Northian grammar: Difference between revisions

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===Athematic===
===Athematic===
====Present====
====Present====
=====Active=====
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! 2 sg.
! 2 sg.
| '''kārnéu̯dzi || ekārneu̯z || kārneu̯z || ''kārneu̯ehi || kārnui̯ās || kārnuθi || kārnuθitoṯ
| '''kārnéu̯dzi || ekārneu̯š || kārneu̯š || ''kārneu̯ehi || kārnui̯ās || kārnuθi || kārnuθitoṯ
|-
|-
! 3 sg.
! 3 sg.
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=====Middle=====
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====Aorist====
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!  !!style="width: 8em"| Indicative !!style="width: 8em"| Imperfect !!style="width: 8em"| Injunctive !!style="width: 8em"| Subjunctive !!style="width: 8em"| Optative !!style="width: 8em"| Imperative !!style="width: 8em"| Future imp.

Revision as of 14:31, 10 June 2022

Northian grammar is highly synthetic.

Overview

Ablaut

Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not their meaning, that is inherited from Proto-Nordic-Northian and ultimately Proto-Erani-Eracuran. It affects nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs in Northian. Though ablaut was a regular process closely tied to accent in the reconstructed proto-language, by Galic times new ablaut formulae are no longer being made, and only a few ablauting formulae remained productive. Moreover, existing formulae have been disrupted by sound change and both general and sporadic analogical replacement. The result that surfaces in Galic Northian is a rich yet unpredictable set of alternate morphologies that confuses both modern readers and, often, even ancient Northians.

In nouns, there are three main ablaut patterns that Northian inherited from its ancestors, in the discourse of PEE called acrostatic, proterokinetic, and hysterokinetic. All three patterns are preserved in Galic Northian to one degree or another, summarized below. The proparoxytone category continues the PEE acrostatic pattern and its characteristic o/e ablaut, though synchronically this ablaut pattern is but attested in a few forms of a minority of nouns (e.g. nemə̄ṇġ gen. of nomə̄), the majority of proparoxytone nouns having arbitrarily generalized either o- or e-grade across the paradigm. The paroxytone group largely continues

Case Root Stem Ending PNN Galic
PP Nom. sg. ó ~ é Ø *pot-i-s potiš, "lord"
Acc. sg. é Ø *pot-i-m potim
Gen. sg. é Ø Ø *pet-i-s petiš
Nom. pl. é Ø *pet-i̯-es peθi̯iš
Acc. pl. é Ø *pet-i-ns petīn
PX Nom. sg. é Ø *ment-i-s menθiš, "mind"
Acc. sg. é Ø *ment-i-m menθim
Gen. sg. Ø é Ø *munt-ei̯-s munθēš
Nom. pl. é é *ment-ei̯-es menθēiš
Acc. pl. é Ø *ment-i-ns menθīn
OX Nom. sg. é Ø ~ ó *sēkl-oi̯-s sēkloi̯š, "treaty"
Acc. sg. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-um saklēum
Gen. sg. Ø Ø é *səkl-i-os sakli̯ō
Loc. sg. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-i saklei̯e
Nom. pl. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-es saklēiš
Acc. pl. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-uns saklåṇġ

These processes have occurred to the greater extent in the Epic language, but there the word forms were subject to more rigorous regularization.

Noun endings

Athematic

The following chart recapitulates the ordinary endings of athematic nouns in Galic Northian. Because the ablative is syncretized in the singular with the genitive in all athematic declensions and with the dative, with or without the instrumental, in the dual and plural, it is usually not listed separately in grammatical tables for athematic nouns.

Forms are often unpredictable and variable under the influence of ablaut, laryngeals reflexes, analogy, vowel contraction, and compensatory lengthening for illegal consonant clusters in coda position. All endings are subject to modification according to the suffix. OX stands for the oxytone group of patterns, and PX for the paroxytone group. Certain neuter nouns do not take plural endings but collective endings with a lengthened stem; these nouns are not formally predictable. Because neuter nouns always have the same nominative and accusative forms, only their nominative endings will be listed, and in grey.

Athematic endings
Singular Dual Plural Collective
OX PX + PP OX PX + PP
Nominative -V̄-Ø, -s, -å, -s, -ē, -a, -V̄, -V̄R-Ø, -es, -iš, -a, -V̄R-Ø -V̄-Ø
Vocative
Accusative -m, -um, -əm, -ə̄m -V̄n, -əṇġ, -ə̄ṇġ
Locative -i, -eC-Ø -eC-Ø -o, -i̯-u -ho, -šo -eC-Ø
Genitive -s, -V̄s, -V̄n, -V̄ṇġ -ōs -uš, -u̯-ō = sing.
Ablative -mō -V̄-m, -VC-ma -muš
Dative -ai̯C-e, -ei̯C-e, -Vi̯
Instrumental -ē, -å -C-a, -V̄R-Ø -vi̯as

A general discussion of the athematic declension cannot omit to mention that many of these divergent forms are conditioned on phonetic change, but so too there are divergences because the proto-forms themselves were likely divergent. Animate (= masculine and feminine) nouns may have been in the proto-language sigmatic in the nominative singular, that is ending in *-s, or asigmatic, that is without final *-s and instead taking a lengthened final vowel. The source of this lengthening is disputed: some authorities regard it as a consequence of a final *-s dropping after a resonant, but others hold it had no *-s originally and attribute the long vowel to ablaut variation sensitive to the morphologically strong case. In the case where a universal *-s as a designation of the nom. sing. is not accepted, some propose it is instead a designation for those terms originally neuter in gender used as an animate noun.

The view that nom. sing. is not characterized by final *-s is more often supported by scholars specialized in Northian, since this phonetic change (dropping final *-s after resonant) is attested later than the proto-language, which militates against its presence there. Nevertheless, final *-s has definitely been inserted to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistoric Northian, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution. We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants. Final *-s where present is always preserved after *i- and *u-, and their absence there indicates a noun is obligatorily neuter. Final *-s seems to have been mostly absent in resonant-stems, whose nom. sing. takes the long grade instead (i- and u-stems never have long grade in the nom. sing.). After consonants their distribution is not predictable: nepōt "grandchild" was asigmatic, but nohs "night", pontōs "path", and nouns ending in -tāθs certainly had *-s, which is altered after most stems.

The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases. Where the stem had *-s it is dropped, and without *-s the stem is in the full grade or short-vowel grade. In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m. In consonant stems it is vocalized as -m̥ > PNN *-um. After resonants, it is generally the ending *-m̥ that is vocalized as PNN *-um. But in Galic an unaccented ending *-um is always altered unless preceded by *y, to -ə̄m if the preceding syllable is light, and the short variant thereof, if heavy. Where the ending is a vowel or a glide, the bare ending of -m is found.

In the genitive, dative, and instrumental (oblique) cases, the acrostatic, proterokinetic, and hysterokinetic ablaut patterns in various suffixes give rise to different endings. The ending *-os > Galic -ō is proper to the OX nouns, but in the Epic language it is often applied to other stems; in either dialect, the ending rarely interacts with the stem and stays mostly visible. The proterokinetic and acrostatic ending was PNN *-s. After a full-grade ending, expected in a PX pattern, it is preserved where the suffix ends in a vowel as in ēš < *-ei̯-š and -eu̯-š, and the same for PPX patterns. After a resonant it is usually dropped and causes the preceding vowel to lengthen, cf. -mēn < *-men-s, but -ō could be re-attached to it when metrically convenient. After a zero-grade ending, in an PPX pattern, the fate of *-s is varied. In consonant clusters it usually caused deletion of intervening consonants, e.g. PNN *nekʷts > Galic nehš. After PNN *-un it generates -ūn, after *-um it was -ə̄ṇġ, after *-ur and *-ul it was -ūš.

The dative ending in OX is *-ei̯ > -ē; as the gen. this is the most often found ending beyond its natural environment. In PX final *-i becomes -e in Galic and causes some previous vowels to mutate, i.e. *eC > ei̯C and *aC > -ai̯C <ae>. Yet in the cases where it directly occurs after short vowels, it remains -i.

Thematic

The chart below illustrates the ordinary endings of the thematic (o-stem) declension of Galic. Because accentuation difference categorically does not trigger ablaut in o-stem nouns, their endings do not vary according to their accentual pattern, which is lexically fixed on the same syllable. Additionally, the presence of the theme vowel e ~ o obviates, in most cases, the resolution of consonant clusters and consequent irregularity in surface forms. With the exception of a few fixed athematic patterns, o-stem is the primary productive pattern in the Epic language.

Basic thematic endings
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative -ō, -om -ō, -oī -ōs,
Vocative -e
Accusative -om -ōn
Locative -ā̊ -ohu
Genitive -ōhi̯o -ā̊š -ā̊m
Ablative -ōd -vi̯as -vi̯ō
Dative -ōi̯
Instrumental -ōi̯š

Verbs

Stems

The relationship between verb-stems and endings they receive are as follows in the Galic language:

Present stem Aorist stem Perfect stem
Primary endings Present indicative tense
Secondary endings Injunctive tense Aorist indicative tense
Imperative endings Imperative tense Aorist imperative tense
Future imperative endings Future imperative tense
Perfect endings Perfect tense
Perfect imperative endings Perfect imperative tense

From each root, which is agnostic as to part of speech in the proto-language, can arise multiple stems classified as present, aorist, or perfect, differentiated by their affixes. To these stems are attached endings to constitute the finite verb, which conveys tense/aspect, mood, voice, person, and number.

Endings

Primary active endings Primary middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -me -ōne -mei̯ne 1P -ai -ōzθa -mozθa
2P -se -tas -te 2P -tai -tom -θō
3P -te -tes -nθe 3P -toi -tēm -ūs
Secondary active endings Secondary middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -m -me 1P -a -ōθa -meθa
2P -s -tas -te 2P -ta -ate -θō
3P -t -tes -nθ 3P -to -atē -r
Thematic active endings Thematic middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -ou̯ōs -omōs 1P -ōi -ou̯ōzθa -omozθa
2P -ei̯e -etas -ete 2P -etai -etom -eθō
3P -ei̯te -etes -o 3P -etoi -etēm -ēr
Imperative active endings Imperative middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P 1P
2P -θe -ta -te 2P -to -te -nθo
3P -sō -te -θō 3P -tō -tē -nθō
Perfect active endings Perfect middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -a -me 1P Where the perfect has transitive meaning, the middle is formed with the injunctive of es "to be" + perfect active participle
2P -ta -eta -e 2P
3P -e -ēte -r 3P

Evolution

Northian is one of the few Erani-Eracuran languages that retains multiple productive ablaut patterns in nouns, though hysterokinetic endings have gained ground in many stem-classes at the expense of proterokientic and acrostatic formations. This tendency is attributed to surface consistency in hysterokinetic endings, which are regularly accented sing. gen. -ō < *-os and dat. -ē < *-ei̯.  The proterokinetic and acrostatic endings tended to disappear through the erosion of final consonants and unaccented vowels. After most consonants, final -s disappears, lengthening the preceding vowel and modifying consonants in several ways, while final -i lowers to -e and causes preceding -e- > -ei̯- and -a- > -ai̯-. The places where *-s and *-i remain in situ are the i-, u-, ī-, ū-, ē-, and neuter n-stems (*-i only).

Despite recession, former proterokinetic nouns appear from "irregular" nouns that either retain proterokinetic endings, accentual positions, or both. The hysterokinetic ending is often simply appended to the stem already reflecting the proterokinetic ending, e.g. Epic pau̯ḗnō from Galic pau̯ḗn + hysterokinetic gen. ending , whereas a "true" hysterokinetic noun would have ending -ṓ and not a full-grade suffix.

In the dual nom. the preference for hysterokinesis was evident, and only neuter nouns were consistently inflected proterokinetically, probably because it had a distinct ending -ī that resisted phonetic assimilation. Where the stem ended in a resonant, the animate ending *-ə disappeared by regular sound change and cause compensatory lengthening. This created an anomalous stem with long vowel where it was not expected (only in the nom. sing. was long vowel expected). When this happened, only stem and root ablaut distinguished it from the inst. sing., so if the stem had lost ablaut, as often was the case, it would become identical to that form. In the other dual cases, however, proterokinetic forms survived for longer, but once the hysterokinetic form was introduced to the nom., it too often crept into the other cases (especially in the same speaker's utterances).

Some linguists propose that Galic poets retained more archaic patterns for their flexibility in verse, as full-grade endings generated heavy syllables and zero-grade generated light syllables. It is criticized that metrical considerations are absent in common speech, so it is questionable if ablaut patterns were retained there as long as it did in the poetic language. Indeed, while younger Galic metre may have been written as late as the 5th century BCE, productive proterokinetic patterns in Epic verse has been whittled to the i-, u-, and n-stems. The acrostatic pattern has been a vestigial, closed set since the earliest stages of Northian canon—it seems hard to avoid this conclusion if a term as basic as E.Nr. maetūr (G.Nr. mētūš) "mother's" was disappearing from children's speech in favour of maeθrō. Acrostatic n- and s-stems were no longer viable even while their proterokinetic cousins were. On the other hand, acrostatic formations have spread prehistorically to proterokinetic ones, in the ins. sing. of i- and u-stems, which often show zero-grade ending where full grade is expected.

Awareness of multiple ablaut patterns persisted well into the period of the Late Canon, attested in the chastisement of children who substitute oxytone endings for their paroxytone counterparts. Ancient grammarians divided nouns into two kinds based on the position of the accent in the gen. sing. form. The oxytone group includes all nouns that have accented endings, and paroxytone group, nouns that have unaccented endings. The grammarians teach that this predicts the endings and accent positions in other forms. Modern scholars accept that some parts of their teaching correctly identifies the contrast between proterodynamic and hysterodynamic endings, but the shape of the stem was not connected by the ancient grammarians to the position of the accent. Acrostatic nouns were considered an irregular type of proterokinetic nouns and not as its own class.

Nouns

Classes

The principal classes of nouns are discussed first. The following chart lists the stems and accent patterns that are attested in Galic Northian, as well as the genders of attested nouns. A green cell indicates that the attestation of a stem-accent paradigm is solid (five lemmas or more and paradigm more or less complete); a yellow cell indicates a marginal attestation (one to four lemmas or paradigm incomplete); a red cell indicates no or only dubious attestations.

-C -m -ns -mn -n -r -l -s -os/es -i -u -h₁ -h₂ -r/n -d -t -nt -woḏ -o
OX M/F F M M/F M/F M/F All M/F N M/F All M No M/F F N M/F M/F All All F M/N
PX F/N No No N No M/F No No N All All No F F F N N No No No No No
PPX F/N Yes No N No No F N All All N No No No N No All No No No No

As will appear from this schematic, there are few noun classes that exhibit all three patterns that continue the ablaut patterns of the proto-language; rather, there was a strong tendency for noun classes to coalesce on one pattern identified with the stem, or for masculine and feminine nouns to coalesce on one pattern and neuter nouns on another. In the latter case, neuter nouns are almost always identified with the paroxytone pattern, and masculine and feminine nouns with the oxytone. The exception is for i-stems and u-stems, where a considerable portion of masculine and feminine nouns inherit acrostatic patterns from the proto-language. In other cases, the skewed distribution of gender is inherited from the proto-language, as in the case of ī- and ū-stems, which historically are combinations of *i-h₂- and *u-h₂- and therefore take their feminine gender and proterokinetic pattern from the h₂-stems in PEE. Some nouns of this class have been further elaborated with an -s ending, which brings about the oxytone pattern and can be masculine in gender.

With the r-stems the acrostatic pattern has bled into the PX pattern.

Consonant-stems

The category of consonant-stems consist only of those that end in -p and -k, while resonant- and vowel-stem root nouns are discussed in their own categories, whether suffixed or not, as the phonological processes that apply to them generate similar results.

The noun āfš < PEE *h₂ēp-s "river" is often the poster-boy of the Northian nouns due to its straightforward stem and clear ablaut alteration between ā ~ a. op "force" is used for neuter nouns, displaying PEE e ~ Ø ablaut > Galic o ~ Ø. Both these nouns are of the OX type, displaying an accented genitive ending in -ō < PNN *-os.

sā āfš, "river" tod op, "force"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative āfš āpē āpiš op opī opa
Vocative āp
Accusative āpum āpə̄ṇġ
Genitive apō apōs apõ pōs
Locative ai̯pi apō apšo ei̯pi pšu
Dative apē apmō apmuš bmō bmuš
Instrumental apē

Another noun used for the same purpose is aps "river".

While o/e ablaut is considered canonical for PEE root nouns with acrostatic inflection, neuter nouns in Northian show neither o/e ablaut nor PP inflection: they are, for an unknown reason, all PX.

tōd osta, "bone"
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative osta ostī ostō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive stēs steuš ostō
Locative stēi̯ steo ostēi̯
Dative stēma ostē
Instrumental stē

osta "bone" is from PEE *h₃esth₁ and behaves somewhat like a -h₁ stem somewhat similar to ponθōs. In the sing. nom. the accented syllable is in e-grade which, under the influence of the initial laryngeal, becomes Galic o-. In the oblique cases, the root is in zero grade, the suffix being accented, and surfaces as stē < *h₃steh₁-. In the du. gen. and dat., the laryngeal ending of the stem scans as part of the ending syllable beginning in vowel and thus does not lengthen the stem vowel, creating the stem of ste-; in the dat. the ending does begin with a consonant, which then causes the laryngeal to be part of the suffix syllable and lengthens it. The plural is a collective and shows e-grade in the root and vr̩ddhied o-grade in the nom. ending < *h₃estōh₁ "bones (of a skeleton)". The oblique stem of the collective is from *h₃esth₁-, the full-grade root having spread from the nom., replacing *h₃sth₁-. Gen. ostō reflects *h₃esth₁-os. The collective loc. has *h₃esteh₁ > ostē-.

m-stems

This class is known from only a few but important nouns, θéɣå "earth", žō "winter", and "house". All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only a few examples, this may not be an actual rule in the proto-language.

se θéɣå, "earth"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θéɣå zémē zémiš
Vocative θéɣō
Accusative zémā zməṇġ
Genitive gmō gmōs gmõ
Locative zei̯me gmō gumho
Dative gmē gummō gummuš
Instrumental gūm

θéɣå is one of the rarer Northian words that reflects all three ablaut grades.

The behaviour of žõ "winter" is underlyingly similar to that of θéɣõ, but other phonetic changes have caused the surface forms to be altered in other ways.

ns-stems

mā̊ṇġ "moon" has one of the less transparent paradigms in Galic. In the received texts this word represents four morae, but the spelling does not reveal what the missing vowel. In view of the general development of PEE *-Hn̥s, most authorities write this word phonologically as måə̄ṇġ, standing for [māʔə̄ŋɡ̚]. It stands for PEE *mḗh₁n̥s > PNN *mḗuns > PN *māə̄ṇġ.

sā mā̊ṇġ, "moon, month"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mā̊ṇġ måṇhē måṇhiš
Vocative mā̊ṇġ
Accusative mēṇhum måhəṇġ
Genitive mēṇhō mēṇhmōs mēṇhõ
Locative mə̄ṇġ mēṇhō mēṇhsu
Dative māi̯ṇhe mēṇhmō mēṇhmuš
Instrumental mə̄ṇha

mn-stems

The mn-stems are prolific in Northian in both the Galic and Epic languages, and they exhibit three ablaut patterns. In this case, the oxytone pattern was normalized in masculine and feminine nouns, and the paroxytone in neuter nouns. The acrostatic ablaut pattern is restricted to a few inherited terms.

sā akmō, "stone"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative akmō akmenē akmeniš
Vocative akmo
Accusative akmenum kāṇġmuṇ
Genitive kāṇhmō kāṇhmōs kāṇhmõ
Locative kumeine kumnō kumuṇsu
Dative kāṇhmē kāṇhmō kāṇhmuš
Instrumental kāṇġma
tod θēmə̄, "house of a god, temple"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θēmə̄ θēmnī θēmnō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive šmēn šmenuš θumnō
Locative šmeno šmeni
Dative šmeni šmāṇma θumunmuš
Instrumental šmēn
tod nomə̄, "name"
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative nomə̄ nomnī nomå
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive nemə̄n nemnuš numnō
Locative nemnu nuṇhu
Dative nemne nemuṇma numuṇmuš
Instrumental nemūn

n-stems

There are also n-stems not as part of a suffix of *-mVn. As they are considerably rarer than the latter type, they are sometimes emphasized as "bare" n-stems. They are of two types, distinguished in the nom. sing., those with -ō and those with -ēn. Though uncommon, they are typical of family names in the Epic age.

In wei̯ō "wine", of the type ending in -ō, PNN stems are ablauting *wei̯-on- < *wei̯-Hon and *wī-n- < *wiH-n-. In the nom. sing. the root vowel is attracted by the final ō and becomes wei̯ō. In the oblique cases, stem *-n is altered before endings beginning in -m and becomes -ṇ.

sā wei̯ō, "wine"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative wei̯ō wei̯onē wei̯oniš
Vocative wei̯a
Accusative wīonum wei̯onə̄ṇġ
Genitive wīnō wīnōs wīnõ
Locative wīen wīnō wīṇhu
Dative wīē wīṇmō wīṇmuš
Instrumental wīn

ōrēn "lamb, ram" exemplifes the stems ending in -en-. The direct stem reflects PEE *wr̥h₁-en- > Galic ōr-en, by way of PNN *wurə-en, and the oblique *wr̥h₁-n- > PNN *wurə-n-. In both cases, PNN *wu dissimilates to *wo, and in Galic gives ō. This ablaut pattern contrasts with those in -on- in that the root is never accented and always shows zero-grade.

sa ōrēn, "ram"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ōrēn ōrenē ōreniš
Vocative ōren
Accusative ōrēn ōrenəṇġ
Genitive ōrnō ōrnōs ōrnõ
Locative ōreine ōrnō ōrāṇhu
Dative ōrnē ōrāṇmō ōrāṇmuš
Instrumental ōrnē

r-stems

R-stem nouns contain members from all three accentual patterns. mātar "mother" represents the group with PP accent, which persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade.  vrātar "brother" is declined in the same manner. This is a small group of nouns recognized by their unaccented endings in -ā̆́r.

sā mātar, "mother"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mātar mātūr māθriš
Vocative
Accusative māθrəm mātərəṇġ
Genitive mātūš māturuš māθrõ
Locative māθre māturo mātuššu
Dative māturma māturmuš
Instrumental māθra

Gen. mātūš < PNN *māturs < PEE *meh₂tr̥s, while māetūr is from the Epic language, which has restored the *r that has been dropped in *-rs. Dat. māθre < PEE *meh₂tri, with the (possibly) innovated zero-grade ending, contra full-grade ending *-ei̯. In the du. the stem ending in resonant causes final *-ə to drop and lengthen the preceding *u. The acc. pl. seems to reflect PEE *meh₂tr̥n̥s (which is irregular), while other Nordic languages point to *meh₂tern̥s, and neither form is particularly informative as both are in unison with respective nom. pl. stems. The Nordic form is assumed to be the original, with Northian one shows secondary change.

In Galic, mātūr "two mothers" is often an ellipsis for "mother and father".

sōhitār "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in -er and -or. They are recognizable by their zero-grade nom. endings and full-grade -ō endings in gen. The behaviour of the word ɣehār < PEE *ǵʰésr̥ "arm" is underlyingly identical. In the nom. sing. the strong stem reflects PNN *dʰwegə- < PEE *dʰwegh₁-; the weak stem from PNN *dʰugə- The initial *dʰwe > Galic sō-. The weak stem should expect to surface as *θuɣaθr-, but the initial aspirate is simply de-aspirated probably in avoidance of three consecutive fricatives to give attested *duɣaθr-, to which regular OX endings are appended.

sā sōhitār, "daughter"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sōhitār duɣaterē duɣateriš
Vocative
Accusative duɣaterum duɣaterəṇġ
Genitive duɣaθrō duɣaturōs duɣaθrõ
Locative duɣaθrē duɣaturō duɣatuššu
Dative duɣaturmō duɣaturmō
Instrumental duɣaθrē

ptå "father" is at a small variance from the pattern of "daughter", where in the nom. the accent is on the ending instead of the stem; otherwise, it follows the pattern of "daughter" nearly exactly. Only the gen. form paθrūš is aberrant and is influenced by "mother"; this genitive ending is common to all two-syllable nouns ending in -r, with the exception of "hand". patå reflects PNN *patēr, with resonants regularly lost after long vowels in final position, possibly becoming *patēə then > patå /patā.a/.

sa ptå, "father"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ptå pterē pteriš
Vocative pter
Accusative pterum pterəṇġ
Genitive fθrūš fθrōš paθrõ
Locative fθrē pterō fθruššu
Dative pturmō pturmuš
Instrumental fθūr

The paroxytone declension of āštar "star" has a unique blend of formations expected from PPX and PX patterns. The nom. sing. āštar reflects PEE *h₂eh₁str̥, a form not seen elsewhere in Erani-Eracuran. Gen. strūš could mechanical restore to PEE *h₂h₁str̥s, but the zero-grade forms are, in all likelihood, from "mother" or "brother" and have displaced the expected PX form *h₂h₁sters, in a way contrary but not unparalleled in the general analogical preferences of Northian.

sa āštar, "star"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative āštar stēr steriš
Vocative
Accusative āsterum strəṇġ
Genitive strūš struš sterõ
Locative steire stro steššu
Dative sterma stermuš
Instrumental stēr

An r-stem noun not within the formation -tr is "man", gen. drō < PNN *nros. As it is seen this noun originally has hysterokinetic accent, but acc. sing. drum and pl. drə̄ṇġ reflect PEE zero-grade stem *nr-. Nom. pl. neriš is the only place where the full-grade stem appears in the paradigm.

sa nå, "man, male person"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative drē neriš
Vocative
Accusative drum drə̄ṇġ
Genitive drō drōs drõ
Locative ner drō duššu
Dative drē durmō durmuš
Instrumental drē

l-stems

The l-stems originally inflect as other ablauting consonant stems, but because intervocalic *-l- regularly > -y-, the resulting paradigm presents certain quirks not seen in the normal consonant-stem paradigm.

sa sē, "salt" = ἅλς
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sai̯ē sai̯iš
Vocative se
Accusative sai̯um sai̯ə̄ṇġ
Genitive slō slōs slõ
Locative sai̯i̯e slō sullu
Dative slē sullus
Instrumental sla
tod abō, "apple"
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative abə̄ abolī abå
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive abei̯š abluš ablō
Locative abēi̯ ablo abēi̯
Dative abei̯le abulla ablē
Instrumental abē

s-stems

The noun au̯šōs "dawn" is an OX animate noun. The noun has three basic stems: the strong stem which appears in the sing. nom. and voc. comes from PEE *h₂eu̯s-os-, with regular lengthening of the final syllable anticipating a zero nominative ending; the middle stem appears in the other direct cases and is from *h₂us-es-; the weak stem appears in all other cases and is from *h₂us-s-, with full-grade endings as expected in oxytone words.

sā au̯šōs, "dawn"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative au̯šōs ušezē ušeziš
Vocative au̯šō
Accusative ušehum ušehəṇġ
Genitive uššō uššōs uššõ
Locative ušei̯še uššō ūššu
Dative uššē uššmō uššmuš
Instrumental uššē

The word mūš "mouse" is a non-ablauting s-stem nouns.

sā mūš, "mouse, small rodent"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mūš mūšē mūšiš
Vocative mūš
Accusative mūšum mūšəṇġ
Genitive mūšō mūšōs mūšõ
Locative mūše mūšō mūššu
Dative mūšē mūšmō mūšmuš
Instrumental mūšē

os/es-stems

The os/es-stems are a class of very common neuter nouns in Northian and are directly cognate to those found in Nordic languages. Together they have both PX and PPX patterns. Though in Galic times and later only the PX pattern is productive, there are four or five very common PPX os/es-stem nouns constituting a nearly-complete paradigm.

In PX the nom. sing. ended in -ō, which is a regular reflex of PNN and PEE *-os; this *-os is not to be confused for the thematic nom. ending or the athematic OX gen. ending and instead is a bare stem. The gen. ended in -eh-ō < PNN and PEE *-es-os, intervocalic *s before back vowel regularly > h, possibly by retraction. In the dat. intervocalic *s > z before front and central vowel, as is the case in the du. and pl. nom. Before endings beginning with consonant, s is preserved or altered in regular ways.

tod kretō, "intellect, power"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kretō kreteza kreteza
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive kretehō kretehuš kretehõ
Locative kretei̯ze kreteho kretessu
Dative kretesma kretesmuš
Instrumental kreteza

The PPX version of this stem had a few differences to the PX version that enabled it to withstand the general tendency to substitute PPX with PX or OX forms; its preservation cannot be unlinked with the prevalence and prominence of the noun menō "mind", a central idea in the Galic religion and often mentioned in the Gales. The nom. sing. was menō < PEE *men-os, with ending -ō undergoing the same changes as the PX counterpart. The gen. had mēṇġ < PNN and PEE *men-s-s. In dat. meṇhi < PEE *men-s-i the preservation of final *-i is irregular.

tod menō, "mind"
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative menō meṇhī meṇhōs
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive mēṇġ meṇhuš māṇhō
Locative meṇhi meṇho meṇhēs
Dative meṇhma maṇhē
Instrumental meṇha

i-stems

The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In PEE, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all contexts, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different. Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.

sa sokiš, "ally"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sokiš skoi̯ē sokoi̯es
Vocative soki
Accusative sokim skoim
Genitive skiō skiōs skiõ
Locative skoi̯e skiō skihu
Dative skiē skimō skimuš
Instrumental skī
sā menθis, "thought" tod more, "sea"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Collective
Nominative menθiš menθēi̯ menθei̯es more morēi̯ merōi̯
Vocative meinθe
Accusative menθim menθīn
Genitive munθēs munθēuš munθei̯õ mrēs mrēuš meri̯õ
Locative munθēi munθēu munθēhu mrei̯ē mrēo merihu
Dative munθēma munθēmuš mrēma merimuš
Instrumental munθēi̯ meri̯
sa potis, "master"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative potis potī potiiš
Vocative poti
Accusative potim potīn
Genitive potis potiuš potiõ
Locative poti potio potisu
Dative potīm potimuš
Instrumental potī

u-stems

The plain u-stems of Northian reflect three ablaut patterns, and excepting the acrostatic they are both attested abundantly in the Galic language. The acrostatic pattern provides only inherited nouns, with no sign that new terms with this pattern were made.

sā genōš, "chin" tod dāno, "dew, tears"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative genōš geneu̯ē geneōs dāno dāunnī dānū
Vocative genō
Accusative genōm geneõ
Genitive gunnō gunnōš gunuõ daunnō daunnōš daunnõ
Locative gunei̯ō gunnō gunuhu ? daunnō daunuhu
Dative gunōi̯ gunumō gunumuš daunōi̯ daunumō daunumuš
Instrumental gunū daunnū

The OX pattern had a nom. sg. ending in PNN *-ou̯-s which regularly gave Galic -ō-š, the final -š being a regularly conditioned result of *-is and *-us. The gen. and dat. reflects PNN *-u-os and *-u-ei̯ as expected in a hysterokinetic pattern. The loc. shows full-grade in the stem reflecting PNN *-eu̯-i > *ei̯-u̯e > Galic -ei̯-ō. The ins. may reflect PEE *gen-u-eh₁ or *gen-u-h₁, and the metre does not clarify. The dual behaves as expected. In the plural, final -eōs < *-eu̯-es, as though *-e-u̯es. The expected *-eu̯-iš anomalously does not occur with OX nouns but does with PX nouns, which may be a dialectal influence. The acc. shows -eõ which is from *-eu̯-ōn < *-eu̯-ons < *-eu̯-uns.

In contrast with common-gender u-stem OX nouns, neuter u-stem OX nouns are very rare, and only one item dāno "dew, tear" is well-attested. The nom. sing. is from PEE *déh₂nu > PNN *dānu. The oblique stem is from PEE *dh₂n̥-u- > Galic daunn- because *-nu̯- is subject to assimilation to -nn-. The dual has *dāun-w- (effectively a mixture between direct and oblique stems) because the neuter dual ending is vocalic and causes the preceding *-w- to become a consonant, which then causes the *-n- preceding it to become *-n̥-. Interestingly, a person's tears is usually inflected as a dual, possibly itemizing tears as "streams of tears" coming from a person's eyes (which is by default inflected as dual).

sa sui̯us, "child" = υἱύς tod pōi̯o, "flock" = πῶυ
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Collective
Nominative sui̯uš sui̯ēu̯ sui̯eu̯iš pōi̯o pii̯ēu̯ pāi̯ōu̯
Vocative sui̯o
Accusative sui̯um sui̯ə̄ṇġ
Genitive sui̯ōš sui̯eu̯ō sui̯eu̯õ pii̯ōš pii̯eu̯ō pai̯uō
Locative sui̯eu̯i sui̯eu̯a sui̯eu̯hu pii̯eu̯i pii̯eu̯a pai̯ēu̯
Dative sui̯eu̯ma sui̯eu̯muš pii̯eu̯ma pai̯uē
Instrumental sui̯ēu̯ pai̯eu̯

The PX pattern in u-stem nouns is very prolific in both the Galic and Epic languages. Many are abstract nouns with the ending -tuš. The nom. ended in -uš, but it is not uncommon in the Late Canon material to see -ō. While many nouns would show root ablaut, the example provided above does not and therefore has all components in zero grade in the nom; the hypothetical forms *seu̯i̯uš or *sou̯i̯uš would be expected based on the general ablaut tendencies, but it is in fact the proto-form of sui̯uš that is attested in all EE languages. The gen. ended in *-ou̯-s, whence -ō-š. All the other oblique cases show -eu̯- in the suffix, which does very early spread to the gen. as well, such that -eu̯-s actually outnumbers the older -ou̯-s by a factor of more than 40 to 1.

The ins. sing. and nom. du. have identical endings becuase their PEE forms were both *eu̯-h₁ > Galic -ēu̯. The gen. du. has -eu̯ō, which reflects *eu̯-us; here, the final *-us dissimilated from the preceding vowel and became *-os, which regularly > -ō. The loc. has -eu̯-a which is the reflex of *-eu̯-o dissimiliated from *-eu̯-u. The nom. pl. and acc. have the expected forms, with PNN *-uns > Galic -ə̄ṇġ. All other forms in the plural are straightforward.

The neuter version of the PX u-stems displays regular ablaut, which alternates strong and weak stems. The strong has o-grade from PEE *poh₂-i̯u > PNN *pōi̯u > Galic pōi̯o. The oblique stem is from PEE *ph₂-i̯ou̯-s > PNN *pə-i̯ou̯-s > Galic pii̯ōš, where PNN *ə regularly becomes Galic -i- before high vowels or their allophones. The du. and pl. nom. have the same form because their endings in PEE were *-h₁ and *-h₂ respectively, which were levelled and trigger Cammer's law lengthening the preceding vowel.

sa θeɣus, "fish" = ἰχθύς tod doru, "wood" = δόρυ
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θeɣuš θeɣō θeɣōs doru dorō dorō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive zuš zuuš zuõ deruš deruuš deruõ
Locative zui zuo zuru derō deruo denuru
Dative zuma zumuš deruma derumuš
Instrumental derū

xͮōn

xͮōn "woman" continues the PEE proterodynamic declension ending in *-h₂. This suffix also underlies the ī- and ū-stem declensions in Northian but is otherwise rarely seen alone. The full-grade stem is from *gʷénh₂-, and the zero-grade *gʷnéh₂-.

sā xͮōn, "woman" = γυνή
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative xͮōn žnå xͮenas
Vocative xͮen
Accusative xͮenum xͮenān
Genitive žnās žnāuš žnāõ
Locative žnāi̯ žnāo žnāhu
Dative žnāma žnāmuš
Instrumental žnå

ī-stems

The ī-stems in oxytone is rare and contains only a few nouns.

sā sθerīs, "heifer"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sθerīs sθerī sθurīiš
Vocative sθerī
Accusative sθerīum sθurīəṇġ
Genitive sθurīō sθurīōs sθurīõ
Locative sθurīē sθurīō sθunīru
Dative sθurīmō sθurīmuš
Instrumental sθurīē

By contrast, the ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns.

sā genaθrī, "genitrix"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative gēnθrī genaθrī genaθrīes
Vocative
Accusative gēnθrīum genaθrīəṇġ
Genitive gunaθri̯ēs gnaθri̯ēuš gnaθri̯ēõ
Locative gnaθri̯ēi gnaθri̯ēo gnaθri̯ēhu
Dative gnaθri̯ēma gnaθri̯ēmuš
Instrumental gnaθri̯ē

ū-stems

The ū-stems were exactly parallel to the ī-stems at the PEE and PNN levels, but due to phonetic changes have become nearly unrecognizable. The nom. sing. of hysterokinetic stems had accented root syllable and an ending in PEE *-uh₂-s > *PNN *-ūs > Galic *-ūš. The acc. would have ended in PEE *-u̯eh₂-m̥ > PNN *-wē-um. In Galic, *-wē- regularly > -i̯ō-, as also in loc. In the oblique cases, the stem ended in -ū-, to which full-grade endings were added. The zero-grade stem has replaced the original full-grade one in the dual nom. such that it projects the (implausible) PEE form *tn̥-uh₂-h₁. The metrically trimoraic -ū ending represents final *-ūᵊ, as otherwise it would have become *-ō.

sā tenūš, "body"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tenūš tunūᵊ tunōs
Vocative
Accusative tuni̯ōum tunu̯åṇġ
Genitive tunuō tunuōs tunuõ
Locative tuni̯ōi tunuō tunūhu
Dative tunūā tunumō tunūmuš
Instrumental tunuā

The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely sokrō "mother-in-law".

sā sokrō, "mother-in-law" = socrus
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sokrō sokrēu̯ sokrēu̯iš
Vocative
Accusative sokrēu̯õ sokrēṇġ
Genitive sokrēu̯s sokrēu̯uš sokrēu̯õ
Locative sokrēi̯e sokrēu̯ō sokrēu̯ru
Dative sokrēu̯ma sokrēu̯muš
Instrumental sokrēu̯[a?]

The term pūlθvēs "crowd, multitude" has a unique pattern and is only found in the singular.

sā pūlθvēs, "crowd, multitude" = plebs
Singular
Nominative pūlθvēs
Vocative pūlθvē
Accusative pūlθvēum
Genitive pūlθuō
Locative pūlθvē
Dative pūlθuē
Instrumental pūlθuē

r/n-stems

The r/n-stems, or heteroclitics, continue a class of (mostly agreed to be) archaic EE nouns that had different suffixes depending on case even at the level of the proto-language. They are special in that they are all neuter nouns with fundamental meanings and show acrostatic > PPX or proterokinetic > PX ablaut in the singular and dual. These nouns do not take plural endings in Galic times but rather form a "collective" which take OX singular endings. In this respect they are similar to mn-stems and dissimilar to es/os-stems, which are both reserved to neuter nouns. In the Epic language, many heteroclitics also formed ordinary plurals from the zero-grade stem, which agree with singular verbs and have meanings different to their collective brethren.

In the Galic language, many heteroclitic nouns have opaque forms owing to their (generally) short stem and susceptibility to ablaut, vocalization, and internal sandhi. From a historical angle, there are three heteroclitic stems that give rise to differing forms in Northian—those in *-wr̥/wn-, *-Hr̥/Hn-, and *-rr̥/rn-. The type of "dwelling" ended in PEE *-r-r̥ in the nominative, but the second *r is syncopated into the first in its evolution to Northian; the oblique stem assimilates to -nn-. The type with nom. ending in -ō such as perå "mountain" ended in *-wr̥ in the proto-language. This ending would first become PNN *-wur, then Northian *-wor; in Galic, *-wo- following a vowel regularly becomes -å. For the stems ending in laryngeal, the effect is most noticeable before the PX ending *-ens; this ending surfaces as -āš after *h₂- and -ōḥ after *h₃-.

PP i̯å "year", is from *yoh₁-r̥ > *yō-ur, gen. *yeh₁-n̥-s > *yē-uns. In Galic, unaccented final -ur regularly drops and lengthens preceding syllable. The strong stem with *-r- is visible in the dual nom. In the gen., *uns > *ə̄ṇġ. In the dat. the long vowel resists mutation caused by final short *-i. The ins. ending has dropped, but the preceding long vowel cannot be further lengthened to *å because it is closed. The rest of the du. behaves as expected. In the collective, the stems are from the e-grade and zero grade (as opposed to o-grade and e-grade of the PPX singular and dual). The nom. has a vṛddhied ending. The zero-grade stem is from *ih₁-n- > Galic īn-, and OX endings follow as usual.

i̯å is famously found in G.Nr. 59/2, using the similarity between the word for a single year and a group of years, i.e. an age or epoch, to contemplate the relationship between a single revolution of the annual cycle and the cycle of annual cycles, i̯ā̊ toi̯ i̯ə̄ṇġ, īnō i̯å "ages from year, year of ages".

tod i̯å, "year" = ὥρα
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative i̯å i̯ōrī i̯ā̊
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive i̯ə̄ṇġ i̯ēnuš īnō
Locative i̯ēne i̯ēno iei̯ne
Dative i̯ēṇma īnē
Instrumental i̯ēn īnā

pāu̯ar "fire" represents the heteroclitic nouns with proterokinetic pattern, with accented stem in the oblique cases. The PNN form is *pāwur and gen. *pəwens, from PEE *peh₂-wr̥ and gen. *ph₂wen-s. In the nom., the sequence *-wu- differentiates to *-wo- prehistorically. In the gen. *ə before -e- regularly becomes -a-. Final *-s drops and causes the preceding *-e- to lengthen. Mutation occurs in the dat. with *-e- > -ei̯-.

tod pāu̯ar, "fire" = πῦρ
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative pāu̯ar pāu̯orī pāu̯å
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive pau̯ēn pau̯enuš pūnō
Locative pau̯ei̯ne pau̯eno pūne
Dative pau̯eṇma pūnē
Instrumental pau̯ēn pūn

Other common heteroclitic nouns include:

  • PX aɣar ɣēn "day"
  • PX petar ptå "feather"
  • PPX woθar woθə̄ṇġ "water" < PEE *wodr̥ *wodn̥s
  • PPX perå perō "mountain"
  • PPX på perə̄ṇġ "house"

l/n-stems

sā̊l, phonologically probably sāōl, "the Sun" continues the PEE heteroclitic stem in *-l/n-. The strong stem descends from PEE *seh₂w- > sāw-; the weak stem from *sh₂ew- > saw-. The nominative is due to the regular sound change of *wu > wo. Genitive has hu̯ə̄ṇġ, for expected *hwēn < *swens < *sh₂wens; this possibly suggests the proterokinetic ending *-ens was replaced by acrostatic ending *-n̥s prehistorically, as from from PNN *swuns < PEE *sh₂wn̥s. However, because other Nordic languages show a reflex of *sh₂wens, the insertion of the acrostatic ending must have occurred only after Northian diverged from PNN.

The word sā̊l signifies a heavenly body that is considered a god in early Northian religion and is usually found in the singular in the Galic language. There in in the dual, "the two Suns" is an ellipsis for "the Sun and the Moon". After the Late Canon period, the genitive dual sunuš < PEE **sh₂wn-us displaced the singular hu̯ə̄ṇġ in all but ritualistic contexts as the normal word for "Sun's". During the imperial period, the stem from the dual was re-interpreted as an o-stem and formed the neologism sunō for the nom. sing., which also replaced sā̊l in non-ritualistic contexts.

sā sā̊l, "the Sun"
Singular Dual
Nominative sā̊l sāwa
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive hu̯ə̄ṇġ sunuš
Locative hu̯ei̯n sunui̯
Dative suṇma
Instrumental hu̯ēn

d-stems

The d-stems are a special class in Northian because *-d behaves like a resonant, rather than an obstruent, in certain phonetic environments and permits compensatory lengthening when final *-ə drops after it, cf. dual nom. in paroxytone.

sā xͮrēθs, "root" tod kerd, "heart" = καρδία
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative xͮrēθs xͮrēθē xͮrēθiš kerd krēd kordō
Vocative xͮrēd
Accusative xͮrēdum xͮrēdəṇġ
Genitive ōrdō ōrdōs ōrdō krēθs kreθuš kurdō
Locative xͮrēd ōrdo ōrššu kerde kreθu kerde
Dative ōrdē ōrhmō ōrhmuš kresma kurdē
Instrumental ōrdē krēd

t-stems

sa nēp, "grandchild"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nēpōt nepotē nepotiš
Vocative
Accusative nepotum neptəṇġ
Genitive neptō neptōs neptõ
Locative nepoti neptō neptru
Dative nepte neptmō neptmuš
Instrumental nepta
sā nōi̯h, "evening, night"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nōi̯h nexͮša noxͮšiš
Vocative
Accusative noxͮšum noxͮšəṇġ
Genitive nēh nexͮšuš nexͮšõ
Locative nexͮše nexͮšo nexͮššu
Dative naohma naohmuš
Instrumental nexͮša

From PEE *n̥-mr̥teh₂ts > PNN *ummurtāts > Galic āṇmurtāθs.

sā āṇmurtāθs, "immortality"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative āṇmurtāθs āṇmurtātē āṇmurtātiš
Vocative āṇmurtāḥ
Accusative āṇmurtātum āṇmurtātəṇġ
Genitive āṇmurtātō āṇmurtātōs āṇmurtātõ
Locative āṇmurtāθ āṇmurtātō āṇmurtāššu
Dative āṇmurtātē āṇmurtāsmuš
Instrumental āṇmurtāta

nt-stems

The nt-stems are very closely associated with the formation of the present active participle in -nt-. But while participles have distinct masculine, feminine, and neuter forms, nt-stem nouns have the form of masculine participles and lexical gender. With nouns in -m, nt-stems often have three ablaut grades.

sā wēθš, "wind"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative wēθš ōnθē ōnθiš
Vocative wēnṯ
Accusative ōnθum ōnθəṇġ
Genitive uunθō uunθōs uunθõ
Locative ōnθe uunθō uunššo
Dative uunθē uunθmō uunθmuš
Instrumental uunθē

ponθōs

The word ponθōs "path" had a stem ending in PEE *póntoh₁- ~ pn̥th₁-, with dual ablauting syllables that always show the same grades. This word appears to be unique in all Erani-Eracuran languages in the stem formation it has.

sa ponθōs, "path, way"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ponθōs ponθōi̯ ponθōiš
Vocative
Accusative ponθōm punθōn
Genitive punθō punθōs punθõ
Locative ponθō punθō punθu
Dative punθē punθmō punθmuš
Instrumental punθē

a-stems

sā mihrā, "mist"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mihrā mihrāī mihrās
Vocative
Accusative mihrām mihrāṇġ
Genitive mihrās mihrāōs mihrõ
Locative mihrāi mihrāō mihru
Dative mihrāi̯ mihrāmō mihurmuš
Instrumental mihrā

o-stems

sa θūmō, "smoke" tod i̯uɣõ, "yoke"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θūmō θūmō θūmōis i̯uɣõ i̯uɣōī i̯uɣō
Vocative θūme
Accusative θūmõ θūmōn
Genitive θūmōhi̯o θūmōuš θūmōõ i̯uɣōhi̯o i̯uɣōuš i̯uɣōõ
Locative θūmē θūmōu θūmōi̯o i̯uɣē i̯uɣōu i̯uɣōi̯o
Dative θūmōi̯ θūmōma θūmōmuš i̯uɣōi̯ i̯uɣōma i̯uɣōmuš
Instrumental θūmō i̯uɣō

Acrean words

Many words in Northian are Old Nordic loanwords from speakers of Acrean, which was used as a lingua franca in western Eracura for centuries under the influence of the Acrean Empire. These words were so numerouš that many were not nativized and were declined according to an approximation of the thematic declension in Old Nordic. For the most part, these endings are exact cognates with the thematic ones in Northian, but because of intervening sound changes, they are taught separately. Where there was a distinct vocative, the nominative form has displaced it. There are also no dual forms for these nouns, for which neologisms have sometimes been suggested, to no general acceptance. Since Old Nordic had no locative case, this form is always identical to the dative where Northian syntax demands the locative.

sa wulhʷā, "any lupine animal" = lupus tod ēta, "food"
Singular Dual and plural Singular Dual and plural
Nominative wulhʷā wulhʷōs ēta ētō
Vocative
Accusative wulhʷuŋ wulhʷān
Genitive wulhʷas wulhʷõ ētas ētõ
Locative wulhʷāi wulhʷamas ētai̯ ētamas
Dative
Instrumental wulhʷō wulhʷamis ētō ētamis

Irregular nouns

Country names

All country-names in Northian are feminine in gender, though the declensions may not reflect this readily. Nevertheless they agree with feminine adjectives and participles in all cases.

"Æþurheim", the name of the country to the southwest of Shalum, has an invariant stem with full grade throughout and initial persistent accent in Aí̯θrō-, which takes oxytone endings. The vocative form is identical to the nominative, showing full grade. Because the accent is in its expected position in the nom. and voc. forms, the acute accent on the i is not necessary there, while it is found in all other forms to denote the irregular accent.

"Shalum" behaves in a manner more reminiscent of a regular n-stem noun in oxytone and has the expected endings and accentual positions, but the stem does not display apophony as is usual in this class of nouns.

"Acrea" is named Aṇhrōs, which is a compound from aṇh- "lord" and rōs "realm, power", gen. Aṇhurō.

sā Ai̯θrō, "Æþurheim" sā Halō, "Shalum" sā Aṇhrōs, "Acrea" sā Silū, "Silua" sā Hu̯inī, "Svinia" sā Ossorī, "Ossoria"
Singular Singular Singular Singular Singular Singular
Nominative Ai̯θrō Halō
Vocative
Accusative Aí̯θrōnum Halomnum
Genitive Aí̯θrōnō Halomnō
Locative Aí̯θrōni Halomei̯ne
Dative Aí̯θrōnē Halomnē
Instrumental Aí̯θrōn Halomna

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms. Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.

u-stems

Two-stem

meθus; umθeus

m. and f. meθus, "sweet" n. meθu, "sweet"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative meθus meθēu meθeuiš meθu meθuī meθū
Vocative meθu
Accusative meθum meθə̄ṇġ
Genitive āṇθeus āṇθeuō āṇθeuõ āṇθeus āṇθeuō āṇθeuõ
Locative āṇθeu āṇθeuo āṇmθeuhu āṇθeu āṇθeuo āṇθeuhu
Dative āṇθeui āṇθeuma āṇθeumus āṇθeui āṇθeuma āṇθeumus
Instrumental āṇθēu āṇθēu

-us/-o/-ō

m. tenus, "thin" n. teno, "thin" f. tenō, "thin"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tenus tenēu̯ teneu̯iš teno teneu̯ī tenēu̯ tenō tenū tenuas
Vocative teno
Accusative tenum tenuṅ tenūum tenūūŋ
Genitive tuneu̯s tuneu̯ō tuneu̯õ tuneu̯s tuneu̯ō tuneu̯õ tunu̯ōs tunu̯ōus tunu̯ōõ
Locative tuneu̯ tuneu̯o tuneu̯hu tuneu̯ tuneu̯o tuneu̯hu tunu̯ōi tunu̯ōu tunu̯ōhu
Dative tuneu̯i tuneu̯ma tuneu̯mus tuneu̯i tuneu̯ma tuneu̯mus tunu̯ōi tunu̯ōma tunu̯ōmus
Instrumental tunēu̯ tunēu̯ tunu̯å

-us/-u/-wī

m. hu̯ēθus, "sweet" n. hu̯ēθo, "sweet" f. hu̯ēsu̯ī, "sweet"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative hu̯ēθus hu̯ēθēu̯ hu̯ēθeu̯iš hu̯ēθo hu̯ēθeu̯ī hu̯ēθēu̯ hu̯ēsu̯ī hu̯ēsu̯īi hu̯ēsu̯ias
Vocative hu̯ēθo
Accusative hu̯ēθum hu̯ēθuṅ hu̯ēsu̯īəm hu̯ēsu̯īə̄ṅḫ
Genitive hūθeu̯š hūθeu̯ō hūθeu̯õ hūθeu̯š hūθeu̯ō hūθeu̯õ hūθui̯ēs hūθui̯ēus hūθui̯ēõ
Locative hūθeu̯ hūθeu̯o hūθeu̯šu hūθeu̯ hūθeu̯o hūθeu̯šu hūθui̯ēi hūθui̯ēu hūθui̯ēhu
Dative hūθeu̯i hūθeu̯ma hūθeu̯muš hūθeu̯i hūθeu̯ma hūθeu̯muš hūθui̯ēi hūθui̯ēma hūθui̯ēmuš
Instrumental hūθēu̯ hūθēu̯ hūθui̯ō

i-stems

m. θrēstiš, "sad" n. θrēste, "sad" f. θristēī, "sad"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θrēštiš θrēstī θrēštēiš θrēšte θrištēī θrištē θrištēī θrištēīi θrištēas
Vocative θrēšte
Accusative θrēštim θrēstiuṅ θrištēīəm θrištēīə̄ṅḫ
Genitive θrištēš θrištēus θrištēõ θrištēš θrištēus θrištēõ θrištiēs θrištiēus θrištiēõ
Locative θrištēi̯ θrištēo θrištēhu θrištēi̯ θrištēo θrištēhu θrištiēi θrištiēu θrištiēhu
Dative θrištēi θrištēma θrištēmuš θrištēi θrištēma θrištēmuš θrištiēi θrištiēma θrištiēmuš
Instrumental θrištēi̯ θrištēi̯ θrištiē

nt-stems

From PEE *rh₁-wénts, "rich in possessions", from *reh₁s, "possession".

m. raå, "wealthy" n. raōn, "wealthy" f. raōnθī, "wealthy"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative raå raōnθē raōnθiš raōn raōnθī raōnθa raōnθī raōnθī raōnθias
Vocative raōn
Accusative raōnθum raōnθə̄ṇġ raōnθīum raōnθīə̄ṇġ
Genitive raunθō raunθōs raunθõ raunθō raunθōs raunθõ raunθi̯ēs raunθi̯ōus raunθi̯ōõ
Locative raōn raunθō raunššu raōn raunθō raunššu raunθi̯ō raunθi̯ōu raunθi̯ōhu
Dative raunθē raūṇhmō raunθmus raunθē raūṇhmō raunθmus raunθi̯ēi̯ raunθi̯ōma raunθi̯ōmus
Instrumental raunθē raunθē raunθi̯å

The present active participles of verbs have a stem ending in -nt-. From PEE *h₁es-n̥ts.

m. ehūš, "being" n. ehūnθ, "being" f. ehunθī, "being"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ehūš ehunθē erunθiš ehūnθ ehunθī ehunθa ehunθī ehunθī ehunθīas
Vocative ehūθ
Accusative senθum senθə̄ṇġ senθīum senθīə̄ṇġ
Genitive hunθō hunθōs hunθõ hunθō hunθōs hunθõ hunθi̯ēs hunθi̯ōuš hunθi̯ōõ
Locative senθe hunθō hunššu senθe hunθō hunššu hunθi̯ō hunθi̯ōu hunθi̯ōhu
Dative hunθē huṇhmō hunθmuš hunθē huṇhmō hunθmuš hunθi̯ēi̯ hunθi̯ōma hunθi̯ōmuš
Instrumental hunθē hunθē hunθi̯å

es-stems

m. and f. humenēs, "well-intended" n. huméniš, "well-intended"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative humenēs humenezē humeneziš huméniš humenezī hunmeneha
Vocative huméniš
Accusative humenehum hunenehəṇġ
Genitive humenezō humenehōs humenehõ humenezō humenehōs humenehõ
Locative humenes humenehō humenessu humenes humenehō humenessu
Dative humenezē humenehmō humenehmus humenezē humenehmō humenehmus
Instrumental humenezē humenezē

woḏs-stems

From PEE *bʰebʰidʰ-wṓs, forms perfect active participles from the zero-grade perfect root. The exact proto-form of the perfect active participle in Northian has long been an unresolved issue, as the final *-s of the stem does not undergo rhotacism as expected in other words. This has led to be postulation that the pre-form was actually *-wos-s or *-wōs-s, with a restored final *-s. The first *s then changed into a consonant of unknown value usually written *ḏ, which then disappeared in all forms except in the neuter nominative singular, where it surfaces as an anomalous -ḫ.

m. vevizvå, "sympathetic" = πεποιθώς n. vevizōḫ, "sympathetic" = πεποιθός f. veviθuzī, "sympathetic" = πεποιθυῖα
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative vevizvå vevizōha veviθōziš vevizōh vevizōhī vevizōha veviθūhī veviθūhī veviθūhias
Vocative veviθōh
Accusative vevizōhum veviθūhē veviθūhīum veviθūhīəṇġ
Genitive veviθūhō veviθūhōs veviθūhõ veviθūhō veviθūhōs veviθūhõ veviθūhi̯ēs veviθūhi̯ōus veviθūhi̯ōõ
Locative veviθūhe veviθūhō veviθūššu veviθūhe veviθūhō veviθūššu veviθūhi̯ō veviθūhi̯ōu veviθūhi̯ōhu
Dative veviθūhē veviθūhmō veviθūhmus veviθūhē veviθūhmō veviθūhmus veviθūhi̯ēi̯ veviθūhi̯ōma veviθūhi̯ōmus
Instrumental veviθūhē veviθūhē veviθūhi̯å

yos-stems

i̯å, irō, i̯orum; i̯erī, ihi̯ēs, i̯erīum; i̯ō wesyoss, wesyos, wesyesiH; wesisos, wesisyeHs; wesyesm, wesyesiHm

m. ōhi̯å, "better" n. ōhi̯ō, "better" f. ōhi̯ēzī, "better"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ōhi̯å ōhi̯eha ōhi̯ehiš ōhi̯ō ōhi̯ezī ōhi̯eha ōhi̯ēzī ōhi̯ēzīạ ōhi̯ēzīas
Vocative ōhi̯ō
Accusative ōhi̯ehum ōhi̯ehūŋ ōhi̯ēzīum ōhi̯ēzīəṇġ
Genitive ōzizō ōzizōs ōzizõ ōzizō ōzizōs ōzizõ ōzihi̯ēs ōzihi̯ōus ōzihi̯ōõ
Locative ōzize ōzizō ōziššu ōzize ōzizō ōziššu ōzihi̯ō ōzihi̯ōu ōzihi̯ōhu
Dative ōzizē ōzihmō ōzihmus ōzizē ōzihmō ōzihmus ōzihi̯ēi̯ ōzihi̯ōma ōzihi̯ōmus
Instrumental ōzizē ōzizē ōzihi̯å

r/n-stem

m. pei̯wō, "fat" n. pei̯ōr, "fat" f. pīə̄rī, "fat"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative pei̯wō pei̯ōnē pei̯ōniš pei̯ōr pei̯ōrī pei̯ōr pīə̄rī pīə̄rīạ pīə̄rias
Vocative pei̯ōn
Accusative pei̯ōnum pei̯ōnə̄ṇ pīə̄rīum pīə̄rīə̄ṇġ
Genitive pīənō pīənōs pīənõ pīə̄n pīə̄nuš pīə̄nõ pīuri̯ēs pīuri̯ōus pīuri̯ōõ
Locative pei̯ōn ōzizō pīəṅḫu pīə̄i̯ne pīə̄no pīə̄ṅhu pīuri̯ō pīuri̯ōu pīuri̯ōhu
Dative pīənē pīəṅmō pīəṅmus ōzihmō pīə̄ṅmus pīuri̯ēi̯ pīuri̯ōma pīuri̯ōmus
Instrumental pīənē pīə̄n pīuri̯å

mehas

mehas, meha, aṇhī

m. pei̯wō, "fat" n. pei̯ōr, "fat" f. pīə̄rī, "fat"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative pei̯wō pei̯ōnē pei̯ōniš pei̯ōr pei̯ōrī pei̯ōr pīə̄rī pīə̄rīạ pīə̄rias
Vocative pei̯ōn
Accusative pei̯ōnum pei̯ōnə̄ṇ pīə̄rīum pīə̄rīə̄ṇġ
Genitive pīənō pīənōs pīənõ pīə̄n pīə̄nuš pīə̄nõ pīuri̯ēs pīuri̯ōus pīuri̯ōõ
Locative pei̯ōn ōzizō pīəṅḫu pīə̄i̯ne pīə̄no pīə̄ṅhu pīuri̯ō pīuri̯ōu pīuri̯ōhu
Dative pīənē pīəṅmō pīəṅmus ōzihmō pīə̄ṅmus pīuri̯ēi̯ pīuri̯ōma pīuri̯ōmus
Instrumental pīənē pīə̄n pīuri̯å

Numerals

Verbs

Athematic

Present

Indicative Imperfect Injunctive Subjunctive Optative Imperative Future imp.
1 sg. kārnéu̯u̯i ekārneu̯õ kārneu̯õ kārneuō kārnui̯ām
2 sg. kārnéu̯dzi ekārneu̯š kārneu̯š kārneu̯ehi kārnui̯ās kārnuθi kārnuθitoṯ
3 sg. kārnéu̯di ekārneu̯ṯ kārneu̯ṯ kārneu̯eti kārnui̯āṯ kārnuto kārnutoṯ
1 du. kārnou̯éi̯ñi ekārnou̯ō kārnou̯ō kārneu̯ou̯ō kārninīu̯ō
2 du. kārnutás ekārnutõ kārnutõ kārneu̯etas kārninītõ kārnutas kārnutoṯ
3 du. kārnutés ekārnutą̄m kārnutą̄m kārneu̯etes kārninītąm kārnutes kārnutoṯ
1 pl. kārnumái̯ñi ekārnumō kārnumō kārneu̯omō kārninīmō
2 pl. kārnuté ekārnute kārnute kārneu̯ete kārninīte kārnute kārnutoṯ
3 pl. kārnnénθi ekārnnenṯ kārnnenṯ kārneu̯onθi kārninīenṯ kārnnenθo kārnunθoṯ
inf kārnutiš, kārnéu̯tuš, ptcpl kārnéu̯å, kārnnonθō; kārnéu̯āṯ, kārnnonθō; kārnunθī, kārnnonθi̯ās
Indicative Imperfect Injunctive Subjunctive Optative Imperative Future imp.
1 sg. kārnūm ekārnūm kārnūm kārneu̯ōm kārninīma
2 sg. kārnušθoi̯ ekārnušθo kārnušθo kārneu̯esθoi̯ kārninīšθo kārnuhvō kārnutoṯ
3 sg. kārnutoi̯ ekārnuto kārnuto kārneu̯etoi̯ kārninīto kārnuto kārnutoṯ
1 du. kārnou̯enθa ekārnou̯eθa kārnou̯eθa kārneu̯ou̯osθa kārninīu̯eθa
2 du. kārnnātaθai ekārnnātaθa kārnnātaθa kārneu̯ātaθai kārninītaθa kārnnātaθa kārnutoṯ
3 du. kārnnātāi̯i ekārnnātā kārnnātā kārneu̯ātāi̯i kārninītā kārnnātā kārnutoṯ
1 pl. kārnumenθi ekārnumeθa kārnumeθa kārneu̯omosθa kārninīmeθa
2 pl. kārnušθve ekārnušθve kārnušθve kārneu̯esθve kārninīšθve kārnuθve kārnutoṯ
3 pl. kārnnenθroi̯ ekārnnenθro kārnnenθro kārneu̯onθroi̯ kārninīnθro kārnnunθo kārnunθoṯ
inf kārnuθi̯ō, kārnuθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kārnūmnō, kārnūmnōi̯o; kārnūmnõ, kārnūmnōi̯o; kārnūmnā, kārnūmnās

Aorist

Indicative Injunctive Subjunctive Optative Imperative Future imp.
1 sg. ekorum korum korō kāri̯ām
2 sg. ekōr kōr korei kāri̯ās kor kortoṯ
3 sg. ekord kord korei̯ kāri̯āt kārto kārtoṯ
1 du. ekurōs kārōs korou̯ō krīu̯ō
2 du. ekurtõ kārtõ koretas krītõ kārtas kārtoṯ
3 du. ekurtąm kārtą̄m koretes krītąm kārtes kārtoṯ
1 pl. ekurmō kārmō koromõ krīmō
2 pl. ekurte kārte korete krīte kārte kārtoṯ
3 pl. ekurenṯ kārenṯ koronθi krīenṯ kārenθo kārunθoṯ
inf kāršiš, kāršuš, ptcpl korå, kronθō; korāṯ, kronθō; korunθī, krāŋθi̯ās
Indicative Imperfect Injunctive Subjunctive Optative Imperative Future imp.
1 sg. ekurma kārma korōm krīma
2 sg. ekursθo kārsθo koresθoi̯ krīšθo kārhvō kārtoṯ
3 sg. ekurto kārto koretoi̯ krīto kārto kārtoṯ
1 du. ekurreθa kārreθa korou̯osθa krīu̯eθa
2 du. ekurātaθa kārātaθa korātaθai krītaθa kārātaθa kārtoṯ
3 du. ekurātā kārātā korātāi̯i krītā kārātā kārtoṯ
1 pl. ekurmeθa kārmeθa koromosθa krīmeθa
2 pl. ekuršθve kāršθve koresθve krīšθve kārθve kārtoṯ
3 pl. ekurenθro kārenθro koronθroi̯ krīnθro kārunθo kārunθoṯ
inf kārθi̯ō, kārθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kārūmnō, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnõ, kārūmnōi̯o; kārūmnā, kārūmnās

Perfect

Indicative Imperfect Injunctive Subjunctive Optative Imperative Future imp.
1 sg. kokora ekokorum kokorum kokorō kokuri̯ām
2 sg. kokorta ekokors kokors kokorehi kokuri̯ās kokurθi kokurtoṯ
3 sg. kokoré ekokort kokort kokoreti kokuri̯āt kokurto kokurtoṯ
1 du. kokurrō ekokurre kokurre kokorou̯ō kokrīu̯ō
2 du. kokuré ekokurtõ kokurtõ kokoretas kokrītõ kokurtas kokurtoṯ
3 du. kokrē ekokurtą̄m kokurtą̄m kokoretes kokrītąm kokurtes kokurtoṯ
1 pl. kokurme ekokurme kokurme kokoromō kokrīmō
2 pl. kokré ekokurte kokurte kokorete kokrīte kokurte kokurtoṯ
3 pl. kokrå ekokurent kokurent kokoronθi kokrīenṯ kokorunθo kokorunθoṯ
inf kokuršiš, kokoršuš, ptcpl kokrå, kokrušiš; kokrōṯ, kokrušiš; kokrušī, kokruši̯ās
Indicative Imperfect Injunctive Subjunctive Optative Imperative Future imp.
1 sg. kokurma ekokurma kokurma kokorō kokrīma
2 sg. kokursθo ekokursθo kokursθo kokoresθoi̯ kokrīšθo kokurhvō kokurtoṯ
3 sg. kokurto ekokurto kokurto kokoretoi̯ kokrīto kokurto kokurtoṯ
1 du. kokurreθa ekokurreθa kokurreθa kokorou̯osθa kokrīu̯eθa
2 du. kokurātaθa ekokurātaθa kokurātaθa kokorātaθai kokrītaθa kokrātaθa kokurtoṯ
3 du. kokurātā ekokurātā kokurātā kokorātāi̯i kokrītā kokrātā kokurtoṯ
1 pl. kokurmeθa ekokurmeθa kokurmeθa kokoromosθa kokrīmeθa
2 pl. kokuršθve ekokuršθve kokuršθve kokoresθve kokrīšθve kokurθve kokurtoṯ
3 pl. kokrenθro ekokrenθro kokrenθro kokoronθroi̯ kokrīnθro kokrunθo kokrunθoṯ
inf kokurθi̯ō, kokurθi̯ōi̯o, mid ptcpl kokrūmnō, kokrūmnōi̯o; kokrūmnõ, kokrūmnōi̯o; kokrūmnā, kokrūmnās

See also