completion in 1957, and in view of challenges posed by road voyage on foreign railways, National Rail sought to remain competitive by improved comfort and expanded air conditioning to II Class coaches. The plan appeared successful as the first private long-distance bus operator, Highway Bus Coach, declared bankruptcy in 1960 amidst a tortured attempt to retrofit its fleet of wartime buses with AC units which turned out very prone to malfunction and leaks due to bumpy riding. The new II coaches with AC were powered by Head End Power generators behind the locomotive.

Effective Jan. 10, 1959, National Rail abolished the New Class fares and demoted its rolling stock to III Class status, since unpadded III Class stock have been withdrawn across the network.

Railway commentators have mentioned the 1950s as one of the most successful decades of the railway's history, marked by a strong effort to take advantage of the booming economy and remain competitive against road voyage. A strong fiscal foundation has been attributed to the managmenet of the 1950s that ultimately made heavier infrastructure investments possible in the two following decades.

The electrification of the Traverse Main Line was completed in 1960 and saw the launch of the E0 locomotive to haul trains between Kien-k'ang and Qqa'. 1960 saw the launch of the Series 6 Electric Multiple Unit Trainset (usually abbreviated 6MU) line of coache which had a distributed mode of power collection and driving. The MU6 trainsets did not break any top or average speed records in testing or operation, but their widespread adoption supported a higher average speed across the line as stopping trains no longer needed to yield so frequently to express trains making long calls.

Post-electrification

Aside from the high-speed line, six other mainlines were also electrified for conventional speeds in the 60s and 70s. Initially, these lines saw electric locomotives hauling unpowered coaches much as diesel and steam engines had done before, but experience on the high-speed line also brought the electric multiple-unit trainsets or EMUs to conventional lines. Since the Inland Mainline's express passenger traffic was partly taken over by the high-speed line, the railroad rescheduled many services to make more stops, meaning the train needed to stop and then start more often. EMUs usually had acceleration performance superior to loco-hauled trains, so they would replace many loco-hauled trains on electrified lines.

With the expansion of Sightseer Limited services on both electrified and non-electrified lines, displacing slower but cheaper services, National Rail faced criticism as a public operator for forsaking segments of the public only looking for a fast and safe way to travel. Especially with the re-imposition of conscription in 1961, National Rail was lambasted in Parliament for rescheduling defence charter trains into awkward hours, in favour of running additional Sightseer Limited services on several line.

National Rail responded in Parliament that Sightseer Limited services are appropriate for an improving society, made more money for the public operator, and enabled it to keep cheaper services cheap, and on the other hand services transporting soldiers wouldn't be made less effective even if rescheduled to awkward hours. National Rail's conflicts with the Ministry of Defence resulted in an 1967 Cabinet directive requiring National Rail to admit regimental discounts for active servicepersons all services and move some defence freight and charters trains into daytime.

In the 60s, the air-conditioned II coach (introduced 1959) saw increasing demand despite higher fare, while the 120-seat, non-AC III coach saw a decline in demand, despite improved legroom after coaches were extended from 72' to 84' (no added seats). In 1972, National Rail experimentally altered the layout of III coaches from 3+2 to 2+2, eliminating the disliked middle seat on one side of the corridor and increasing seat width from 18" to 20.5". This alteration only marginally improved travellers' opinions. With mainlines electrified, the provision of air conditioning was no longer constrained by head-end-power and thus apt for generalization. In the new EMUs launching 1975, National Rail introduced the AC Standard Coach as a replacement for both AC II and non-AC III coachs.

The new coach sat 80 people and was charged at around 1.5 times III. The Progressive government immediately hailed this as a success of deregulation, claiming that third-class travel was abolished by the forces of the market and air conditioning has thereby been made available for a lower fare. But it is also pointed out that this is only true from a II traveller's perspective, since AC was now available for a smaller fare albeit at the cost of some legroom, while a traveller formerly on III would now have to pay 50% more for AC. Equally, the "abolition" of III was only for EMUs, as most loco-hauled services still had plenty of non-AC III coaches sitting 100 passengers.

Train classifications

Passenger services are classified by National Rail into the following categories, which are based on the rolling stock used and determine the priorities trains have in allocation of right of way, particularly on single-track sections of routes or platform at stations. It should be noted that while schedulers respect train priorities, priorities are ultimately only guiding principles in drawing up the schedule and foresee and unforeseen operational issues can and regularly prompt the signal staff to grant right of way to a train of lower priority over one of higher priority.

Service Composition Scope Stops Assigned seat Train # Description
Reserved 澈對號客, tutups-qu-karak First/Recliner Main lines only Variable Always 1 – 40 Highest possible priority, usually named and unique to the route, may be oriented towards tourists.
Sleeper Express 夕快客, laqs-kots-karak Sleepers Always For long distance routes only
Seasons Limited 時特快客, tups-de-aleq-kots-karak (EMU) Premium/Recliner/AC Major cities Available 3000 — 4000 MU9 stock
Centennial Limited 百齡特快客, alinh-tups-qu-neleq-kots-karak (EMU) Premium/Recliner/AC Available 3000 — 4000 MU8, MU8.1, MU8.2 stock
Peace Limited 寧特快客, alinh-tups-qu-neleq-kots-karak (EMU) Recliner/AC Available 3000 — 4000 MU7 stock
Limited Express 對號特快客, tups-qu-neleq-kots-karak (LH) Recliner/AC Available 51 – 200 Loco-hauled limited express, on non-electrified lines
Intercity Express 快客, kots-karak (EMU) Premium/Recliner/AC
(LH) Recliner/AC		 Major and medium cities Some 301 – 800 MU6 or loco-hauled stock
Local Express 縣快客, ghwin-kots-karak (EMU) Recliner/AC
(LH) Second/New		 Main and branch lines Skips unmanned stations Some 1001 – 2000 Generally running between two major cities on main and branch lines, serving short-distance travellers or as shuttle service to change trains at a major station
Local Ordinary 縣客, ghwin-karak All stations en route No 2001 – 3000

Reserved Service

Reserved Service, usually only one or two services per route, are meant to represent the best service on that route. With few exceptions, Reserved Service include dining facilities and premium coaches in First and Recliner classes. After the 1970s, these trains are often advertised to tourists or select business travellers and may have customized rolling stock to enhance their appeal. Fares are also the highest of all services, trumping high-speed lines.

During the pioneering days of Themiclesian railways from 1845 to 1870, slow running speeds effectively required sleeper service to reach distant destinations in comfort, but considerable gains in speed in the 1870s and 80s allowed some journeys to be covered by a daytime service, achieved by prioritized schedules, specialized engines, and light trains. Sleeper services (where a bed is guaranteed) are always reserved, while contemporary day trains were not. Daytime reserved services thus aimed to bring the guarantee of a specific place to day services.

These were advertised as "limited reserved" services by then-private railways, in contradistinction to "sleeper express" services that ran on laxer schedules and often at limited speed to reduce vibrations that may prevent any rest at all; in the era of public regulation, the term "reserved" still applied to the best possible service on a given route, and most were eventually nicknamed, e.g. Coastal Reserved (longest-running service, since 1894). Given the elite status of these services, they were always combined with seat reservation service and the best-appointed coaches; third-class coaches were not regularly used on these trains.

Services in this category include:

  • 1/2 Northern Reserved, between Kien-k'ang and Rak. A previous incarnation of this service had a pre-PSW route of Rak to Yannarksburg, Maverica; in the early 50s, this service was through-running to Sunju, Menghe. In this period it was called 1/2 Hemithean Express Reserved.
  • 3/4 Coastal Reserved, between Kien-k'ang and Sngrak.
  • 5/6 Upper Sleeper, between Kien-k'ang and Srum-qlun. Summer service extends to Kir.
  • 7/8, between Kien-k'ang and Apollonia.
  • 9/10 Star Reserved, between Kien-k'ang and Estoria.

Seasons Limited

The Seasons Limited (時特快) is the newest (and most expensive) express EMU service currently running in Themiclesia. With rolling stock capable of reaching 120 MPH on some electrified lines, it is also the fastest.

  • EMU9A (12-coach): SPC(c)-SPR(p)-TPA(m)-TPA(t)-TPA(t)-SPD(p)-TPA(m)-SPR(t)-TPA(t)-TPA(p)-TPA(m)-SPC(c)
  • EMU9B (8-coach): SPC(c)-SPR(p)-TPA(m)-TPA(t)-TPA(t)-SPD(p)-TPA(m)-TPA(c)

Centennial Limited

Centennial Limited (百齡特快) was introduced in 2010 using the newly released 9MU EMU trainset.

Peace Limited

The Peace Limited (甯龢特快) is an EMU service introduced in 1959 comprising of AC Recliner and III classes.

Sightseer Limited

Main article: Sightseer Limited

The Sightseer Limited was a limited express service that ran between 1956 and 1988 with Series 6 and 7 II Class AC Recliner stock plus a dining coach and a "skylight coach" at the end of the rake. Seats were arranged in a 2+2 airline-style layout, seat pitch being 52 in (1,321 mm).

Beginning in 1950, National Rail started to manufacture air conditioning to S5.2 Recliner coaches, attracting a higher fare class as "AC Recliner", exclusive on named trains . In monocoque S6 coaches, provisions for AC was made for some Recliner coaches and powered by head-end power instead of dynamo, though AC units were only installed gradually. In November 1955, the first service using a monoclass rake of new air-conditioned monocoque Recliner coaches ran under a Recliner Limited label. In 1957, with the attachment of a "skylight coach" and a new livery, the Recliner Limited was renamed Sightseer Limited and ran on several times a day on popular routes. Given access to the skylight coach, Sightseer tickets were hiked still 25% higher than AC Recliner.

The sine qua non skylight coach (SPS) featured an area with rotating seats and couches on the end connecting to the rest of the rake, while the tail end had a semicircular lounge with enlarged windows permitting an unobstructed rear view. Additionally, parts of the roof was also converted to windows to allow sunlight to enter. This arrangement was very similar to the drawing room coach (D) used on Reserved Trains (which was oriented for travellers in I class); a steward would serve passengers refreshments and snacks in the D coach, while in the skylight coach passengers self-served.

The label "Sightseer Limited" became a class of services using similar rakes, rather than a specific service. In 1957, there were 2 services per day on each of the Inland and Traverse Main Lines, but by 1970 there were over 24 services using the Sightseer Limited label. Those services running with new Series 6 air-conditioned Recliner coaches but without the skylight coach were tariffed as AC Recliner instead.

From 1955 – 56 and still under the "AC Recliner Limited" label, the rake usually had 5 seating coaches, 1 dining coach, and 1 luggage van. When the "Sightseer Limited" label was introduced, the rake steadily increased from 5 AC Recliner coaches to 12 at peak travelling hours, by the late 60s. The lengthening of the rake thus documents increasing priority for comfort during Themiclesia's economic boom after the war. On the other hand, the "Sightseer" label reflects an post-war attitude where travelling II class, for the average Themiclesian, was still a considerable luxury and appropriate for pleasure. By the late 60s, travelling II class for long distance is typical for business and pleasure.

When the Series 7 coaches were still being designed, National Rail considered reducing the seat pitch from 52 in (1,321 mm) to 45.5 in (1,156 mm) and manufactured a prototype. Natiional Rail's argument is that the seat pitch was originally meant to support the seats' conversion into beds at night, but by this time Recliners no longer ran on night trains and had no reason to feature this 52" seat pitch. There were no ergonomics objections to a reduced pitch, which would also allow the insertion of two additional rows of seats to boost capacity. But public reception was poor and concentrated on the window seat passenger's ability to move to the aisle without disrupting the aisle seat passenger: at 52", window passengers could step out without requiring the aisle passenger to move. After public trials, the seat pitch was retained at 52 in (1,321 mm).

Memorial Limited

The Memorial Limited was operated with Series 7 coaches plus a buffet coach. Seats were arranged in a (first for III Class) 2+2 airline-style layout. Seat pitch is 34 in (864 mm). Some Memorial Limited services included AC Recliner and unreserved III Class coaches, subject to different charges, as well as buffet coach.

To compete with private cars and highway buses, National Rail introduced AC and reducing seat density from a 3+2 to 2+2 layout on improved III class coaches as part of its new Series 7 coaches, whose bodies supported speeds of 110 MPH (compared to 90 MPH on the previous generation). Additionally, a new buffet coach provided hot food options for the first time for III class passengers. Given improvements in speed and comfort, National Rail launched these coaches as the Memorial Limited.

Advertisements emphasized that Memorial Limited was allocated the top priority in schedules on non-electrified routes, above the Sightseer Limited services. Around the time of the launch of the Memorial Limited, National Rail's concessions policy was controversial. As many as 3 million PSW veterans were approaching retirement in the early 70s, and their combined veteran and senior benefits would put fares below cost, prompting National Rail in 1964 pre-emptively to restrict veteran benefits. To soothe outrage, National Rail opened the new Memorial Limited services to veteran benefit-holders, and even the name Memorial Limited itself was selected with an eye for PR.

In 1971, Series 7 Revision 1 AC Recliner coaches launched after two years of delays and were attached to some Memorial Limited services. To protect the Sightseer's niche, National Rail did not add skylight observation coachs in Series 7, so AC Recliner coaches on Memorial Limited were tariffed at normal AC Recliner rates. Thus a somewhat incongruous situation existed where newer coaches attracted fare lower than older coaches. These coaches had a special box of four seats available for travellers desiring increased privacy and subject to a "premium seat fee", which brought the fare up to par to Sightseer rates. The box could only be reserved as an entire unit until the day of travel, at which the seats were sold separately and without additional charge, until 1973.

On electrified railways, Series 7 EMU (abbr. 7MU) coaches were also labelled as Memorial Limited until they obtained their own name as Liberty Limited.

Originally, the Memorial Limited was launched with seat reservation throughout the entire rake. Yet into the early 70s, Parliamentary inaction allowed National Rail's fare levels to lag behind inflation while costs rose. National Rail thus sought to encourage users of ordinary services to travel instead on express services, which attracted higher fares. To reduce the circa 70% fare difference, National Rail appended unreserved III class coaches onto the express trains.

By the end of the 80s, National Rail was prepared to phase out non-AC stock on its limited express services. In 1988, the remaining deprecated Limited Express (on Series 5 Revision 2) coaches were demoted to unreserved express train status. the Series 7 coaches faced obsolescence, especially with (then-upcoming but highly delayed) Series 8 coaches. In 1993, National Rail demoted both the Sightseer and Memorial Limited services to normal Limited Express fares, but in operations they retained their identity until 2005.

Limited Express

Limited Express (formal name Limited Express with Reservation) services are intercity trains providing fast and frequent service, calling at only major cities. These services are aimed at travellers who intend to travel quickly between cities and beyond a normal commuting/regional distance. Technically, the Seasons, Centennial, and Peace Limited services are also Limited Express services, but in practice this term is applied (even by National Rail in public-facing literature) only to Limited Express services that are not named like the Seasons Limited etc. are.

The origins of the Limited Express service could be traced to July 4, 1928 when National Rail launched an all-III Class service with limited schedules and engines. The service was introduced after some legislators urged National Rail to run limited trains with III Class coaches, when hitherto limited trains were exclusively named trains with I and II coaches. Unlike named trains, whose seats were fully reserved (and thus no standing passengers), the unnamed Limited Expresses did not offer reserved seats and were often overcrowded, yet reception was reportedly very good and these ran until the intensification of the PSW in 1938.

After the war, the III Class Limited Express revived in 1948, and in 1951 the concept of the all III Class train (originally introduced to avoid competing with named trains) was abandoned on some service in this category favour of a Recliner or II plus III Class train. In 1954, National Rail replaced some express steam engines with diesel engines and also introduced the Series 6 monocoque coaches with improved comfort. Two years later in 1957, National Rail computerized its seat reservation system and offered assigned seating to III Class on Limited Express services, leading to its renaming (in Shinasthana) as "Limited Express with Seat Reservation").

With more lines electrified between the 1960s and 70s, EMU came to dominate at the expense of loco-hauled services, first in express trains and then on regional trains. Since the category of the (unnamed) Limited Express is restricted to loco-hauled services, they decreased in number on the electrified lines. These days, Limited Express services are mostly seen as second- or third-tier services on non-electrified main lines.

Classes of service

First Class

Available on loco-hauled Reserved services only, this is the most luxurious option in regular service, using a 1+1 seating pattern.

Under National Rail, there are two main types of First Class coaches: First Open "FP" and Parlour "D" (for "drawing room"). FP is similar to the conventionl II or III Class seating, with opposite seats on two sides of a crosswise bay, but in First Class there are only two seats per bay. But on sleeper trains, a D coach with swivel chairs and couches in an open setting was often attached as an leisure area, and seats here were not separately sold. D coaches came to be attached to important day trains in addition to the FP coaches, and similarly seats in the D coach were not separately sold. The entraining of FP and D coaches has varied over time and services.

  • On Reserved services like the 11/12 Rak Evening Reserved, several FP and one D coaches would be in the rake. Even more prestigious trains like the 5/6 Northern Day Reserved could have two D coaches, the final one with open platform for observation (the normal rake for the 5/6 was SP-FSR-FP-FP-FP-D-D(B) ).
  • On lesser services with rakes that had I Class, D coaches were not attached. Where I Class had even lower demand, a first-second composite open (FSP) coach was used. Since a D coach became de rigueur on Reserved services, those services with only an FP and no D coach became perceived as defective by the 1920s and were poorly patronized after then. Yet National Rail's charter required "all three classes be available on all lines, in each direction, and every day" as a commitment to service standards, so such under-utilized I Class services remained until the War Measures Act suspended the mandate.

After the war, the mandatory service standard was not re-imposed citing fiscal difficulties, resulting in the withdrawl of I Class in many services. Existing seats, if found in FSP composites, were often sold as II Class where the latter was in short supply. National Rail phased out I Class on stopping trains from Jan. 2, 1953. I Class remained in use on Reserved trains and select express trains where a D coach was present, though their numbers slowly declined.

During the electrification era (1962 – 81), National Rail's policy was to abolish I Class wherever possible, so the operator built no new I coaches of either the FP or D bodies. Yet the number of I Class passengers stopped dwindling by the 60s and slightly rebounded in the 70s, often attributed to corporate travellers. This led National Rail to introduce the Club Class on EMU services, initially to reward frequent travellers with an upgraded seat, and the design of the first Club Class coaches borrowed elements from both the FP and D coahces. The fact that Club Class was deemed a sub-type of II Class was important to corporate travellers who, under corporate policy, often could not put a I Class ticket on company account.

The adoption of EMU service en masse in the 70s replaced a large portion of the loco-hauled services with I Class coaches, but as National Rail never fully abolished loco-hauled intercity services, neither did I Class disappear. In 1987, National Rail authorized a small batch of I coaches to be built to replace the ageing stock dating from the mid-50s that was still moderately in demand. The two royal trains belonging to the Monarch also consisted chiefly of I Class stock. As of 2024, there are still six services that offer I Class, two on electrified lines and four on non-electrified lines. Seats on these services are very much advertised towards luxury travel.

Premium

Noted as "Second Class Premium" (次等特別車, alek-bryat-sniqs-keteng-kla), this class characteristically features a 1+2 seating pattern. Available on EMU trains only.

This type of seat can be traced back to a special box containing four seats present on Sightseer stock (S6.1), introduced in 1956. Unlike other seats on the Sightseer Limited, travellers could only reserve this box in its entirety up to the day of travel, wherein boxes that remained unsold were released for sale as ordinary seats. If booked as a whole box, the cost was equal to five seats on the Sightseer service, i.e. at a 25% premium on a per-seat basis. The box also made an appearance on the new AC Recliner stock in 1971 (S7.1), this time positioned at both ends of the coach. During from the late 70s to early 80s, National Rail sought to increase line speeds significantly through replacing loco-hauled services with EMU services; thus, no new premium loco-hauled services, including the special box, were introduced after the Memorial Limited in 1971.

Expanding the private box concept in the upcoming EMU trainsets, a Club Class coach was constituted with two private boxes on either end and a number of airline-style seats between them. The airline-style seats were originally offered as an upgrade in the loyalty programme. In the 80s, the upgrade was opened to normal ticket holders for a upgrade fee that varied according to anticipated demand. At the same time, the private box remained available for booking up to the day of travel. During off hours, upgrades from the normal recliner seat could be purchased for as little as 4% the recliner ticket, whereas during hours of peak demand or for select services an upgrade could cost as much as 30%.

It seems originally National Rail intended to phase out its dated I Class in favour of the Premium cabin, as the latter was introduced at a point where no I Class coaches had been built for around 20 years. The Premium cabin's official designation as a subtype of II Class also permitted corporte travellers to put the ticket on company account, since many corporations forbade putting a I Class ticket on company account but permitted the same for II Class (and its varieties). However, National Rail's plan to phase out I Class never completely came to fruition, resulting in the current situation where loco-hauled services have I Class, while EMU services have Premium.

Seat pitch is the same as Recliner at 52 in (1,321 mm), while seat width is between 25 in (635 mm) and 28 in (711 mm).

Recliner

Main article: Second Recliner (Themiclesian railway)

Named "Second Class Recliner" (坐臥次等車) on tickets. The standard feature of this seating class is the eponymous reclining chair that can rotate to face either direction as desired, positioned in a 2+2 layout. Market positioning is as a premium cabin, being either the higher of two classes offered (recliner and standard), or the middle (premium, recliner, and standard).

Recliners were originally introduced on Themiclesian railways in 1931, on sleeper services that also double as day services in the great interior; in this use, they were withdrawn from service in 1933, deemed a failure. Then, in 1941, they re-entered service as an alternative for sleepers which were abolished for the war effort. After sleeper services reappeared in 1946, these coaches were repurposed as Second Class day coaches, because many conventional non-reclining Second Class coaches had during the war been converted to Third Class and were now in short supply. Recliner coaches added on Reserved trains were retrofitted in 1950 with air conditioning powered by dynamo in 1952, resulting in the first Themiclesian train that had air conditioning on all coaches.

On the new series of monocoque coaches with 84 ft (25.6 m) underframe introduced in 1954, designed to be used with head-end power, all Recliner coaches natively had air conditioning. In the 50s, Recliner coaches came to displace conventional, non-reclining, non-AC Second Class coaches after a period of co-existence. The restoration of First Class service since Nov. 1, 1949 was slow and partial, and it never re-appeared on many services where it used to be offered. This left the newly-air conditioned Recliner coach as the best service available on many routes.

Seat pitch is 52 in (1,321 mm) and width 24 in (610 mm), which reflects its original design as a sleeper alternative. Maximum recline angle varies between stock but is usually 135 – 145°. On loco-hauled Series 6 stock at 84' length, capacity is 52 passengers in 13 rows; on EMU stock and loco-hauled Series 7 onwards, an extra row is present since air conditioning machinery is roof-mounted instead, providing 56 seats in 14 rows.

Standard Second

The "Normal Second" (本次等車) formed the bulk of II Class stock in the 20th century and was characterized by bay-style seating in a 2+2 layout, normally at 104 in (2,642 mm) per bay or 52 in (1,321 mm) per side. The seats are padded and, usually, lined with dark blue or dark green velvet. The headrests are usually provided with antimacassars. Since passengers in adjoining bays recline against the same seat back, the seats are fixed and non-reclinable.

Despite the name, the Standard Second stock have been progressively phased out in main line express services since the introduction of the Series 7 stock in the late 60s, with the Recliner stock gaining favour as the preferred kind of II Class seating. Standard Second remains in service on branch line or non-EMU local serivces on main lines, where the lack of recline is considered more acceptable due to shorter running times.

In the years leading up to the birth of National Rail, the privately-owned railways intensively competed in the most luxurious I Class products on select services, resulting in progressively more opulent coachwork that came to characterize I Class at the turn of the century, at least in these select services. However, I Class on other trains were often less glamorous. Under a policy for public operator to establish a consolidated, cross-network standard for the classes of service, much I Class stock (usually older or local stock, deemed substandard by main line standards) were demoted around 1900 to II Class fare, resulting in a spacious standard for II Class. This high standard for II Class was justified on the basis that it would better appeal to passengers who would have to pay twice as much as III Class to upgrade to II.

During the PSW, most II Class stock was converted to III Class to transport more passengers economically, resulting in a dearth of II Class stock by the end of the war. Recliners, originally a substitute for sleepers which were also suspended due to war, came to stand in for normal II stock in the early post-war years. Over the 1950s, Recliners came to eclipse the normal II stock in demand, as they provided an additional reclining functionality.

AC Standard

Formally the "New Stock Third Class with Air Conditioning" coach (參等新車轀凌車) , this also features a 2+2 seat pattern but has considerably less legroom at 34 in (864 mm) seat pitch. This seating class is the standard (and lowest) level of service on all intercity EMU and loco-hauled day services and usually makes up a majority of the rake. It is not present on Reserved services.

Air conditioning was present on First Class coaches as far back as 1935, and head-end power allowed the introduction of AC on Recliner coaches in 1954, but AC was only made available more broadly when EMUs entered service on main lines electrified between 1960 and 1983. With electricity now available through overhead catenaries, air conditioning was possible across the entire trainset. Yet with EMU services not universal, air conditioning attracted a higher fare compared to non-air conditioned services.

Meanwhile, coach design also went through a phase of re-adjustment in the 1970s. Between its inception and the late 50s, National Rail's Third Class had unpadded seats and New Class, padded. Series 6 coacking stock introduced in 1954 extended padding to all Third Class coaches, thus eliminating the difference; New Class fare was abolished in 1959 as the last unpadded coaches were retired. However, improving availability and quality of highway transit (on passenger buses) led National Rail to consider a more comfortable Third Class seat in 1963, yet it eventually concluded its Third Class coaches were still well-patronized at current fare levels.

By 1970, the situation had changed with air conditioning generally available on private cars and highway buses, the latter presenting more spacious seats than contemporary Third Class coaches. National Rail thus re-introduced New Class in 1972 as a level between Third and Second (which was then always Recliner stock on main lines), featuring 96 seats in a 2+2 bay-style seating layout. The disliked middle seat was eliminated, and legroom was improved somewhat compared to normal Third coaches that sat 130 passengers on a 84' underframe with a 3+2 layout.

New Class non-AC

This seating class is available on short-haul local trains that do not utilize head-end power, running on non-electrified main lines and branch lines.

New Class originated as a special designation for Third Class coaches that, unlike others, had padded seats rather than bare wooden benches. Since it would be unfair to impose the same tariff on both types, National Rail designated padded ones as "Third Class New Stock" and charged a slightly higher fare. In 1954, all new III coahces received padded seats, and non-padded ones were all withdrawn by 1959, permitting the abolition of New Class as a separate fare class on May 30, 1959.

In 1968, amid concerns that highway buses were become more competitive against railway coaches, National Rail considered overhauling its III stock to a 2+2 seating pattern from the extant 3+2 pattern, but that would mean considerable lost revenues on many services that were still sold out. The alternative was to re-introduce New Class with a more spacious 2+2 pattern, albeit this also came with the problem of crowding the market for comfort-conscious travellers in Recliner coaches. In the end, the latter option was chosen but with highly curtailed legroom at 34 in (860 mm).

Third Class

The fare for Third Class (III) is the basis for all other fare classes, but currently it is not in general use because rakes for normal passenger services no longer contain these coaches. It is in use, however, for defence charter services transporting soldiers, since enlisted ratings are restricted to receiving free transit tickets for III. While it used to be the case that National Rail would provide actual III coaches (3+2, 28" per row) for defence charters, by the late 80s National Rail would often use more spacious coaches as actual III coaches were being retrofitted or torn down (and thus not readily available).

Originally, III stock on old compartment stock sat 6 abreast, and on corridor stock (becoming standard on long-distance, through-running trains by 1885) the width of one seat formed the corridor, leaving an asymetrical 3+2 seating pattern. III stock generally featured unpadded wooden benches and backs, (padded ones were tariffed as "New Stock III" or "New Class"). An act of Parliament dating to 1864 requires all III stock to have roofs, windows, and bays not less than 52 in (1,321 mm) apart, which converted to a mere 26 in (660 mm) per side. For many passengers this meant their knees would pass the centre line in bays, resulting in an awkward sideways seating angle to avoid the opposite passenger's knees or (the opposite passenger permitting) to interpose their knees; this was deemed the "compulsory scandal of the third class" in a parliamentary speech in 1878.

After the institution of the public operator, standard III stock continued to use 52" bays, while New Class used slightly wider 60" bays, though part of this added room was consumed by padding. On all-steel stock in Series 4 and 5, a 72' III coach sat 140 passengers. After the war, all III coaches on 84' underframes gained padding and still sat 140, the added length distributed into padding and legroom. Older 72' New Class coaches were demoted to III in 1959, resulting in the abolition of that fare class that year. These revised 84' III coaches gained padding and better legroom compared to pre-war III coaches, but compared to older New Class coaches, legroom actually decreased.

Fare

The fare displayed on passenger tickets on Themiclesian railways is generally a composite of several kinds of fees. Under the modern fare calculation system used since 1975, there is only a single base tariff for mileage, of which all other surcharges are multiples. This stands in contrast with the pre-1975 fare system which had tariffs for mileage specific to each class of travel, and surcharges multiplied the tariff of each class when applied to a ticket of that class.

1. Ordinary train multiple
Travel class
(code)		 Third
(III)		 New
(N)		 AC Third
(ACN)		 Second
(II)		 AC Recliner
(ACR)		 Premium
(PR)		 First
(I)
Tariff 1 1.2 1.7 4
AC Fee 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Hot Water Fee 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
Catering Fee 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.3
Special Seat Fee1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.32
Ordinary multiplier 1 1.32 1.82 2.37 2.57 2.87 6.12
1The Special Seat Fee is demand-adjusted. Peak travelling times may see this fee as much as doubled.
2Consists of a Special Seat Fee of 1x and a Wireless Fee of 0.3x (for the use of the wireless telephone in the First Class coach).

After all fees above are taken account of, the ordinary multiplier is arrived at. The ordinary multiplier represents the pre-tax multiple of the base tariff per mile that would be charged for a ticket in that seating class on an ordinary train. Regressive express train fees are then added. The maximum express train fee is 50% of the ordinary multiply for journeys within 50 km, and the chargeable percentage decreases by 1% for each marginal 50 km travelled, to a floor of 20%.

2a. Express fare multiple
Range (mi) Marginal rate Blended rate Range (mi) Marginal rate Blended rate Range (mi) Marginal rate Blended rate
50 – 100 49% 49.5% 550 – 600 39% 44.5% 1,050 – 1,100 29% 39.5%
100 – 150 48% 49% 600 – 650 38% 44% 1,100 – 1,150 28% 39%
150 – 200 47% 48.5% 650 – 700 37% 43.5% 1,150 – 1,200 27% 38.5%
200 – 250 46% 48% 700 – 750 36% 43% 1,200 – 1,250 26% 38%
250 – 300 45% 47.5% 750 – 800 35% 42.5% 1,250 – 1,300 25% 37.5%
300 – 350 44% 47% 800 – 850 34% 42% 1,300 – 1,350 24% 37%
350 – 400 43% 46.5% 850 – 900 33% 41.5% 1,350 – 1,400 23% 36.5%
400 – 450 42% 46% 900 – 950 32% 41% 1,400 – 1,450 22% 36%
450 – 500 41% 45.5% 950 – 1000 31% 40.5% 1,450 – 1,500 21% 35.5%
500 – 550 40% 45% 1,000 – 1,050 30% 40% 1,500 and above 20% 35%

Thus a Recliner ticket in an express train travelling 60 km would be subject to 2.32 × 1.5 × 50 km plus 2.32 × 1.49 × 10 km.

2b. Limited service fare multiple (on express fare)
Mileage Limited Peace Centennial Seasons
Under 500 mi 120% 160% 180% 210%
501 – 1,000 mi 110%
1,001 – 1,500 mi 100% 130% 160%
1,501 mi and above 90%

There is also Value Added Tax applicable to certain train tickets. All II Class tickets, including Recliner and Premium, attract a reduced 5% tax rate, and a I Class ticket is taxed at the full rate of 20%. III Class tickets, including New Class with or without AC, are zero-rated in VAT, deemed necessities. Similarly, II and I Class tickets are taxable under the Stamp Act at a rate of 1% the value of the ticket pre-VAT.

3. Tax
Travel class
(code)		 Third
(III)		 New
(N)		 AC Third
(ACN)		 Second
(II)		 AC Recliner
(ACR)		 Premium
(PR)		 First
(I)
VAT 0% 12% 20%
Stamp Duty 0% 1%
Total tax 0% 13% 21%

Sample calculation

  • Twa-ktsuk-men to Qwang Central via IM
    • New Class on Local Train: 430 mi × INTL$0.11 per mi = $47.33
    • Recliner on Peace Limited: 430 mi × INTL$0.11 per mi × 2.57 × (1 + 0.46 × 1.6) × 1.13 = $238.62
    • First on Qwang Evening Limited: 430 mi × INTL$0.11 per mi × 6.12 × (1 + 0.46 × 1.2) × 1.21 = $543.96


Regulations

Railways in Themiclesia are subject to a number of legal constraints passed mainly to promote efficiency in rail transport and enhance safety. Many early regulations were made by Parliament, by whom most early routes were also authorized; however, the regulation of railways often became political, and varoius bodies such as the Board of Trade and later Ministry of Transport also became involved. Most modern regulations are made by ministers with statutory authorization, but basic regulations such as the track gauge for intercity railways are fixed by statute.

Units

The standard system of measurement on Themiclesian railways, for internal purposes, are Imperial units from Anglia, as much of the technology and rolling stock on the earliest non-Hallian railways were imported from Anglia. Railway lengths are signposted in terms of Imperial miles and chains. The descriptor "Imperial" (rendered phonetically as 音卑麗, rf ′im-pi-ryal) is added to the corresponding Themiclesian unit. However, to anticipate unexpected changes by Anglia, which have not yet happened, Imperial units in Themiclesian railways were retroactively fixed by a domestic statute to their definitions on Jan. 1, 1870. Some old lines, once under Hallian operation, had their sign-posts changed from Hallian units to Imperial ones by 1896. However, in support of the Government's desire to promote the Metric system, that system has been in use for public trade since 1957.

Track gauge

Broad gauge

Several lines in the north were built for a 5 ft (1,524 mm) gauge, especially those owned by Hallian companies. As it was unlawful to re-gauge any standard-gauge railway to a different gauge, the last 5-foot gauge main line was converted to standard gauge in 1894. Nevertheless, it was permissible to operate a different gauge

The Northern Riparian Railway, located in Ladh-mgon Province and on the border with Nukkumaa, runs on a 5 ft gauge that is unique to operational lines. It was built in 1846 and serviced two coal veins located on the Themiclesian side of the river. The line was acquired by Northwestern Railways in 1896, but due to dwindling freight and passenger service, it was never converted into standard gauge. It was abandoned in 1919 but restored for tourism in 1960. The line today services open-air dome cars offering views of the river.

Standard gauge

The modern standard gauge on Themiclesia railways is 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1,435 mm), this gauge having been established in 1851 by the Rjai-ljang Government. Since that year, any railway measuring more than five miles between its most distant points was by law required to be built in this gauge, and all main lines currently operated by National Rail conform to it. Most branch lines and industrial spurs, which act as feeder lines for freight service on main lines, are also in this gauge.

Narrow gauge

There are several narrow gauges in Themiclesia, the majority built well after the 1851 law that established the standard gauge on lines longer than five miles. Narrow gauges were permitted on lines shorter than five miles and not connected to any standard-gauge line, but also longer railways not open for public business or for which public business represented a insignificant portion of its revenues. Likewise, they were permissible for tramways, which shared the road surfaces with non-rail vehicles. Narrow-gauge lines were often constructed in mines, farmland, factories, and private estates, where restrictive space or budget forbade the construction of wider railways.

In forests, where gradients tend to be steep and turns sharp, the 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) and 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) gauges were popular and accounted for the majority of forest railways. In the northeastern Kalami mountain range, there exists a 2 ft 6 in mountain railway. There are also a number of "tourist rails" that carry tourists from one attraction to another, built in the early 20th century, that are typically in narrow gauge; these lines utilize separate sheds and vehicles and are not joined to the intercity railway network, and some also regularly carry passengers. Some light rail and tramways are on a 3 ft 6 in gauge, including the system in Kien-k'ang and Tor.

Railways within coal mines and quarries typically operate under even more restrictive gauges, of which 2 ft (610 mm), 1 ft 11 1⁄2 in (597 mm), and 1 ft 8 in (508 mm) are attested in Themiclesia. These gauges are also not unknown to other applications in salt mining, agriculture, and gardens. Certain passenger railway operations, typically converted from industrial railway, also possess tracks in these gauges, though in recent years many of them have been regauged to more permissive dimensions.

Loading gauges

Old gauge

Prior to 1891, there was no standard loading gauge; the gauge on each private railway was decided by the narrowest point on its route. However, for goods wagons, it was commonly accepted that a normal width which would pass through most lines was 9 ft. The expansion of railways, however, encouraged proprietors to unify gauges across their entire network, so that a single wagon could run without the need to unload and reload. The old gauge was formalized only after the new gauge (below) became standard in the 1890s and was defined by a 9 ft (274 cm) and 12 ft 6 in (381 cm) envelope; while few lines were built to these restrictive dimensions, they were chosen for their universality applicability. Many branch lines may accommodate 9 ft 6 in or even 10 ft 2 in vehicles, though deficiencies in one dimension or another required rolling stock in the old gauge to be used in these lines. It is still seen on some branch lines currently, though periodic efforts have been made to upgrade them to the new gauge.

New gauge

When the Central Junction Railway was built, half of which was underground, dimensions of 10 ft 6 in (320 cm) wide by 14 ft 6 in (442 cm) tall were specified to accommodate the largest coaches then in use. This decision was meant to encourage railways to connect services through the Central Junction, which both provided the government a fee and reduced wagon traffic in Kien-k'ang, a major source of complaints. Between 1897 and 1910, most main lines owned by both National & Maritime and Themiclesian & Northwest were converted to the new gauge, while new constructions met the then-named Central Junction gauge. Because the continuous vaults of the underground sections are directly imprinted onto the limits of this gauge, it is also called the "tunnel gauge".

Though generous by 1890s standards, the 7-mile Central Junction tunnel under Kien-k'ang would by 1920 become the most restrictive point on the Inland Main Line, and widening or heightening the tunnel would entail rebuilding it and demolishing everything built above it. Railway engineers noticed that the immovable height limit could be circumvented if traffic were diverted through the suburbs, where trains ran above ground and were subject to fewer height restrictions. Such a practice led to the development of the over-tall gauge, which was seen on railways that passed through the sparsely-populated east.

New-new gauge

The new-new gauge is the electrified version of the new gauge and includes a modest 6-inch increase in vertical height, which enables double-decker trains to have better headroom. Restrictive height barriers were typically negotiated by lowering the track bed in the late 70s.

Over-tall gauge

The over-tall gauge originated in the 1920s after efforts were made to divert freight traffic from termini in major cities, as freight could travel more efficiently avoiding busy areas that are also more likely to have permanent structures that restrict gauge. Benefiting from benign geography, several lines were converted to accommodate boxcars as much as 16 ft 6 in (503 cm) by 11 ft 6 in (351 cm), whose heavier weight in turn encouraged larger and more powerful locomotives. Some of the largest locomotives ever in service in Themiclesia were built specifically for lines in this gauge. Some efforts were made to expand these railways for wartime requirements during the Pan-Septentrion War, which saw a further 6 in added to the width of the gauge. Despite this, the over-tall gauge is not widespread in Themiclesia, and some were (effectively) converted back to new gauge in the 70s by way of electrification.

Non-electrified lines in this gauge are mainly found in the Themiclesian east, where lines are generally single-track and have few factors which impose restrictions, like bridges and tunnels; on these lines, where services are less frequent, the ability to carry more goods per train was at a premium. After the 1970s, the excess height on the over-tall gauge permitted oversized rolling stock that catered to tourism that was booming in the east, formerly dominated by mining and forestry sectors.

Electric gauge

The electric gauge was developed jointly with Dayashina for high-speed passenger service. In the early 60s, Themiclesia proposed using its existing over-tall gauge to serve as the standard for a high-speed service, but Dayashinese engineers believed that those dimensions were too wide and not sufficiently tall to accommodate overhead catenaries that would be required to supply electricity. The modern electric gauge was thus settled to be 14 ft 9 in (4,500 mm) tall and 11 ft 2 in (3,400 mm) wide. This gauge is current on all high-speed electrified lines operated by National Rail under the brand name Themiclesian High Speed Rail.

Current loading gauges

Railway links to adjacent countries

Nukkumaa

Themiclesia is connected to Nukkumaa by at four operational railways, three of which are located in the western part of the country, and one in the far east. All four railways were built during the 19th century. One railway connected Themiclesia to Nukkumaa, Suurlaakso, and Uusimaa, where an ocean liner to Hallia was the principal means of communication between the Hemithean and Casaterran continents, and the three other railways principally served freight transport to various parts of the Hallian Commonwealth. However, there is a break of gauge at the Nukko border because the Hallian gauge, which is used in that country, does not conform to the standard gauge. Passengers typically transloaded onto Hallian rolling stock at the city of Skengrak, 9 km south of the border with Nukkumaa.

Dzhungestan

The first rail link between Themiclesia and Dzhungestan was constructed between 1937 and 1939 by Menghean forces to strengthen its logistics in the Themiclesian theatre during the Pan-Septentrion War. The line was constructed using forced labour from prisoners-of-war captured in Maverica and Innominada. This railway was later controlled by Hallian forces operating out of Themiclesia and served a similar function in the subsequent invasion of Menghe via Dzhungestan, and under this administration its capacity was enlarged significantly. At end of the war, the portion of the line within Themiclesia was ceded to that country. This railway remains operational as a freight and passenger railway to a number of small towns in the Themiclesian desert but terminates in Sn′ênk and no longer extends into Dzhungestan. A memorial has been erected in Sn′ênk in memory of the prisoners who died building this railway.

In the 2010s, the Trans-Hemithea High-Speed Railway was planned to link Dayashina, Menghe, Dzhungestan, Themiclesia, and Nukkumaa. This development was envisioned as an econmical alternative to air travel and freight that is faster than ocean transport between the states, which takes a less direct route. In design it is capable of a top speed of 300 km/h. The THHSR network is jointly operated by all parties involved and has been considered a remarkable success in political terms. It has uniform signal systems and track and loading gauge, this being enabled by congruences between the high-speed railways of Dayashina, Menghe, and Themiclesia, and dedicated customs offices permit non-stop service between origin and destination.

Maverica

Themiclesia is connected to Maverica by the Trans-Hemithean Railway, which opened in 1952 and connected further to Menghe. This line was forced to close down in 1959 in view of disquiet in Maverica that eventually led to the establishment of a Communist administration in 1960. Themiclesia removed railway infrastructure over several kilometer for fear of its utility to a hypothetical Maverican invasion. This line was reopened tentatively for freight transport in the late 80s, though trains were unable to pass without stops at the border.

Travelling direction

Most Themiclesian railway lines distinguish between "hither" (各, karāks) and "thither" (戉, mngwāts) travelling directions, which are usually equivalent to "up" and "down" trains on some other networks. During the era of private railroading, this terminology was usually applied relative to the locomotive's depot, such that journeys from the depot would be followed by the opposite journey back towards the depot. After consolidation, which permitted locomotives and trains to be maintained or assembled at more than one place, this distinction evolved to reflect the place of the railroad's headquarters, where travel towards it was considered hither. For National & Maritime, trains travelling towards Kien-k'ang were hither trains, while for Themiclesian Northwestern, those bound for Rak were hither. Currently, trains bound for Kien-k'ang are considered hither by National Rail, while those travelling away from it are thither.

Railways which are not on the inter-city network are more idiosyncratic in their nomenclature. Trains on forest and mine railways are often distinguished between trains into or out of the forest or mine.

Rolling stock

Main article: Themiclesian railway passenger stock

History

The first passenger train in Themiclesia, serving the route between Sngrak and Ped from 1836, offered only one class of service to the public—third class—but provided superior accommodations for the directors of the railway. From the 1840s, a three-class system modelled after Casaterran railways was introduced. Third-class coaches typically were open wagons fitted with benches, while second-class ones possessed glazed windows and upholstered seats. Early coaches were laid out in an open style, but soon compartment coaches became the norm for all classes under Anglian influence in the 1840s. Two-axle coaches were universal until bogie coaches, which permitted easier turning, appeared around 1852. In 1858, the Railways Act mandated that all rolling stock meant for passengers must be roofed.

Prior to the public operator's entry in 1892, there was no statutory standard for operators to classify their rolling stock in any particular way, though out of necessity most operators eventually developed systems that were more or less harmonized with each other, to enable throug running and joint operations. At the onset of the Pan-Septentrion War, all rolling stock was put on notice for commandeer and assigned a classification according to the Temporary Nomenclature issued in 1938; though so named, all Themiclesian operators continue to use it to this day.

Out of a desire for economy and interchangeability, the public operator National Rail had a policy of building standardized coaches for operation on all its lines, starting with wood-steel composite Series 2 (S2) in 1907; existing stock taken over from other operators were called S1 but are in reality not a standardized series. A standardized series usually shared the underframe and bogies and had similar external bodies, varying in internal layout. Series 3 was an improvement upon the S2 introduced in 1915. Series 4 saw the introduction of all-steel bodies in 1927 at 72', and Series 5, being a revision of S4, was made from 1930 onwards. It remained in production until 1954, when the streamlined and air-conditioned S6 entered production.

Series 2 3 4 5 5.1 5.2 6 6MU 6.1 6.2 7MU 8 8MU 9 9MU
Introduced 1901 1915 1927 1930 1936 1946 1954 1961 1963 1975 1977 1987 1992 2007 2015
Underframe 54' 65' 72' 84'
TP 100 120 140 140 140 140 140 140 120 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
TPN 90 100 100 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
TPA N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 100 100 84 84 84 84
SP 40 48 48 48 N/A 48 56 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
SPR N/A N/A N/A 44 N/A 44 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52
SPC N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 39 N/A 42 N/A 42
FS F8 + 24 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
DSB 36 N/A N/A 40 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
F 20 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
FP 24 20 20 20 N/A N/A 20 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
D 16 24 24 24 N/A N/A 24 N/A N/A N/A N/A 24 N/A N/A N/A
DB 16 24 24 20 N/A N/A 20 N/A N/A N/A N/A 20 N/A N/A N/A
FDB N/A N/A N/A 20 N/A N/A 20 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 22 N/A

First

  • First (F) first appeared on Themiclesian railways in 1839. F coaches are usually in the compartment style, without a connecting corridor.
  • First Open (FP) appeared in 1856 along with long-distance, through-running express services. An open design allowed sharing of lavatories and an on-board dining carriage, obviating the need for prolonged stops for lavatories or meals. Internal layouts vary but usually had bays containing two opposing rows of seats, with a central or side corridor. There were generally two or three seats in an each row in FO stock.
  • Drawing Room (D) was introduced in 1875 as an alternative layout to the typical FO design at that time. Rather than rows of opposing seats, D coaches had rotating seats in an open, unobstructed layout.
    • Drawing Room with Observation Platform (DB) was first used as a separate designation for a coach that had a specialized open platform at one end, meant to be at the end of the entire train and to allow passengers to have an unobstructed rear view. As carriages by default came to be built with vestibules in the 1880s, this style can be regarded as an evolution of the D body. It appeared on scenic routes starting from 1900.
    • First with Drawing Room and Observation Platform (FDB), a further evolution, was operated by National Rail as a composite of the older FO layout and the more popular D layout, one being present on each end of the coach. Initially, passengers were allowed to specify in which section they wished to sit, but in 1901 the Drawing Room seats were no longer separate sold, being instead regarded as a secondary area for first class passengers to utilize. FDP was used as the final coach on some Reserved Trains during the pre-PSW era.
  • First Sleeper (FS) appeared in 1871, providing a row of private bedrooms, for single or double occupancy, opening onto a shared corridor down one side of the coach. The number of rooms varied according to operator and coach length. In 1883 in-room toilets were provided and by 1890 was an expected feature on sleeper coaches labelled as first class. These are some of the most expensive tickets available on Themiclesian railways even today.

First/Second

  • First Second Open (FSP), a composite coach used on trains where expected passenger volumes would not justify a complete first class carriage. The coach was divided into a first-class half and second-class half.
  • First Second Dining (FSD), a composite coach used on long-distance trains which has separate sections for first and second class ticket holders.

Second

  • Second (S), denoting a second-class coach in the compartment style. During the pre-regulation era, coach designs varied considerably in the Second range, with some railways using Second to denote what is a Third on other railways.
  • Second Open (SP), denoting a second-class coach in the open style, with a central corridor separating seats. For 72' and 84' mainline coaches, there were typically 6 and 8 bays, each sitting 8, providing 48 or 56 seats straddling a central corridor.
  • Second Open AC (SPK) denoting second-class coach in open style, but with air conditioning. Introduced in 1957 on 84' coaches
  • Second Recliner (SR) was experimentally introduced in 1932, utilizing recliners that could be alternately used as a normal chair during day and as a makeshift bed at night. The design purported to be a more comfortable alternative to normal seats on overnight trains, commonly attached to serve passengers who would not pay for a sleeper. To allow the chair to recline, all rows face the same direction, and at least post-PSW the chairs could be turned to turn to face the travelling direction. Revived in the Pan-Septentrion War as a workaround for railroad directors and employees against the ban on sleeper coaches. At 72' capacity was 11 rows, and at 84', 13 rows, of 4 seats, for a total of 44 or 52. Post-war, the SR style gained favour over the SP style, eventually becoming the dominant standard second class layout on EMU trainsets.
  • Second Dining (SD), used on trains where there was no first class service.

Third

  • Third (T), denoting a third-class coach. T coaches had no standardized design prior to the Railways Act of 1864, and many were not different from goods wagons outfitted with side benches. After the Act, T coaches were generally also built as compartment coaches to a specified minimum compartment size of 4'-8".
  • Third Open (TP) denoting a third-class coach in open style. Capacity varied considerably between stock but was standardized at 100 seats in 10 bays of 10 seats each.
    • Third Open Express (TPX) introduced in 1930 by National Rail, which started running an all-third monoclass Limited Express service. Due to the added costs of operating a service at Limited Express standards, capacity was maximized in TPX stock. At 72' length, each TPX coach accommodated 120 passengers, in 12 bays of 10 seats each; a central corridor divided each bay asymmetrically into 3-seat and 2-seat sides. For S/5.1 at 84', capacity peaked at 140 passengers, but in S/6 it was reduced to 120.
    • Third Recliner (TPR) introduced in 1960 as an alternative to the TPX series. These usually sat 96 passengers in chairs that provided only a moderate degree of recline.

Ticketing and concessions

Single and return tickets

  1. Single ticket (單程客票): valid for one journey from the origin to destination, in the designated service type and class, marked on the ticket.
  2. Return ticket (來回程客票): valid for two journeys from the origin to destination, in the designated service type and class, marked on the ticket and then back.
  3. Class-joint ticket (異等客票): like a single ticket, but where a change of class of travel happens at a specific point marked on the ticket.
  4. Service-joint ticket (異次客票): like a single ticket, but a chagne of service type happens at a specific point marked on the ticket.
  5. Return class-joint ticket (來回程異等客票): like a class-joint ticket, except good for a return trip.
  6. Return service-joint ticket (來回程異次客票): like a service-joint ticket, except good for a return trip.

The list of tickets above dates from a time when National Rail relied primarily on pre-printed Edmondson tickets. A station would only stock tickets with the station itself as the origin. A ticket returning from the destination to the origin would thus not be stocked at the origin station, even though a traveller may wish to purchase a return ticket at the same time as the departing ticket, thus necessitating the printing of return tickets that combined both legs. Since return journeys were sold at 20% off (providing a blended discount of 10%), combining both legs on one physical ticket was also more convenient for the railway's accounting.

Joint tickets are usually used on journeys that require detraining from one service and then boarding a different service because no through service exists. A class-joint ticket combines two legs that occur on different classes of travel, e.g. First Class from Tlang-qrum to Rak and then Third Class from Rak to Ter. A service-joint ticket combines two legs that occur on different types of trains, e.g. Express service from Tlang-qrum to Rak and then Ordinary from Rak to Ter. Similarly, it is also possible to purchase a return ticket for joint tickets.

Children's tickets

Each of the varieties above may be issued with a child discount, which is 50% off for children aged 6 through 12 and 25% off aged 13 through 18. Children under the age of 6 travel without a ticket but must be accompanied by an adult or older child with a ticket.

Until 1950, it was not possible to purchase a return ticket for a child on the grounds that a return ticket carries a discount, which under National Rail's policy until 1977 cannot be compounded with each other. Yet in 1948 the issue was raised that barring a child from purchasing and benefiting from a return ticket was effectively discrimination against the child on account of age. Thus from March 2, 1950, it is possible to purchase a return ticket for a child and compound their discounts.

In 1997, National Rail renamed the 25% off ticket for children aged 13 through 18 as a "youth ticket" instead of "child ticket", disambiguating the 25% off ticket from the 50%.

Vouchers

Vouchers (繫, kiks) are issued by National Rail to support the non-recurring transport needs generated by the government, most prominently under conscription from 1961 through 1982.

To permit troops to make official travel or take advantage of leave to visit family or other cities, National Rail was required by government policy to issue vouchers to various military bases and ports, whose quartermasters granted the vouchers to troops on an as-needed basis. The voucher officially requires the issuing officer to sign for the origin and destination (i.e. the voucher is good for a trip authorized by the issuing authority), but soon after its introduction the requirement was dropped in practice, with vouchers being signed carte blanche without a specified origin and destination. Troops contested for vouchers because National Rail never issued enough to satisfy demand, while commanders often used them as prizes.

Jockeying for vouchers was a part of the military culture of Themiclesian forces, by servicepeople eager to go home or travel on limited stipends and leave. Since National Rail issued vouchers at unpredictable times and in fluctuating quantities, and because quartermasters usually play favourites with the vouchers, the ability to procure a voucher when needed was called the "voucher voodoo".

Similarly, National Rail issues vouchers to support the movement of reservists from their residence to the reservist training area, which can be distant depending on the exact arrangement. Vouchers of this kind are also issued for other gatherings that enjoy government patronage like some scouting activities, where scouts are encouraged to travel alone to enhance their experiences.

Vouchers of this kind are always specified for class of travel, which is on unreserved Third Class for the most part. Occasionally, National Rail issues reserved Recliner vouchers, which were uncommon and highly desirable even amongst officers. While an officer could afford to travel Recliner on their salary, having a Recliner voucher was a sign of access; thus, whenever National Rail issued Recliner vouchers to a military base, the officers there would especially pressure the quartermaster for them, sometimes even directing subordinates to assist the quartermaster in exchange for a Recliner voucher.

Some veterans of the Consolidated Army recount that there was widespread speculation if First Class vouchers existed, and if so, what level of commander could obtain them. National Rail addressed this suspicion in 1977 (amidst an innundation of inquiries from servicepeople) and revealed that First Class vouchers did exist, but they were only issued in limited quantities to the Board of Trade and Foreign Office, who distributed them either to senior staff or to minor diplomats and trade representatives along with invitation letters. National Rail also revealed that the Ministry of Defence has never requested for First Class vouchers owing to an austerity policy.

The voucher comes from a serialized booklet of 10 vouchers, and vouchers are ripped off when filled. Each booklet came with a piece of carbon paper since each a voucher had a stub for accounting. When the booklet is used up, the quartermaster sends the booklet with stubs remaining back to National Rail. If they fail to do so with stubs intact and signed, they incur for their unit a fine equal to the maximum value the booklet can have at market. Since there are some very long routes in Themiclesia, this fine is considerable and will usually result in financial penalties for the quartermaster.

Passes

Commuter

National Rail issues commuter passes in 1-, 2-, 3-, and 6-month durations. Each duration corresponds with a 5%, 7.5%, 12.5%, and 25% discount.

Student

Primary school children who rely on National Rail services to commute to and from their schools are entitled to an annual or semiannual pass priced at 5% of a 6-month commuter pass. Since this pass grants a 25% discount off single tickets, a primary student pass effectively results in a 96.25% discount. This deeply discounted fare is intended to allow even the most indigent rural families to send their children to school. However, given that primary schools are usually within close distance to their homes, this pass is also restricted to a commute of at most 25 miles.

Secondary school students are entitled to a lesser discount of 10% of a 6-month commuter pass, resulting in a net discount of 92.5%, but because secondary schools may be located further away (e.g. specialized schools), the commute is up to 75 miles. Students at vocational schools, which provide income to the student, are not entitled to the same benefit: students here must use a 75% discount pass. Tertiary school students are not given special discounts in general, but some universities negotiate with National Rail to issue concessionary passes to students who endure particularly expensive commutes or would otherwise suffer undue hardship.

One of the main conditions on National Rail's charter as the sole operator of railways is the provision deeply discounted tickets for students commuting to and from their schools, and it is also part of the updated Social Responsibility mandate that the operator has announced.

Official

Railway was designated as the means of official travel for civil and military officials at least since the era of public regulation of railways, and a common means before then. To support such travel, National Rail is required to issue tickets to public servants travelling for public business. In principle, the traveller cannot select the type of ticket, which is issued based on the urgency of the journey and the official's rank.

For officials who travel frequently, a Long-term Official Travel Pass (永年公服乘用券) issued by National Rail allows them to obtain tickets at the counter free of charge, though the Pass is not a valid ticket per se. It details the traveller's name, likeness, position, and type of ticket entitled. The official's department needs to apply for the pass on the official's behalf, providing a valid reason why the public interest is better served by having a Pass rather than claiming the expense from the official's own department each journey. With a valid pass, the economic cost of the tickets issued under it are accrued to National Rail.

Long-term Official Travel Pass
Pass type Ticket claimable Issued to
First Class First Class seat on all day trains, single bedroom on night trains

Civil servants above Under Secretary
Military & naval officers above lieutenant general or vice admiral

Second Class Recliner Recliner seats
Couchette Couchette bunk on late night trains
Express Third Class seating on day express train (unreserved)
General Third Class seating on stopping train (unreserved)

National Rail restricts each department to a certain number of Official Travel Passes in the interest of abuse prevention, which often causes consternation (particularly in the armed forces) over their distribution.

Defence services

Under Themiclesia's general conscription starting in 1961, National Rail inaugurated special "Defence services" (戍職客車) and "Defence Limited Express" (戍職特快) services for defence servicepeople and other authorized passengers. Normal defence charter trains provide service between military bases and major cities, with the intention that servicepeople can enjoy a discounted fare for a large leg of their journey before they transfer to an ordinary service. The limited express variety run between major cities and serve primarily officers who need to travel for official purposes to other cities.

Servicepeople who take these special trains can apply their regimental discounts towrds a discounted tariff, resulting in a lower fare than otherwise obtained by their regimental discounts only; a normal Defence Train was tariffed at only 60% Third Class fare, and assuming a 5% regimental discount, a serviceperson taking this service would pay only 57% of normal fare. Other passengers whose journeys are deemed to be of a defence-related purpose may also enjoy the discounted tariff on the defence services, including Themiclesia's scounting organizations, staff at defence hospitals, cadets at junior non-commissioned officer schools, reservists travelling to and from their training sessions, etc.

Defence trains do not provide reserved seating, which causes overcrowding where there is a concentration of benefit-holders travelling to a common destination. Urban reservist units were sometimes mustered by their quartermasters at stations before boarding the train to the training location, resulting in an entire unit boarding a train and conflicting with passengers already in it. Due to school scheduling, defence services are also sometimes used by students leaving school in large groups. A frequent point of contention was whether a reservist's rucksack was entitled to a seat on an unreserved service, since inadequate baggage vans often left reservists travelling with their rucksacks as carry.

Non-servicepeople can also take defence trains, but they cannot enjoy the discounted base tariff available to servicepeople. Most travellers however avoid these trains because the coaches tend to be in a poor state of repair. Additionally, there is a persistent issue where servicepeople are unfriendly to non-servicepeople who take defence charters, even though the Ministry of Defence has announced stiff penalties for such "poor behaviour".

Ticket medium

  • A pre-printed Edmondson ticket was the primary medium for a railway ticket until the 1980s and can still be found at certain stations today. The ticket itself is a cardboard measuring about 57 × 30 mm sandwiched between two specialized paper surfaces that react to UV light as an anti-forgery measure. These tickets bear the name of the operator, the type and class of service, and the origin and destination on the obverse; a serial number, seat reservation information (if needed), and time of departure are on the reverse.
  • 1st generation computer tickets were experimentally introduced at a few major stations as early as 1970 and were printed on Edmondson ticket blanks by a daisy-wheel impact printer with the same information as a pre-printed Edondson ticket. Due to mechanical limitations these tickets had left-aligned text as opposed to the largely centre text on pre-printed texts.

Subways and light rail transit

Inter-city network

The inter-city network of National Rail
Line Hither end Thither end Length Electrified Cities served en route
Metric (km) Imperial
Inland Main Line Tsin Rak 406.3 251 mi 73 ch Yes Sin
Central Line Tsin Tenibh 797.1 494 mi 27 ch No Lrêng, Ploi, Sn′i
Northwest Main Line Tsin T′ub 526.7 326 mi 45 ch Yes Kengrakw, Mgraq
Skngrak Line Tsin Skngrak 833.6 516 mi 77 ch From Ped Mgraq, Ped, L′in
Coastal Main Line Tsin Skngrak 1109.8 688 mi 2 ch No Ngang, R′ad, Dzep
West Main Line Rim De 784.8 486 mi 42 ch To Ped Tor, Ngang, Ped, De
Tor Line Tsin Tor 235.6 146 mi 10 ch No
Prjin Main Line Tsin Qe-pa 702.9 435 mi 70 ch To Qe-pa Rim, Te, Qe-pa
Eastern Line Nek Rak 503.2 312 mi No K′an
P′an Line Tsin P′an 1423.6 882 mi 55 ch No
Southeast Line Rim Stseng 808.9 501 mi 43 ch No Stui, Nek
South Loop Tsin Nedrings 514.6 319 mi 12 ch No Nek, Gob-kri
South Main Line Tsin Ngwang-tu 362.0 224 mi 35 ch Yes Stui
North Transverse Line Rak Skngrak 692.5 429 mi 21 ch Yes Sn′i, T′ub, L′in
T′ub Line Rak De 434.6 269 mi 45 ch No Sn′i, Rap, T′ub
Central Transverse Line Rak Ngang 449.9 278 mi 79 ch Yes Ploi, Mgraq
Qong Main Line Rak Qong 218.8 135 mi 47 ch Yes
Tenibh Line Rak Skngrak 693.2 429 mi 69 ch No Tenibh, Pê
Riparian Line Rak Kengrakw 278.0 172 mi 30 ch No Lrêng
Sin Line Sin Lreng 102.1 63 mi 26 ch Yes
Kengrakw Line Kengrakw Ploi 113.6 70 mi 33 ch Yes
West Isthmus Line Qe-pa Sam 494.4 306 mi 39 ch No
East Isthmus Line Te Belong 307.3 190 mi 47 ch No
L′in Main Line Rim Mek 793.5 491 mi 77 ch No Loi, Ngang, Tats, Ped, Hrip, De, Pê
Prabay Line Qong Prabay 773.5 479 mi 45 ch No
Great Eastern Line Rak Sakarna 2235.8 1386 mi 17 ch To ′An ′An
Great Northern Line Qong Tiba 2336.5 1448 mi 43 ch No ′An, Apollonia
Ka-ra Line Apollonia Ka-ra 303.9 188 mi 31 ch No
Southwest Line Tsin Nedrings 281.8 174 mi 51 ch No Prit
Trans-Hemithean Railway Rim Doi 341.1 211 mi 44 ch No Nedrings, Ngwang-tu
Total 19518.6 12102 mi

In Themiclesian culture

See also

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