Northian grammar: Difference between revisions
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! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| ōhi̯ehum || ōhi̯ehūŋ | | ōhi̯ehum || ōhi̯ehūŋ | ||
| ōhi̯ēzīum || | | ōhi̯ēzīum || ōhi̯ēzīəṇġ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
| ōzize || ōzizō || | | ōzize || ōzizō || ōziššu | ||
| ōzize || ōzizō || | | ōzize || ōzizō || ōziššu | ||
| ōzihi̯ō || ōzihi̯ōu || ōzihi̯ōhu | | ōzihi̯ō || ōzihi̯ōu || ōzihi̯ōhu | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| ōzihi̯å | | ōzihi̯å | ||
|} | |} | ||
===r/n-stem=== | ===r/n-stem=== |
Revision as of 05:24, 7 April 2022
Northian grammar is highly synthetic.
Overview
Ablaut
Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not their meaning, that is inherited from Proto-Nordic-Northian and ultimately Proto-Erani-Eracuran. It affects nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs in Northian. Though ablaut was a regular process closely tied to accent in the reconstructed proto-language, by Galic times new ablaut formulae are no longer being made, and only a few ablauting formulae remained productive. Moreover, existing formulae have been disrupted by sound change and both general and sporadic analogical replacement. The result that surfaces in Galic Northian is a rich yet unpredictable set of alternate morphologies that at times confuses readers, and even the Galic poets themselves are not always consistent in the grammatical forms they employ.
These processes have occurred to the greater extent in the Epic language, but there the word forms were subject to more rigorous regularization.
Grammatical tradition
By and large, the first grammatical work that survives as a received text was written in the 1st century BCE, when the Northians have become accustomed to urban living and are under Acrean dominion. It seems that these grammatical treatises were intended by authors to stem linguistic changes considered "erroneous" in ritualistic contexts, suggesting that many of the forms given by the treatises were no longer in living usage and were threatened even in liturgical ones. The Grammarian chastises those who say mēθras menerōs and mēθrō menerō for mētūs menēs "of mothers-minds" and claims that "neither mother nor god, above the heavens and below the earth, will understand what you say, for the ignorance even in the names of family members drives away Good".
Noun endings
The following chart recapitulates the ordinary endings of athematic nouns in Galic Northian.
The nominative and genitive singular forms are often unpredictable and variable under the influence of ablaut, laryngeals reflexes, analogy, vowel contraction, and compensatory lengthening for illegal consonant clusters in coda position. With few exceptions, all other endings are further modified according to the shape of the nominal stem, most often the behaviour of -s- in the environment of resonants and vowels and avoidance of similar long vowels. OX stands for the oxytone group of patterns, and PX for the paroxytone group. Certain neuter nouns do not take plural endings but collective endings with a lengthened stem; these nouns are not formally predictable. Because neuter nouns always have the same nominative and accusative forms, only their nominative endings will be listed, and in grey.
Basic athematic endings | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Collective | ||||
OX | PX | OX | PX | OX | PX | OX | |
Nominative | -V̄-Ø, -s, -å, -Ø | -s, -Ø | -ē, -ī | -a, -V̄, -ī, -V̄R-Ø | -es, -iš, -a, -V̄R-Ø | -V̄-Ø | |
Vocative | -Ø | ||||||
Accusative | -m, -um, -əm, -ə̄m | -V̄n, -ə̄ṇġ | |||||
Genitive | -ō | -s, -V̄s, -V̄n, -V̄ṇġ | -ōs | -uš, -ō | -õ | = sing. | |
Locative | -i, -eC-Ø | -eC-Ø | -ō | -o, -u | -su | ||
Dative | -ē | -i | -mō | -ma | -muš | ||
Instrumental | -ē, -å | -a, -V̄R-Ø |
The chart below illustrates the ordinary endings of the thematic (o-stem) declension of Galic. Because accentuation difference categorically does not trigger ablaut in o-stem nouns, their endings do not vary according to their accentual pattern, which is lexically fixed on the same syllable. Additionally, the presence of the theme vowel e ~ o obviates, in most cases, the resolution of consonant clusters and consequent irregularity in surface forms. With the exception of a few fixed athematic patterns, o-stem is the primary productive pattern in the Epic language.
Basic thematic endings | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
Nominative | -ō, -om | -ō, -oī | -ōs, -ē | |
Vocative | -e | |||
Accusative | -om | -ōn | ||
Genitive | -ōhi̯o | -ōs | -āõ | |
Locative | -ē | -ō | -ohu | |
Dative | -ōi̯ | -omō | -omuš | |
Instrumental | -ōd |
Evolution
Northian is one of the few Erani-Eracuran languages that retains multiple productive ablaut patterns in nouns, though hysterokinetic endings have gained ground in many stem-classes at the expense of proterokientic and acrostatic formations. This tendency is attributed to surface consistency in hysterokinetic endings, which are regularly accented sing. gen. -ō < *-os and dat. -ē < *-ei̯. The proterokinetic endings tended to disappear through the erosion of final consonants and unaccented vowels. After almost all consonants, final -s disappears, lengthening the preceding vowel and modifying consonants in several ways, while final -i lowers to -e and causes preceding -e- > -ei̯- and -a- > -ai̯-. The places where -s and -i resist hysterokinesis in situ are the i-, u-, ī-, ū-, ē-, and neuter n-stems. Despite recession, their former distribution is evident in "irregular" nouns that either retain proterokinetic endings, accentual positions, or both.
In the dual nom. the preference for hysterokinesis was even more evident, and only neuter nouns were consistently inflected proterokinetically, probably because it had a distinct ending -ī that resisted phonetic assimilation. Where the stem ended in a resonant, the animate ending *-ə disappeared by regular sound change and cause compensatory lengthening. This created an anomalous stem with long vowel where it was not expected (only in the nom. sing. was long vowel expected). When this happened, only stem and root ablaut distinguished it from the inst. sing., so if the stem had lost ablaut, as often was the case, it would become identical to that form. In the other dual cases, however, proterokinetic forms survived for longer, but once the hysterokinetic form was introduced to the nom., it too often crept into the other cases (especially in the same speaker's utterances).
Some linguists propose that Galic poets retained more archaic patterns for their flexibility in verse, as full-grade endings generated heavy syllables and zero-grade generated light syllables. It is criticized that metrical considerations are absent in common speech, so it is questionable if ablaut patterns were retained there as long as it did in the poetic language. Indeed, while younger Galic metre may have been written as late as the 5th century BCE, productive proterokinetic patterns in Epic verse has been whittled to the i-, u-, and n-stems. The acrostatic pattern has been a vestigial, closed set since the earliest stages of Northian canon—it seems hard to avoid this conclusion if a term as basic as E.Nr. maetūr (G.Nr. mētūš) "mother's" was disappearing from children's speech in favour of maeθrō. Acrostatic n- and s-stems were no longer viable even while their proterokinetic cousins were.
Nevertheless, awareness of multiple ablaut patterns persisted well into the Imperial period, attested in the chastisement of children who substitute oxytone endings for their paroxytone counterparts. Ancient grammarians divided nouns into two kinds based on the position of the accent in the gen. sing. form. The oxytone group includes all nouns that have accented endings, and paroxytone group, nouns that have unaccented endings. The grammarians teach that this predicts the endings and accent positions in other forms. Modern scholars accept that some parts of their teaching correctly identifies the contrast between proterodynamic and hysterodynamic endings, but the shape of the stem was not connected by the ancient grammarians to the position of the accent.
Nouns
The principal classes of nouns are discussed first. Exclusively-adjectival constructions are placed after nouns.
Root | -m | -ns | -mn | -n | -r | -l | -s | -i | -u | -ī | -ū | -r/n | -d | -t | -a | -o | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OX | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Few | Few | Few | Few | Plurals | Few | Yes | Yes | Yes |
PX | Yes | No | No | Yes | No | Few | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No |
Root nouns
se poθs, "foot" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | poθs | pedē | pediš |
Vocative | pod | ||
Accusative | pedum | pedəṇġ | |
Genitive | θvō | θvōs | θvõ |
Locative | péi̯de | θvō | peššu |
Dative | θvē | pesmō | pesmus |
Instrumental | θvē |
Generally speaking, the reflexes of PEE *pods "foot" shows proterodynamic inflection with stems *pod- ~ *ped-, but the oblique cases in Galic Northian show an unexpected zero grade stem reflecting *pd- > *bd- > θv-.
m-stems
This class is known from only three but important nouns, θéɣõ "earth", žõ "winter", and dõ "house". All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only three examples, this may not be an actual rule.
se θéɣõ, "earth" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | θéɣõ | zθémē | zθémiš |
Vocative | θéɣom | ||
Accusative | zθémum | zumuṇ | |
Genitive | zmō | zu̯ōs | zu̯õ |
Locative | zθéi̯me | zu̯ō | zumsu |
Dative | zmē | zəṇġu̯ō | zəṇġu̯ō |
Instrumental | zūm |
θéɣõ is one of the rarer Northian words that reflects all three ablaut grades.
θéɣõ "eath" is from the full-grade stem of Proto-Erani-Eracuran *dʰeǵʰōm "earth", where final -m drops and causes the preceding long vowel to become nasalized. Gen. zmō and dat. zmē are the results of the zero-grade stem *dʰǵʰm̥ > *zm̥- > zm-. Final *-os regularly contracts to -ō, lengthening the vowel, and *-ey monophthongized into -ē. The e-grade stem is visible in the strong cases in singular and dual, sing. loc., as well as plural nom., as zθém < *dʰǵʰem-. In the sing. loc., the lowering of final *-i triggered the regular mutation in the preceding short vowel. The plural acc. unexpectedly displays zero-grade stem; final *-n̥s regularly > *-uns > Galic -ə̄ṇġ. The stem ending in -m mutates with the initial m- of the du. and pl. dat.-ins. endings.
The behaviour of žõ "winter" is underlyingly similar to that of θéɣõ, but other phonetic changes have caused the surface forms to be altered in other ways.
se dõ, "house" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | då | dō | domiš |
Vocative | dō | ||
Accusative | domum | domuṇ | |
Genitive | dēṇġ | demuš | demõ |
Locative | déi̯me | demo | deṇhu |
Dative | dei̯ma | deṇhmuš | |
Instrumental | dēm |
dõ "house", an extremely common noun, also displays three ablaut grades; however, its stems differ by the quantity and quality of the vowel in the same root syllable, as it has no suffix. In the sing. nom., final vowel is lengthened already in PEE. The regular strong stem is visible in the sing. acc., which has two forms. dōm stands as a poetic or dialectal term in place of expected domum sometimes; its creation is either late, as it does not have vowel nasalization, or reflects compensatory lengthening from dropping the final syllable of domum. dõ displays a paroxytone accentual pattern and has the zero-grade endings: sing. gen. dēŋ < *dems and dat. déi̯me < *demi, the latter showing regular mutation after the lowering of the final *-i.
ns-stems
måə̄ṇġ "moon" has one of the less transparent paradigms in Galic. In the received texts this word is always written as måṇġ, but the metrical requirement of five morae is at odds with this spelling, which suggests three morae, but the spelling does not reveal what the missing vowel is. In view of the general development of PEE *-Hn̥s, most authorities write this word as måə̄ṇġ, standing for [māʔaʔə̄ŋɡ̚]. It stands for PEE *mḗh₁n̥s > PNN *mḗəuns > PN *māəūnh.
sē måə̄ṇġ, "moon, month" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | måə̄ṇġ | måə̄ṇhē | måə̄ṇhiš |
Vocative | måṇġ | ||
Accusative | mēṇhō | måə̄həṇġ | |
Genitive | mēṇhō | mēṇhmōs | mēṇhõ |
Locative | mə̄ṇġ | mēṇhō | mēṇhsu |
Dative | māi̯ṇhe | mēṇhmō | mēṇhmuš |
Instrumental | mə̄ṇha |
mn-stems
sē akmō, "stone" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | akmō | akmenē | akmeniš |
Vocative | akmo | ||
Accusative | akmenum | kəṇġmuṇ | |
Genitive | kəṇġmō | kəṇġmōs | kəṇġmõ |
Locative | kumeine | kumnō | kumuṇsu |
Dative | kəṇġmē | kəṇġmō | kəṇġmuš |
Instrumental | kəṇġma |
tod dēmuṇ, "house of a god, temple" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | θēmuṇ | θēmunī | θēmnō |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | |||
Genitive | šmēn | šmenuš | θumnō |
Locative | šmeno | šmeni | |
Dative | šmeni | šmeŋma | θumunmuš |
Instrumental | šmēn |
tod nomuṇ, "name" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | nomuṇ | nomnī | nomnō |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | |||
Genitive | nemuṇ | nemunuš | nemnõ |
Locative | nemunu | nemsu | |
Dative | nemne | nemuṇma | nemuṇmos |
Instrumental | nemna |
n-stems
The PNN stems are *wey-on- and *wī-n-. In the nom. sing. the root vowel is attracted by the final ō and becomes wāō.
sē wāō, "wine" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | wāō | wēonē | wēoniš |
Vocative | wēon | ||
Accusative | wīonum | wēonəṇġ | |
Genitive | wīnō | wīnōs | wīnõ |
Locative | wīen | wīnō | wīṇhu |
Dative | wīē | wīṇmō | wīṇmuš |
Instrumental | wīn |
r-stems
There are three subtypes within the r-stem group. mētur "mother" represents the group with initial accent, which persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade. βrētur "brother" is inflected in the same manner. This is a small group of nouns recognized by their unaccented endings in both nom. and gen.
sē mētur, "mother" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | mētə̄ | mētūr | mēθriš |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | mēθrum | mētu̯rəṇġ | |
Genitive | mētūš | mētruš | mēθrõ |
Locative | mēθre | mētu̯ru | mēturru |
Dative | mēturma | mēturmuš | |
Instrumental | mēθra |
Gen. mētūš < PNN *mēturs < PEE *meh₂tr̥s, while māetūr is from the Epic language, which has restored the *r that has been dropped in *-rs. Dat. mēθre < PEE *meh₂tri, acc. mēθrum show regular forms. Loc. mēteire appears with full grade suffix.
sóhitə̄ "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in -er and -or. They are recognizable by their zero-grade nom. endings and full-grade -ō endings in gen. The behaviour of the word ɣenə̄ "hand" is underlyingly identical.
sē su̯éhi̯itur, "daughter" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | sóhitə̄ | duɣaterē | duɣateriš |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | duɣaterum | duɣaterəṇġ | |
Genitive | duɣaθrō | duɣaθrōs | duɣaθrõ |
Locative | duɣaθrē | duɣaterō | duɣaturru |
Dative | duɣaturmō | duɣaturmō | |
Instrumental | duɣaθra |
patēr "father" is a variation of the pattern of "daughter", where in the nom. the accent is on the ending instead of the stem; otherwise, it follows the pattern of "daughter" exactly.
sē patēr, "father" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | patēr | paterē | pateriš |
Vocative | pater | ||
Accusative | paterum | paterəṇġ | |
Genitive | paθrō | paθrōs | paθrõ |
Locative | paθrē | paterō | paθrurru |
Dative | patu̯rmō | patu̯rmō | |
Instrumental | paθra |
The paroxytone declension of ster "star" is unique, sg. gen. stēr < *Hsters, dat. steire, etc.
l-stems
The l-stems originally inflect as other ablauting consonant stems, but because intervocalic *-l- regularly > -y-, the resulting paradigm presents certain quirks not seen in the normal consonant-stem paradigm.
sa sē, "salt" = ἅλς | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | sē | sai̯ē | sai̯iš |
Vocative | se | ||
Accusative | sai̯um | sai̯ə̄ṇġ | |
Genitive | slō | slōs | slõ |
Locative | sai̯i̯e | slō | sullu |
Dative | slē | sō | sullus |
Instrumental | sla |
sa abō, "apple" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | abō | aboi̯ē | aboi̯iš |
Vocative | abo | ||
Accusative | aboi̯um | aboi̯ə̄ṇġ | |
Genitive | ablō | ablōs | ablõ |
Locative | abei̯e | ablō | abllu |
Dative | ablē | abllō | abllus |
Instrumental | abla |
s-stems
There are two classes in the s-stem group, one for masculine and feminine nouns, and another for neuter ones. The masculine and feminine nouns are formally indistinct but behave like other consonant-stem nouns, with or without ablaut. The noun muš "mouse" is unique in its preservation of an initial accent. The neuter nouns fall into two groups, those with oxytone or paroxytone accents.
sē nēs, "nose" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | nēs | nazē | naziš |
Vocative | nes | ||
Accusative | nahum | nazəṇġ | |
Genitive | nahō | nahōs | nahõ |
Locative | nai̯ze | nahō | nassu |
Dative | nazē | nahmō | nahmuš |
Instrumental | naza |
tod kretō, "intellect, power" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | kretō | kreteza | kreteza |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | |||
Genitive | kretehō | kretehuš | kretehõ |
Locative | kretei̯ze | kretehu | kretessu |
Dative | kretesma | kretesmuš | |
Instrumental | kretera |
tod menō, "mind" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | menō | meneza | meneza |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | |||
Genitive | menēs | menehuš | menehõ |
Locative | menei̯ze | menehu | menessu |
Dative | menehma | menehmuš | |
Instrumental | meneza |
tod mēŋ, "meat" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | mēṇġ | meṇhī | meṇha |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | |||
Genitive | mēṇġ | meṇhuš | meṇhõ |
Locative | meṇġ | meṇhu | meṇho |
Dative | meṇhma | meṇhus | |
Instrumental | meṇha |
i-stems
The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In PEE, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all contexts, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different. Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.
sa socis, "ally" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | socis | skoi̯ē | sokoi̯iš |
Vocative | soci | ||
Accusative | socim | skoin | |
Genitive | skiō | skiōs | skiõ |
Locative | skoi̯e | skiō | skisu |
Dative | skiē | skimō | skimuš |
Instrumental | skī |
sē mentis, "thought" | tod more, "sea" | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | mentis | mentēa | mentēiš | more | morēa | morēi̯ |
Vocative | meinte | |||||
Accusative | mentim | mentīn | ||||
Genitive | muntēs | muntēuš | muntēõ | mrēs | mrēuš | mrēõ |
Locative | muntēi | muntēu | muntēsu | mrēē | mrēo | mrēsu |
Dative | muntēma | muntēmuš | mrēma | mrēmuš | ||
Instrumental | muntēa | mrē |
sa potis, "master" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | potis | potī | potiiš |
Vocative | poti | ||
Accusative | potim | potīn | |
Genitive | petis | petiuš | petiõ |
Locative | peti | petiu | petisu |
Dative | petima | petimuš | |
Instrumental | petī |
u-stems
sē genus, "chin" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | genōs | geneu̯ē | geneu̯iš |
Vocative | genō | ||
Accusative | genōm | geneu̯ṇġ | |
Genitive | genuō | genuōs | genuõ |
Locative | geneu̯i | genuō | genuru |
Dative | genuē | genumō | genumuš |
Instrumental | genua |
sa sui̯us, "child" = υἱύς | tod pōi̯o, "flock" = πῶυ | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | sui̯uš | sui̯ēu̯ | sui̯eu̯iš | pōi̯o | pai̯ēu̯ | pai̯ēu̯ |
Vocative | sui̯o | |||||
Accusative | sui̯um | sui̯uṇġ | ||||
Genitive | sui̯eu̯s | sui̯eu̯uš | sui̯eu̯õ | pai̯eu̯s | pai̯eu̯uš | pai̯eu̯õ |
Locative | sui̯eu̯i | sui̯eu̯o | sui̯eu̯so | pai̯eu̯i | pai̯eu̯o | pai̯eu̯so |
Dative | sui̯eu̯ma | sui̯eu̯muš | pai̯eu̯ma | pai̯eu̯muš | ||
Instrumental | sui̯ēu̯ | pai̯ēu̯ |
sa θeɣus, "fish" = ἰχθύς | tod doru, "wood" = δόρυ | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | θeɣuš | θeɣō | θeɣōs | doru | dorō | dorō |
Vocative | ||||||
Accusative | ||||||
Genitive | zuš | zuuš | zuõ | deruš | deruuš | deruõ |
Locative | zui | zuo | zuru | derō | deruo | denuru |
Dative | zuma | zumuš | deruma | derumuš | ||
Instrumental | zū | derū |
hʷōn
hʷōn "woman" continues the PEE proterodynamic declension ending in *-h₂. This suffix also underlies the ī- and ū-stem declensions in Northian but is otherwise rarely seen alone. The full-grade stem is from *gʷénh₂-, and the zero-grade *gʷneh₂-.
sē hʷōn, "woman" = γυνή | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | hʷōn | gnē | hʷenas |
Vocative | hʷen | ||
Accusative | hʷenum | hʷenau̯ŋ | |
Genitive | gnēs | gnēuš | gnēõ |
Locative | gnēi | gnēo | gnēru |
Dative | gnēma | gnēmuš | |
Instrumental | gnē |
ī-stems
The ī-stems in oxytone is rare and contains only a few nouns.
sē sθerīs, "heifer" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | sθerīs | sθerī | sθurīiš |
Vocative | sθerī | ||
Accusative | sθerīum | sθurīəṇġ | |
Genitive | sθurīō | sθurīōs | sθurīõ |
Locative | sθurīē | sθurīō | sθunīru |
Dative | sθurīmō | sθurīmuš | |
Instrumental | sθurīē |
By contrast, the ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns.
sē genaθrī, "genitrix" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | gēnθrī | genaθrī | genaθrīes |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | gēnθrīum | genaθrīəṇġ | |
Genitive | gunaθri̯ēs | gnaθri̯ēuš | gnaθri̯ēõ |
Locative | gnaθri̯ēi | gnaθri̯ēo | gnaθri̯ēhu |
Dative | gnaθri̯ēma | gnaθri̯ēmuš | |
Instrumental | gnaθri̯ē |
ū-stems
The ū-stems were exactly parallel to the ī-stems at the PEE and PNN levels, but due to phonetic changes have become nearly unrecognizable. The nom. sing. of hysterokinetic stems had accented root syllable and an ending in PEE *-uh₂-s > *PNN *-ūs > Galic *-ūš. The acc. would have ended in PEE *-u̯eh₂-m̥ > PNN *-wē-um. In Galic, *-wē- regularly > -i̯ō-, as also in loc. In the oblique cases, the stem ended in -ū-, to which full-grade endings were added. The zero-grade stem has replaced the original full-grade one in the dual nom. such that it projects the (implausible) PEE form *tn̥-uh₂-h₁. The metrically trimoraic -ū ending represents final *-ūᵊ, as otherwise it would have become *-ō.
sē tenūš, "body" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | tenūš | tunū | tunōs |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | tuni̯ōum | tunu̯ēəṇġ | |
Genitive | tunūō | tunuōs | tunuõ |
Locative | tuni̯ōi | tunuō | tunuru |
Dative | tunūē | tunumō | tunumuš |
Instrumental | tunūē |
The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely sokrō "mother-in-law".
sē sokrō, "mother-in-law" = socrus | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | sokrō | sokrēu̯ | sokrēu̯iš |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | sokrēu̯u̯ŋ | sokrēu̯ŋ | |
Genitive | sokrēu̯s | sokrēu̯uš | sokrēu̯õ |
Locative | sokrēi̯e | sokrēu̯ō | sokrēu̯ru |
Dative | sokrēu̯ma | sokrēu̯muš | |
Instrumental | sokrēu̯[a?] |
The term pūlθvēs "crowd, multitude" has a unique pattern and is only found in the singular.
sē pūlθvēs, "crowd, multitude" = plebs | |
---|---|
Singular | |
Nominative | pūlθvēs |
Vocative | pūlθvē |
Accusative | pūlθvēum |
Genitive | pūlθuō |
Locative | pūlθvē |
Dative | pūlθuē |
Instrumental | pūlθuē |
r/n-stems
i̯å "year", with acrostatic ablaut, is from PNN *yō-ur (gen. *yē-uns). In Galic, unaccented final -ur regularly drops and lengthens preceding syllable. The strong stem with *-r- is visible in the dual. In the oblique stem, *uns > *əṇġh, whose vowel is assimilated to the preceding -ē- and becomes -i̯-. Final *-h then drops and causes the preceding *-i̯- to become syllabic. In the dat. the long vowel resists mutation caused by final short *-i. The ins. ending has dropped, but the preceding long vowel cannot be further lengthened.
tod i̯å, "year" = ὥρα | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Collective | |
Nominative | i̯å | i̯ōrī | i̯ēōr |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | |||
Genitive | i̯ēiŋ | i̯ēnuš | īnō |
Locative | i̯ēne | i̯ēno | iei̯ne |
Dative | i̯ēi̯ŋma | īnē | |
Instrumental | i̯ēn | īnā |
pāō "fire" represents the heteroclitic nouns with proterokinetic pattern, with accented stem in the oblique cases. The PNN form is *pēwur and gen. *pəwens, from PEE *peh₂-wr̥ and gen. *ph₂wen-s. In the nom., the sequence *-wu- differentiates to *-wo- prehistorically and then gives -ō- regularly. *-ēō- is assimilated to -āō- because the preceding consonant is a labial. In the gen. *ə before -e- regularly becomes -a-. Final *-s drops and causes the preceding *-e- to lengthen. Mutation occurs in the dat. with *-e- > -ei̯-.
tod pāō, "fire" = πῦρ | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Collective | |
Nominative | pāō | pāōrī | pēwō |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | |||
Genitive | pau̯ēn | pau̯enuš | pūnō |
Locative | pau̯ei̯ne | pau̯eno | pūne |
Dative | pau̯ei̯ŋma | pūnē | |
Instrumental | pau̯ēn | pūn |
sāu̯u̯ō
The noun sāu̯u̯ō "sun" continues the PEE heteroclitic stem in *-l/n-. The nominative is due to assimilation of approximants and the regular sound change of *wu > wo. Genitive has hu̯ə̄ṇġ, for expected *hwēn < *swens < *sh₂wens; this possibly suggests the proterokinetic ending *-ens was replaced by acrostatic ending *-n̥s prehistorically, as from from PNN *swuns < PEE *sh₂wn̥s. However, because other Nordic languages show a reflex of *sh₂wens, the insertion of the acrostatic ending must have occurred only after Northian diverged from PNN.
sē sāu̯u̯ō, "Sun" | |
---|---|
Singular | |
Nominative | sāu̯u̯ō |
Vocative | |
Accusative | |
Genitive | hu̯ə̄ṇġ |
Locative | hu̯ei̯ne |
Dative | |
Instrumental | hu̯ēn |
d-stems
The d-stems are a special class in Northian because *-d behaves like a resonant, rather than an obstruent, in certain phonetic environments and permits compensatory lengthening when final *-ə drops after it, cf. dual nom. in paroxytone.
sē xͮrēθs, "root" | tod kerd, "heart" = καρδία | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | xͮrēθs | xͮrēθē | xͮrēθiš | kerd | krēd | kordō |
Vocative | xͮrēd | |||||
Accusative | xͮrēdum | xͮrēdəṇġ | ||||
Genitive | ōrdō | ōrdōs | ōrdō | krēθs | kreθuš | kurdō |
Locative | xͮrēd | ōrdo | ōrššu | kerde | kreθu | kerde |
Dative | ōrdē | ōrhmō | ōrhmuš | kresma | kurdē | |
Instrumental | ōrdē | krēd |
t-stems
sa nēp, "grandchild" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | nēpōt | nepotē | nepotiš |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | nepotum | neptəṇġ | |
Genitive | neptō | neptōs | neptõ |
Locative | nepoti | neptō | neptru |
Dative | nepte | neptmō | neptmuš |
Instrumental | nepta |
sē nōi̯h, "evening, night" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | nōi̯h | nexͮša | noxͮšiš |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | noxͮšum | noxͮšəṇġ | |
Genitive | nēh | nexͮšuš | nexͮšõ |
Locative | nexͮše | nexͮšo | nexͮššu |
Dative | naohma | naohmuš | |
Instrumental | nexͮša |
From PEE *n̥-mr̥teh₂ts.
sē ummurtēθs, "immortality" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | ummurtēθs | ummurtētē | ummurtētiš |
Vocative | ummurtēθ | ||
Accusative | ummurtētum | ummurtētəṇġ | |
Genitive | ummurtētō | ummurtētōs | ummurtētõ |
Locative | ummurtēθ | ummurtētō | ummurtēššu |
Dative | ummurtētē | ummurtēsmuš | |
Instrumental | ummurtēta |
ponθōs
The word ponθōs "path" had a stem ending in PEE *póntoh₁- ~ pn̥th₁-, with dual ablauting syllables that always show the same grades. This word appears to be unique in all Erani-Eracuran languages in the stem formation it has.
sa ponθōs, "path, way" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | ponθōs | ponθōi̯ | ponθōiš |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | ponθōm | punθōn | |
Genitive | punθō | punθōs | punθõ |
Locative | ponθō | punθō | punθu |
Dative | punθē | punθmō | punθmuš |
Instrumental | punθē |
a-stems
sē mihrē, "mist" | |||
---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | mihrē | mihrē | mihrās |
Vocative | |||
Accusative | mihrēm | mihrāu̯ṇ | |
Genitive | mihrēs | mihrēōs | mihrõ |
Locative | mihrēi | mihrēō | mihru |
Dative | mihrēi | mihrēmō | mihurmuš |
Instrumental | mihrē |
o-stems
sa θūmō, "smoke" | tod i̯uɣõ, "yoke" | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | θūmō | θūmō | θūmōis | i̯uɣõ | i̯uɣōī | i̯uɣō |
Vocative | θūme | |||||
Accusative | θūmõ | θūmōn | ||||
Genitive | θūmōhi̯o | θūmōuš | θūmōõ | i̯uɣōhi̯o | i̯uɣōuš | i̯uɣōõ |
Locative | θūmē | θūmōu | θūmōi̯o | i̯uɣē | i̯uɣōu | i̯uɣōi̯o |
Dative | θūmōi̯ | θūmōma | θūmōmuš | i̯uɣōi̯ | i̯uɣōma | i̯uɣōmuš |
Instrumental | θūmō | i̯uɣō |
Acrean words
Many words in Northian are Old Nordic loanwords from speakers of Acrean, which was used as a lingua franca in western Eracura for centuries under the influence of the Acrean Empire. These words were so numerouš that many were not nativized and were declined according to an approximation of the thematic declension in Old Nordic. For the most part, these endings are exact cognates with the thematic ones in Northian, but because of intervening sound changes, they are taught separately. Where there was a distinct vocative, the nominative form has displaced it. There are also no dual forms for these nouns, for which neologisms have sometimes been suggested, to no general acceptance. Since Old Nordic had no locative case, this form is always identical to the dative where Northian syntax demands the locative.
sa wulhʷā, "any lupine animal" = lupus | tod ēta, "food" | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual and plural | Singular | Dual and plural | |
Nominative | wulhʷā | wulhʷōs | ēta | ētō |
Vocative | ||||
Accusative | wulhʷuŋ | wulhʷān | ||
Genitive | wulhʷas | wulhʷõ | ētas | ētõ |
Locative | wulhʷāi | wulhʷamas | ētai̯ | ētamas |
Dative | ||||
Instrumental | wulhʷō | wulhʷamis | ētō | ētamis |
Irregular nouns
Country names
"Æþurheim", the name of the country to the southwest of Shalum, has an invariant stem with full grade throughout and initial persistent accent in Aí̯θrō-, which takes oxytone endings. The vocative form is identical to the nominative, showing full grade. Because the accent is in its expected position in the nom. and voc. forms, the acute accent on the i is not necessary there, while it is found in all other forms to denote the irregular accent.
"Shalum" behaves in a manner more reminiscent of a regular n-stem noun in oxytone and has the expected endings and accentual positions, but the stem does not display apophony as is usual in this class of nouns.
"Acrea" is named Aṇhrōs, which is a compound from aṇh- "lord" and rōs "realm, power", gen. Aṇhurō.
sē Ai̯θrō, "Æþurheim" | sē Halō, "Shalum" | sē Aṇhrōs, "Acrea" | sē Silū, "Silua" | sē Hu̯inī, "Svinia" | sē Ossorī, "Ossoria" | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Singular | Singular | Singular | Singular | Singular | |
Nominative | Ai̯θrō | Halō | ||||
Vocative | ||||||
Accusative | Aí̯θrōnum | Halomnum | ||||
Genitive | Aí̯θrōnō | Halomnō | ||||
Locative | Aí̯θrōni | Halomei̯ne | ||||
Dative | Aí̯θrōnē | Halomnē | ||||
Instrumental | Aí̯θrōn | Halomna |
Adjectives
Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms. Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.
u-stems
Two-stem
meθus; umθeus
m. and f. meθus, "sweet" | n. meθu, "sweet" | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | meθus | meθēu | meθeuiš | meθu | meθuī | meθū |
Vocative | meθu | |||||
Accusative | meθum | meθūŋ | ||||
Genitive | umθeus | umθeuō | umθeuõ | umθeus | umθeuō | umθeuõ |
Locative | umθeu | umθeuo | umθeuhu | umθeu | umθeuo | umθeuhu |
Dative | umθeui | umθeuma | umθeumus | umθeui | umθeuma | umθeumus |
Instrumental | umθēu | umθēu |
-us/-o/-ō
m. tenus, "thin" | n. teno, "thin" | f. tenō, "thin" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | tenus | tenēu̯ | teneu̯iš | teno | teneu̯ī | tenēu̯ | tenō | tenū | tenuas |
Vocative | teno | ||||||||
Accusative | tenum | tenuṅ | tenūum | tenūūŋ | |||||
Genitive | tuneu̯s | tuneu̯ō | tuneu̯õ | tuneu̯s | tuneu̯ō | tuneu̯õ | tunu̯ōs | tunu̯ōus | tunu̯ōõ |
Locative | tuneu̯ | tuneu̯o | tuneu̯hu | tuneu̯ | tuneu̯o | tuneu̯hu | tunu̯ōi | tunu̯ōu | tunu̯ōhu |
Dative | tuneu̯i | tuneu̯ma | tuneu̯mus | tuneu̯i | tuneu̯ma | tuneu̯mus | tunu̯ōi | tunu̯ōma | tunu̯ōmus |
Instrumental | tunēu̯ | tunēu̯ | tunu̯å |
-us/-u/-wī
m. hu̯ēθus, "sweet" | n. hu̯ēθo, "sweet" | f. hu̯ēsu̯ī, "sweet" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | hu̯ēθus | hu̯ēθēu̯ | hu̯ēθeu̯iš | hu̯ēθo | hu̯ēθeu̯ī | hu̯ēθēu̯ | hu̯ēsu̯ī | hu̯ēsu̯īi | hu̯ēsu̯ias |
Vocative | hu̯ēθo | ||||||||
Accusative | hu̯ēθum | hu̯ēθuṅ | hu̯ēsu̯īəm | hu̯ēsu̯īə̄ṅḫ | |||||
Genitive | hūθeu̯š | hūθeu̯ō | hūθeu̯õ | hūθeu̯š | hūθeu̯ō | hūθeu̯õ | hūθui̯ēs | hūθui̯ēus | hūθui̯ēõ |
Locative | hūθeu̯ | hūθeu̯o | hūθeu̯šu | hūθeu̯ | hūθeu̯o | hūθeu̯šu | hūθui̯ēi | hūθui̯ēu | hūθui̯ēhu |
Dative | hūθeu̯i | hūθeu̯ma | hūθeu̯muš | hūθeu̯i | hūθeu̯ma | hūθeu̯muš | hūθui̯ēi | hūθui̯ēma | hūθui̯ēmuš |
Instrumental | hūθēu̯ | hūθēu̯ | hūθui̯ō |
i-stems
m. θrēstiš, "sad" | n. θrēste, "sad" | f. θristēī, "sad" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | θrēstiš | θrēstī | θrēstēiš | θrēste | θristēī | θristē | θristēī | θristēīi | θristēas |
Vocative | θrēste | ||||||||
Accusative | θrēstim | θrēstiuṅ | θristēīəm | θristēīə̄ṅḫ | |||||
Genitive | θristēš | θristēus | θristēõ | θristēš | θristēus | θristēõ | θristiēs | θristiēus | θristiēõ |
Locative | θristēi̯ | θristēo | θristēhu | θristēi̯ | θristēo | θristēhu | θristiēi | θristiēu | θristiēhu |
Dative | θristēi | θristēma | θristēmuš | θristēi | θristēma | θristēmuš | θristiēi | θristiēma | θristiēmuš |
Instrumental | θristēi̯ | θristēi̯ | θristiē |
nt-stems
From PEE *rh₁-wénts, "rich in possessions", from *reh₁s, "possession".
m. raå, "wealthy" | n. raōn, "wealthy" | f. raōnθī, "wealthy" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | raå | raōnθē | raōnθiš | raōn | raōnθī | raōnθa | raōnθī | raōnθī | raōnθias |
Vocative | raōn | ||||||||
Accusative | raōnθum | raōnθə̄ṇġ | raōnθīum | raōnθīə̄ṇġ | |||||
Genitive | raunθō | raunθōs | raunθõ | raunθō | raunθōs | raunθõ | raunθi̯ēs | raunθi̯ōus | raunθi̯ōõ |
Locative | raōn | raunθō | raunššu | raōn | raunθō | raunššu | raunθi̯ō | raunθi̯ōu | raunθi̯ōhu |
Dative | raunθē | raūṇhmō | raunθmus | raunθē | raūṇhmō | raunθmus | raunθi̯ēi̯ | raunθi̯ōma | raunθi̯ōmus |
Instrumental | raunθē | raunθē | raunθi̯å |
The present active participles of verbs have a stem ending in -nt-. From PEE *h₁es-n̥ts.
m. ehūš, "being" | n. ehūnθ, "being" | f. ehunθī, "being" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | ehūš | ehunθē | erunθiš | ehūnθ | ehunθī | ehunθa | ehunθī | ehunθī | ehunθīas |
Vocative | ehūθ | ||||||||
Accusative | senθum | senθə̄ṇġ | senθīum | senθīə̄ṇġ | |||||
Genitive | hunθō | hunθōs | hunθõ | hunθō | hunθōs | hunθõ | hunθi̯ēs | hunθi̯ōuš | hunθi̯ōõ |
Locative | senθe | hunθō | hunššu | senθe | hunθō | hunššu | hunθi̯ō | hunθi̯ōu | hunθi̯ōhu |
Dative | hunθē | huṇhmō | hunθmuš | hunθē | huṇhmō | hunθmuš | hunθi̯ēi̯ | hunθi̯ōma | hunθi̯ōmuš |
Instrumental | hunθē | hunθē | hunθi̯å |
es-stems
m. and f. humenēs, "well-intended" | n. huméniš, "well-intended" | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | humenēs | humenerē | humeneriš | huméniš | humenerī | hunmeneha |
Vocative | huméniš | |||||
Accusative | humenehum | hunenehūŋ | ||||
Genitive | humenerō | humenehōs | humenehõ | humenerō | humenehōs | humenehõ |
Locative | humenes | humenehō | humenessu | humenes | humenehō | humenessu |
Dative | humenerē | humenehmō | humenehmus | humenerē | humenehmō | humenehmus |
Instrumental | humenerē | humenerē |
woḏs-stems
From PEE *bʰebʰidʰ-wṓs, forms perfect active participles from the zero-grade perfect root. The exact proto-form of the perfect active participle in Northian has long been an unresolved issue, as the final *-s of the stem does not undergo rhotacism as expected in other words. This has led to be postulation that the pre-form was actually *-wos-s or *-wōs-s, with a restored final *-s. The first *s then changed into a consonant of unknown value usually written *ḏ, which then disappeared in all forms except in the neuter nominative singular, where it surfaces as an anomalous -ḫ.
m. vevizvå, "sympathetic" = πεποιθώς | n. vevizōḫ, "sympathetic" = πεποιθός | f. veviθuzī, "sympathetic" = πεποιθυῖα | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | vevizvå | vevizōha | veviθōziš | vevizōh | vevizōhī | vevizōha | veviθūhī | veviθūhī | veviθūhias |
Vocative | veviθōh | ||||||||
Accusative | vevizōhum | veviθūhē | veviθūhīum | veviθūhīəṇġ | |||||
Genitive | veviθūhō | veviθūhōs | veviθūhõ | veviθūhō | veviθūhōs | veviθūhõ | veviθūhi̯ēs | veviθūhi̯ōus | veviθūhi̯ōõ |
Locative | veviθūhe | veviθūhō | veviθūššu | veviθūhe | veviθūhō | veviθūššu | veviθūhi̯ō | veviθūhi̯ōu | veviθūhi̯ōhu |
Dative | veviθūhē | veviθūhmō | veviθūhmus | veviθūhē | veviθūhmō | veviθūhmus | veviθūhi̯ēi̯ | veviθūhi̯ōma | veviθūhi̯ōmus |
Instrumental | veviθūhē | veviθūhē | veviθūhi̯å |
yos-stems
i̯å, irō, i̯orum; i̯erī, ihi̯ēs, i̯erīum; i̯ō wesyoss, wesyos, wesyesiH; wesisos, wesisyeHs; wesyesm, wesyesiHm
m. ōhi̯å, "better" | n. ōhi̯ō, "better" | f. ōhi̯ēzī, "better" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | ōhi̯å | ōhi̯eha | ōhi̯ehiš | ōhi̯ō | ōhi̯ezī | ōhi̯eha | ōhi̯ēzī | ōhi̯ēzīạ | ōhi̯ēzīas |
Vocative | ōhi̯ō | ||||||||
Accusative | ōhi̯ehum | ōhi̯ehūŋ | ōhi̯ēzīum | ōhi̯ēzīəṇġ | |||||
Genitive | ōzizō | ōzizōs | ōzizõ | ōzizō | ōzizōs | ōzizõ | ōzihi̯ēs | ōzihi̯ōus | ōzihi̯ōõ |
Locative | ōzize | ōzizō | ōziššu | ōzize | ōzizō | ōziššu | ōzihi̯ō | ōzihi̯ōu | ōzihi̯ōhu |
Dative | ōzizē | ōzihmō | ōzihmus | ōzizē | ōzihmō | ōzihmus | ōzihi̯ēi̯ | ōzihi̯ōma | ōzihi̯ōmus |
Instrumental | ōzizē | ōzizē | ōzihi̯å |
r/n-stem
peiHwōn, piHweriH, peiHwr; piHwnos, piHurieHs, piHwens; peiHwonum, piHweriHm
pei̯wō, pīə̄rī, pei̯ōr; pīənō, pīuri̯ēs, pīə̄n; pei̯ōnum, pīə̄rīəm
m. ōhi̯å, "better" | n. ōhi̯ō, "better" | f. ōhi̯ēzī, "better" | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
Nominative | pei̯wō | pei̯ōnē | pei̯ōniš | pei̯ōr | pei̯ōrī | pei̯ōr | pīə̄rī | pīə̄rīạ | pīə̄rias |
Vocative | pei̯ōn | ||||||||
Accusative | pei̯ōnum | pei̯ōnə̄ṅ | pīə̄rīum | pīə̄rīə̄ṅ | |||||
Genitive | pīənō | pīənōs | pīənõ | pīə̄n | pīə̄nuš | pīə̄nõ | pīuri̯ēs | pīuri̯ōus | pīuri̯ōõ |
Locative | pei̯ōn | ōzizō | pīəṅḫu | pīə̄i̯ne | pīə̄no | pīə̄ṅhu | pīuri̯ō | pīuri̯ōu | pīuri̯ōhu |
Dative | pīənē | pīəṅmō | pīəṅmus | ōzihmō | pīə̄ṅmus | pīuri̯ēi̯ | pīuri̯ōma | pīuri̯ōmus | |
Instrumental | pīənē | pīə̄n | pīuri̯å |
mehas
Numerals
Verbs
Basic endings
Indicative active endings | Indicative middle endings | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Du. | Pl. | Sing. | Du. | Pl. | ||
1P | -me | -ōne | -mei̯ne | 1P | -ai | -ōzθa | -mozθa |
2P | -se | -tas | -te | 2P | -tai | -tom | -θō |
3P | -te | -tes | -nθe | 3P | -toi | -tēm | -ūs |
The indicative continues the primary endings of the indicative active in Proto-Erani-Eracuran and confirms that the proto-language's inflectional structure lay intact at the PNN level. This mood was used for factual statements.
Injunctive active endings | Injunctive middle endings | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Du. | Pl. | Sing. | Du. | Pl. | ||
1P | -m | -ō | -me | 1P | -a | -ōθa | -meθa |
2P | -s | -tas | -te | 2P | -ta | -ate | -θō |
3P | -t | -tes | -nθ | 3P | -to | -atē | -r |
The injunctive continues the secondary endings of PEE. This form had several functions in the Galic language: with the present stem, it was used as a simple past tense and as a prohibitive together with the particle mē "do not", and, with the aorist stem, as the aorist tense.
Subjunctive active endings | Subjunctive middle endings | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Du. | Pl. | Sing. | Du. | Pl. | ||
1P | -ō | -ou̯ōs | -omōs | 1P | -ōi | -ou̯ōzθa | -omozθa |
2P | -ei̯ze | -etas | -ete | 2P | -etai | -etom | -eθō |
3P | -ei̯te | -etes | -o | 3P | -etoi | -etēm | -ēr |
The subjunctive endings continue the subjunctive endings of PEE with few alterations. Though called the subjunctive, its value as a hypothetis is often eclipsed by its value as a future tense.
Opatative active endings | Opatative middle endings | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Du. | Pl. | Sing. | Du. | Pl. | ||
1P | -i̯ēm | -īō | -īme | 1P | -ị | -īōθa | -īmeθa |
2P | -i̯ēs | -ītas | -īte | 2P | -īta | -ịte | -īθō |
3P | -i̯ēt | -ītes | -īnθ | 3P | -īto | -ịtē | -īə̄ |
The optative endings continue the PEE optative and expresses wishes in independent constructions and unreal hypotheses that are contrary to what is known or assumed to be true in conditional ones, i.e. "if it were not raining (but it is), then..." and "if I were to win the lottery (but it is not likely that I will), then..." It is to be noted that wishes expressed in the optative are "non-instructional wishes", i.e. not directed to anyone to realize, and wishes that are expressed for a person to realize are in the imperative instead.
Imperative active endings | Imperative middle endings | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Du. | Pl. | Sing. | Du. | Pl. | ||
1P | — | — | — | 1P | — | — | — |
2P | -θe | -ta | -te | 2P | -to | -te | -nθo |
3P | -sō | -te | -θō | 3P | -tō | -tē | -nθō |
The imperative expresses direct, positive wishes and demands and is therefore only used in the second and third persons. In Galic, the prayers of humans to gods are always in the imperative, showing that imperatives do not imply authority or legitimacy, only that a wish is directed to a certain other person, whether the listener or a third person; imperatives are rarely used this way in later texts. Negative wishes and demands are expressed with the injunctive.
Perfect active endings | Perfect middle endings | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Du. | Pl. | Sing. | Du. | Pl. | ||
1P | -a | -ō | -me | 1P | Where the perfect has transitive meaning, the middle is formed with the injunctive of es "to be" + perfect active participle | ||
2P | -ta | -eta | -e | 2P | |||
3P | -e | -ēte | -r | 3P |
The perfect tense, continuing the PEE perfect, is formed from the perfect stem and takes a peculiar set of endings. Perfect stems with transitive meanings can also form a periphrastic passive voice from the injunctive of es plus the perfect active participle, all in the appropriate number agreeing with the subject.
Perfect imperative active endings | Perfect imperative middle endings | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sing. | Du. | Pl. | Sing. | Du. | Pl. | ||
1P | 1P | Where the perfect has active meaning, the middle is formed with the imperative of es "to be" + perfect active participle | |||||
2P | -aho | -ata | -a | 2P | |||
3P | -e | -āte | -ūr | 3P |
The perfect stem may form imperatives with a set of imperative endings specific to the perfect stem. These endings are restricted to the earlier part of the Galic corpus and only used where the perfect has intransitive meaning; the imperative of perfects with active meaning is formed periphrastically.