Northian grammar: Difference between revisions

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The view that nom. sing. is not characterized by final *-s is more often supported by scholars specialized in Northian, since this phonetic change (dropping final *-s after resonant) is attested later than the proto-language, which militates against its presence there.  Nevertheless, final *-s has definitely been inserted to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistoric Northian, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution.  We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants.  Final *-s where present is always preserved after *i- and *u-, and their absence there indicates a noun is obligatorily neuter.  Final *-s seems to have been mostly absent in resonant-stems, whose nom. sing. takes the long grade instead (i- and u-stems never have long grade in the nom. sing.).  After consonants their distribution is not predictable: ''nepōt'' "grandchild" was asigmatic, but ''nohs'' "night", ''pontōs'' "path", and nouns ending in -tēθs certainly had *-s, which is altered after most stems.
The view that nom. sing. is not characterized by final *-s is more often supported by scholars specialized in Northian, since this phonetic change (dropping final *-s after resonant) is attested later than the proto-language, which militates against its presence there.  Nevertheless, final *-s has definitely been inserted to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistoric Northian, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution.  We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants.  Final *-s where present is always preserved after *i- and *u-, and their absence there indicates a noun is obligatorily neuter.  Final *-s seems to have been mostly absent in resonant-stems, whose nom. sing. takes the long grade instead (i- and u-stems never have long grade in the nom. sing.).  After consonants their distribution is not predictable: ''nepōt'' "grandchild" was asigmatic, but ''nohs'' "night", ''pontōs'' "path", and nouns ending in -tēθs certainly had *-s, which is altered after most stems.


The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases.  Where the stem had *-s it is dropped, and without *-s the stem is in the full grade or short-vowel grade.  In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m.  In consonant stems it is vocalized as -m̥ > PNN *-um.  After resonants, it is generally the ending *-m̥ that is vocalized as PNN *-um.  But in Galic an unaccented ending *-um is always altered unless preceded by *y.
The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases.  Where the stem had *-s it is dropped, and without *-s the stem is in the full grade or short-vowel grade.  In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m.  In consonant stems it is vocalized as -m̥ > PNN *-um.  After resonants, it is generally the ending *-m̥ that is vocalized as PNN *-um.  But in Galic an unaccented ending *-um is always altered unless preceded by *y, to -ə̄m if the preceding syllable is light, and the short variant thereof, if heavy.  Where the ending is a vowel or a glide, the bare ending of -m is found.
 
In the genitive, dative, and instrumental (oblique) cases, the acrostatic, proterokinetic, and hysterokinetic ablaut patterns in various suffixes give rise to different endings.  The ending *-os > Galic -ō is proper to the hysterokinetic nouns, but in the Epic language (-os) it is often applied to other stems; in either dialect, the ending rarely interacts with the stem and stays mostly visible.  The proterokinetic and acrostatic ending was PNN *-s.  After a full-grade ending, expected in a proterokinetic pattern, it is preserved where the suffix ends in a vowel as in -ei̯-š and -eu̯-š, and the same for acrostatic patterns.  After a resonant it is usually dropped and causes the preceding vowel to lengthen, cf. -mēn < *-men-s, but -ō could be re-attached to it when metrically convenient.  After a zero-grade ending, in an acrostatic pattern, the fate of *-s is varied.  In consonant clusters it usually caused deletion of intervening consonants, e.g. PNN *nekʷts > Galic ''nehš''.  After PNN *-un it generates -ūn, after *-um it was -ə̄ṇġ, after *-ur and *-ul it was -ūš.


====Thematic====
====Thematic====

Revision as of 05:11, 13 April 2022

Northian grammar is highly synthetic.

Overview

Ablaut

Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not their meaning, that is inherited from Proto-Nordic-Northian and ultimately Proto-Erani-Eracuran. It affects nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs in Northian. Though ablaut was a regular process closely tied to accent in the reconstructed proto-language, by Galic times new ablaut formulae are no longer being made, and only a few ablauting formulae remained productive. Moreover, existing formulae have been disrupted by sound change and both general and sporadic analogical replacement. The result that surfaces in Galic Northian is a rich yet unpredictable set of alternate morphologies that confuses both modern readers and, often, even ancient Northians.

In nouns, there are three main ablaut patterns that Northian inherited from its ancestors, in the discourse of PEE called acrostatic, proterokinetic, and hysterokinetic. All three patterns are preserved in Galic Northian to one degree or another, summarized below. The proparoxytone category continues the PEE acrostatic pattern and its characteristic o/e ablaut, though synchronically this ablaut pattern is but attested in a few forms of a minority of nouns (e.g. nemə̄ṇġ gen. of nomə̄), the majority of proparoxytone nouns having arbitrarily generalized either o- or e-grade across the paradigm. The paroxytone group largely continues

Case Root Stem Ending PNN Galic
PP Nom. sg. ó ~ é Ø *pot-i-s potiš, "lord"
Acc. sg. é Ø *pot-i-m potim
Gen. sg. é Ø Ø *pet-i-s petiš
Nom. pl. é Ø *pet-i̯-es peθi̯iš
Acc. pl. é Ø *pet-i-ns petīn
PX Nom. sg. é Ø *ment-i-s menθiš, "mind"
Acc. sg. é Ø *ment-i-m menθim
Gen. sg. Ø é Ø *munt-ei̯-s munθēš
Nom. pl. é é *ment-ei̯-es menθēiš
Acc. pl. é Ø *ment-i-ns menθīn
OX Nom. sg. é Ø ~ ó *sēkl-oi̯-s sēkloi̯š, "treaty"
Acc. sg. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-um saklēum
Gen. sg. Ø Ø é *səkl-i-os sakli̯ō
Loc. sg. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-i saklei̯e
Nom. pl. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-es saklēiš
Acc. pl. Ø é *səkl-ei̯-uns saklåṇġ

These processes have occurred to the greater extent in the Epic language, but there the word forms were subject to more rigorous regularization.

Noun endings

Athematic

The following chart recapitulates the ordinary endings of athematic nouns in Galic Northian.

The nominative and genitive singular forms are often unpredictable and variable under the influence of ablaut, laryngeals reflexes, analogy, vowel contraction, and compensatory lengthening for illegal consonant clusters in coda position. With few exceptions, all other endings are further modified according to the shape of the nominal stem, most often the behaviour of -s- in the environment of resonants and vowels and avoidance of similar long vowels. OX stands for the oxytone group of patterns, and PX for the paroxytone group. Certain neuter nouns do not take plural endings but collective endings with a lengthened stem; these nouns are not formally predictable. Because neuter nouns always have the same nominative and accusative forms, only their nominative endings will be listed, and in grey.

Basic athematic endings
Singular Dual Plural Collective
OX PX, PPX OX PX, PPX OX, PX, PPX OX
Nominative -V̄-Ø, -s, -å, -s, -ē, -a, -V̄, -V̄R-Ø, -es, -iš, -a, -V̄R-Ø -V̄-Ø
Vocative
Accusative -m, -um, -əm, -ə̄m -V̄n, -əṇġ, -ə̄ṇġ
Locative -i, -eC-Ø -eC-Ø -o, -i̯-u -hu
Genitive -s, -V̄s, -V̄n, -V̄ṇġ -ōs -uš, -u̯-ō = sing.
Dative -ai̯-e, -ei̯-e, -Vi̯ -mō -V̄-m, -ma -muš
Instrumental -ē, -å -a, -V̄R-Ø

A general discussion of the athematic declension cannot omit to mention that many of these divergent forms are conditioned on phonetic change, but so too there are divergences because the proto-forms themselves were likely divergent. Animate (= masculine and feminine) nouns may have been in the proto-language sigmatic in the nominative singular, that is ending in *-s, or asigmatic, that is without final *-s and instead taking a lengthened final vowel. The source of this lengthening is disputed: some authorities regard it as a consequence of a final *-s dropping after a resonant, but others hold it had no *-s originally and attribute the long vowel to ablaut variation sensitive to the morphologically strong case. In the case where a universal *-s as a designation of the nom. sing. is not accepted, some propose it is instead a designation for those terms originally neuter in gender used as an animate noun.

The view that nom. sing. is not characterized by final *-s is more often supported by scholars specialized in Northian, since this phonetic change (dropping final *-s after resonant) is attested later than the proto-language, which militates against its presence there. Nevertheless, final *-s has definitely been inserted to animate nouns quite broadly but haphazardly in prehistoric Northian, so there is no obvious pattern to its distribution. We may distinguish three situations in Northian as to the nom. sing., stems ending in vowel, in resonant, and in non-resonants. Final *-s where present is always preserved after *i- and *u-, and their absence there indicates a noun is obligatorily neuter. Final *-s seems to have been mostly absent in resonant-stems, whose nom. sing. takes the long grade instead (i- and u-stems never have long grade in the nom. sing.). After consonants their distribution is not predictable: nepōt "grandchild" was asigmatic, but nohs "night", pontōs "path", and nouns ending in -tēθs certainly had *-s, which is altered after most stems.

The vocative consists of the bare strong stem in all cases. Where the stem had *-s it is dropped, and without *-s the stem is in the full grade or short-vowel grade. In the proto-language, the accusative ended in *-m. In consonant stems it is vocalized as -m̥ > PNN *-um. After resonants, it is generally the ending *-m̥ that is vocalized as PNN *-um. But in Galic an unaccented ending *-um is always altered unless preceded by *y, to -ə̄m if the preceding syllable is light, and the short variant thereof, if heavy. Where the ending is a vowel or a glide, the bare ending of -m is found.

In the genitive, dative, and instrumental (oblique) cases, the acrostatic, proterokinetic, and hysterokinetic ablaut patterns in various suffixes give rise to different endings. The ending *-os > Galic -ō is proper to the hysterokinetic nouns, but in the Epic language (-os) it is often applied to other stems; in either dialect, the ending rarely interacts with the stem and stays mostly visible. The proterokinetic and acrostatic ending was PNN *-s. After a full-grade ending, expected in a proterokinetic pattern, it is preserved where the suffix ends in a vowel as in -ei̯-š and -eu̯-š, and the same for acrostatic patterns. After a resonant it is usually dropped and causes the preceding vowel to lengthen, cf. -mēn < *-men-s, but -ō could be re-attached to it when metrically convenient. After a zero-grade ending, in an acrostatic pattern, the fate of *-s is varied. In consonant clusters it usually caused deletion of intervening consonants, e.g. PNN *nekʷts > Galic nehš. After PNN *-un it generates -ūn, after *-um it was -ə̄ṇġ, after *-ur and *-ul it was -ūš.

Thematic

The chart below illustrates the ordinary endings of the thematic (o-stem) declension of Galic. Because accentuation difference categorically does not trigger ablaut in o-stem nouns, their endings do not vary according to their accentual pattern, which is lexically fixed on the same syllable. Additionally, the presence of the theme vowel e ~ o obviates, in most cases, the resolution of consonant clusters and consequent irregularity in surface forms. With the exception of a few fixed athematic patterns, o-stem is the primary productive pattern in the Epic language.

Basic thematic endings
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative -ō, -om -ō, -oī -ōs,
Vocative -e
Accusative -om -ōn
Genitive -ōhi̯o -ōs -āõ
Locative -ohu
Dative -ōi̯ -omō -omuš
Instrumental -ōd

Verbs

The relationship between verb-stems and endings they receive are as follows in the Galic language:

Present stem Aorist stem Perfect stem
Primary endings Present indicative tense
Secondary endings Injunctive tense Aorist indicative tense
Imperative endings Imperative tense Aorist imperative tense
Future imperative endings Future imperative tense
Perfect endings Perfect tense
Perfect imperative endings Perfect imperative tense

From each root, which is agnostic as to part of speech in the proto-language, can arise multiple stems classified as present, aorist, or perfect, differentiated by their affixes. To these stems are attached endings to constitute the finite verb, which conveys tense/aspect, mood, voice, person, and number.

Primary active endings Primary middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -me -ōne -mei̯ne 1P -ai -ōzθa -mozθa
2P -se -tas -te 2P -tai -tom -θō
3P -te -tes -nθe 3P -toi -tēm -ūs
Secondary active endings Secondary middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -m -me 1P -a -ōθa -meθa
2P -s -tas -te 2P -ta -ate -θō
3P -t -tes -nθ 3P -to -atē -r
Thematic active endings Thematic middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -ou̯ōs -omōs 1P -ōi -ou̯ōzθa -omozθa
2P -ei̯e -etas -ete 2P -etai -etom -eθō
3P -ei̯te -etes -o 3P -etoi -etēm -ēr
Imperative active endings Imperative middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P 1P
2P -θe -ta -te 2P -to -te -nθo
3P -sō -te -θō 3P -tō -tē -nθō
Perfect active endings Perfect middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P -a -me 1P Where the perfect has transitive meaning, the middle is formed with the injunctive of es "to be" + perfect active participle
2P -ta -eta -e 2P
3P -e -ēte -r 3P

Evolution

Northian is one of the few Erani-Eracuran languages that retains multiple productive ablaut patterns in nouns, though hysterokinetic endings have gained ground in many stem-classes at the expense of proterokientic and acrostatic formations. This tendency is attributed to surface consistency in hysterokinetic endings, which are regularly accented sing. gen. -ō < *-os and dat. -ē < *-ei̯.  The proterokinetic and acrostatic endings tended to disappear through the erosion of final consonants and unaccented vowels. After most consonants, final -s disappears, lengthening the preceding vowel and modifying consonants in several ways, while final -i lowers to -e and causes preceding -e- > -ei̯- and -a- > -ai̯-. The places where *-s and *-i remain in situ are the i-, u-, ī-, ū-, ē-, and neuter n-stems (*-i only).

Despite recession, former proterokinetic nouns appear from "irregular" nouns that either retain proterokinetic endings, accentual positions, or both. The hysterokinetic ending is often simply appended to the stem already reflecting the proterokinetic ending, e.g. Epic pau̯ḗnō from Galic pau̯ḗn + hysterokinetic gen. ending , whereas a "true" hysterokinetic noun would have ending -ṓ and not a full-grade suffix.

In the dual nom. the preference for hysterokinesis was evident, and only neuter nouns were consistently inflected proterokinetically, probably because it had a distinct ending -ī that resisted phonetic assimilation. Where the stem ended in a resonant, the animate ending *-ə disappeared by regular sound change and cause compensatory lengthening. This created an anomalous stem with long vowel where it was not expected (only in the nom. sing. was long vowel expected). When this happened, only stem and root ablaut distinguished it from the inst. sing., so if the stem had lost ablaut, as often was the case, it would become identical to that form. In the other dual cases, however, proterokinetic forms survived for longer, but once the hysterokinetic form was introduced to the nom., it too often crept into the other cases (especially in the same speaker's utterances).

Some linguists propose that Galic poets retained more archaic patterns for their flexibility in verse, as full-grade endings generated heavy syllables and zero-grade generated light syllables. It is criticized that metrical considerations are absent in common speech, so it is questionable if ablaut patterns were retained there as long as it did in the poetic language. Indeed, while younger Galic metre may have been written as late as the 5th century BCE, productive proterokinetic patterns in Epic verse has been whittled to the i-, u-, and n-stems. The acrostatic pattern has been a vestigial, closed set since the earliest stages of Northian canon—it seems hard to avoid this conclusion if a term as basic as E.Nr. maetūr (G.Nr. mētūš) "mother's" was disappearing from children's speech in favour of maeθrō. Acrostatic n- and s-stems were no longer viable even while their proterokinetic cousins were. On the other hand, acrostatic formations have spread prehistorically to proterokinetic ones, in the ins. sing. of i- and u-stems, which often show zero-grade ending where full grade is expected.

Awareness of multiple ablaut patterns persisted well into the period of the Late Canon, attested in the chastisement of children who substitute oxytone endings for their paroxytone counterparts. Ancient grammarians divided nouns into two kinds based on the position of the accent in the gen. sing. form. The oxytone group includes all nouns that have accented endings, and paroxytone group, nouns that have unaccented endings. The grammarians teach that this predicts the endings and accent positions in other forms. Modern scholars accept that some parts of their teaching correctly identifies the contrast between proterodynamic and hysterodynamic endings, but the shape of the stem was not connected by the ancient grammarians to the position of the accent. Acrostatic nouns were considered an irregular type of proterokinetic nouns and not as its own class.

Nouns

Classes

The principal classes of nouns are discussed first. The following chart lists the stems and accent patterns that are attested in Galic Northian, as well as the genders of attested nouns. A green cell indicates that the attestation of a stem-accent paradigm is solid (three lemmas or more); a yellow cell indicates a marginal attestation (one or two); a red cell indicates no attestation or only dubious attestations.

Root -m -ns -mn -n -r -l -s -os/es -i -u -h₁ -h₂ -r/n -d -t -a -o
OX M/F F/M M M/F M/F M/F All M/F N M/F M/F 1, M No M/F F N, Pl. M/F M/F F M/N
PX F/N No No N No M/F No No N All All No 2, F F F N N No No No
PPX F/N No No N No No 1, M N All All 3, N No No No N No All No No

As will appear from this schematic, there are few noun classes that exhibit all three patterns that continue the ablaut patterns of the proto-language; rather, there was a strong tendency for noun classes to coalesce on one pattern identified with the stem, or for masculine and feminine nouns to coalesce on one pattern and neuter nouns on another. In the latter case, neuter nouns are almost always identified with the paroxytone pattern, and masculine and feminine nouns with the oxytone. The exception is for i-stems and u-stems, where a considerable portion of masculine and feminine nouns inherit acrostatic patterns from the proto-language. In other cases, the skewed distribution of gender is inherited from the proto-language, as in the case of ī- and ū-stems, which historically are combinations of *i-h₂- and *u-h₂- and therefore take their feminine gender and proterokinetic pattern from the h₂-stems in PEE. Some nouns of this class have been further elaborated with an -s ending, which brings about the oxytone pattern and can be masculine in gender.

With the r-stems the acrostatic pattern has bled into the PX pattern.

Root nouns

The category of root nouns is slightly removed from the category of the same name in PNN or PEE. In Northian, root nouns consist only of those that end in plosives, while resonant- and vowel-stem root nouns are discussed together with their suffixed cousins, as the phonological processes that apply to them generate similar results.

se poθs, "foot"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative poθs pedē pediš
Vocative pod
Accusative pedum pedəṇġ
Genitive θvō θvōs θvõ
Locative péi̯de θvō peššu
Dative θvē pesmō pesmus
Instrumental θvē

Generally speaking, the reflexes of PEE *pods "foot" shows proterodynamic inflection with stems *pod- ~ *ped-, but the oblique cases in Galic Northian show an unexpected zero grade stem reflecting *pd- > *bd- > θv-.

se dõ, "house"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative domiš
Vocative
Accusative domum domuṇ
Genitive dēṇġ demuš demõ
Locative déi̯me demo deṇhu
Dative dei̯ma deṇhmuš
Instrumental dēm

"house", an extremely common noun, also displays three ablaut grades; however, its stems differ by the quantity and quality of the vowel in the same root syllable, as it has no suffix. In the sing. nom., final vowel is lengthened already in PEE. The regular strong stem is visible in the sing. acc., which has two forms. dōm stands as a poetic or dialectal term in place of expected domum sometimes; its creation is either late, as it does not have vowel nasalization, or reflects compensatory lengthening from dropping the final syllable of domum. displays a paroxytone accentual pattern and has the zero-grade endings: sing. gen. dēŋ < *dems and dat. déi̯me < *demi, the latter showing regular mutation after the lowering of the final *-i.

m-stems

This class is known from only three but important nouns, θéɣõ "earth", žõ "winter", and "house". All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only three examples, this may not be an actual rule.

se θéɣõ, "earth"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θéɣõ zθémē zθémiš
Vocative θéɣom
Accusative zθémum zumuṇ
Genitive zmō zu̯ōs zu̯õ
Locative zθéi̯me zu̯ō zumsu
Dative zmē zəṇġu̯ō zəṇġu̯ō
Instrumental zūm

θéɣõ is one of the rarer Northian words that reflects all three ablaut grades.

θéɣõ "eath" is from the full-grade stem of Proto-Erani-Eracuran *dʰeǵʰōm "earth", where final -m drops and causes the preceding long vowel to become nasalized. Gen. zmō and dat. zmē are the results of the zero-grade stem *dʰǵʰm̥ > *zm̥- > zm-. Final *-os regularly contracts to -ō, lengthening the vowel, and *-ey monophthongized into -ē. The e-grade stem is visible in the strong cases in singular and dual, sing. loc., as well as plural nom., as zθém < *dʰǵʰem-. In the sing. loc., the lowering of final *-i triggered the regular mutation in the preceding short vowel. The plural acc. unexpectedly displays zero-grade stem; final *-n̥s regularly > *-uns > Galic -ə̄ṇġ. The stem ending in -m mutates with the initial m- of the du. and pl. dat.-ins. endings.

The behaviour of žõ "winter" is underlyingly similar to that of θéɣõ, but other phonetic changes have caused the surface forms to be altered in other ways.

ns-stems

måə̄ṇġ "moon" has one of the less transparent paradigms in Galic. In the received texts this word is always written as måṇġ, which contradicts the metrical requirement of five morae, but the spelling does not reveal what the missing vowel is. In view of the general development of PEE *-Hn̥s, most authorities write this word as måə̄ṇġ, standing for [māʔaʔə̄ŋɡ̚]. It stands for PEE *mḗh₁n̥s > PNN *mḗuns > PN *māunh.

sē måə̄ṇġ, "moon, month"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative måə̄ṇġ måə̄ṇhē måə̄ṇhiš
Vocative måṇġ
Accusative mēṇhum måə̄həṇġ
Genitive mēṇhō mēṇhmōs mēṇhõ
Locative mə̄ṇġ mēṇhō mēṇhsu
Dative māi̯ṇhe mēṇhmō mēṇhmuš
Instrumental mə̄ṇha

mn-stems

The mn-stems are prolific in Northian in both the Galic and Epic languages, and they exhibit three ablaut patterns. In this case, the oxytone pattern was normalized in masculine and feminine nouns, and the paroxytone in neuter nouns. The acrostatic ablaut pattern is restricted to a few inherited terms.

sē akmō, "stone"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative akmō akmenē akmeniš
Vocative akmo
Accusative akmenum kəṇġmuṇ
Genitive kəṇġmō kəṇġmōs kəṇġmõ
Locative kumeine kumnō kumuṇsu
Dative kəṇġmē kəṇġmō kəṇġmuš
Instrumental kəṇġma
tod θēmə̄, "house of a god, temple"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θēmə̄ θēmnī θēmnō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive šmēn šmenuš θumnō
Locative šmeno šmeni
Dative šmeni šmeŋma θumunmuš
Instrumental šmēn
tod nomə̄, "name"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nomə̄ nomnī nomnō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive nemə̄n nemnuš nemnõ
Locative nemnu nemsu
Dative nemne nemuṇma nemuṇmuš
Instrumental nemūn

n-stems

The PNN stems are *wey-on- and *wī-n-. In the nom. sing. the root vowel is attracted by the final ō and becomes wāō.

sē wāō, "wine"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative wāō wēonē wēoniš
Vocative wēon
Accusative wīonum wēonəṇġ
Genitive wīnō wīnōs wīnõ
Locative wīen wīnō wīṇhu
Dative wīē wīṇmō wīṇmuš
Instrumental wīn

r-stems

R-stem nouns contain members from all three accentual patterns. mētə̄ "mother" represents the group with PPX accent, which persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade. βrētur "brother" is declined in the same manner. This is a small group of nouns recognized by their unaccented endings in -ə̄.

sē mētə̄, "mother"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mētə̄ mētūr mēθriš
Vocative
Accusative mēθrum mētə̄rəṇġ
Genitive mētūš mēθruš mēθrõ
Locative mēθre mēθro mētuššu
Dative mēturma mēturmuš
Instrumental mēθra

Gen. mētūš < PNN *mēturs < PEE *meh₂tr̥s, while māetūr is from the Epic language, which has restored the *r that has been dropped in *-rs. Dat. mēθre < PEE *meh₂tri, with the (possibly) innovated zero-grade ending, contra full-grade ending *-ei̯. In the du. the stem ending in resonant causes final *-ə to drop and lengthen the preceding *u. The acc. pl. seems to reflect PEE *meh₂tr̥ns, but the other Nordic languages point to *meh₂tern̥s, and neither form is particularly informative as both are in unison with respective nom. pl. stems.

sóhitə̄ "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in -er and -or. They are recognizable by their zero-grade nom. endings and full-grade -ō endings in gen. The behaviour of the word ɣenə̄ "arm" is underlyingly identical.

sē sóhitə̄, "daughter"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sóhitə̄ duɣaterē duɣateriš
Vocative
Accusative duɣaterum duɣaterəṇġ
Genitive duɣaθrō duɣaθrōs duɣaθrõ
Locative duɣaθrē duɣaterō duɣatuššu
Dative duɣaturmō duɣaturmō
Instrumental duɣaθra

patēr "father" is a variation of the pattern of "daughter", where in the nom. the accent is on the ending instead of the stem; otherwise, it follows the pattern of "daughter" exactly.

sē patēr, "father"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative patēr paterē pateriš
Vocative pater
Accusative paterum paterəṇġ
Genitive paθrō paθrōs paθrõ
Locative paθrē paterō paθruššu
Dative patu̯rmō patu̯rmō
Instrumental paθra

The paroxytone declension of āštə̄ "star" has a unique blend of formations expected from PPX and PX patterns. The nom. sing. āštə̄ reflects PEE *h₂eh₁str̥, a form not seen elsewhere in Erani-Eracuran. Gen. strūš < PNN *stros, but the zero-grade stem has crept in from "mother" or "brother" and displaced the hysterokinetic ending, in a way contrary to the general rule in Northian.

sa āstə̄, "star"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative āštə̄ stēr steriš
Vocative
Accusative āsterum strəṇġ
Genitive strūš struš sterõ
Locative steire stro steššu
Dative sterma stermuš
Instrumental stēr

An r-stem noun not within the formation -tr is nēr "man", gen. drō < PNN *nros. As it is seen this noun originally has hysterokinetic accent, but acc. sing. drum and pl. drə̄ reflect PEE zero-grade stem *nr-. Nom. pl. neriš is the only place where the full-grade stem appears in the paradigm.

l-stems

The l-stems originally inflect as other ablauting consonant stems, but because intervocalic *-l- regularly > -y-, the resulting paradigm presents certain quirks not seen in the normal consonant-stem paradigm.

sa sē, "salt" = ἅλς
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sai̯ē sai̯iš
Vocative se
Accusative sai̯um sai̯ə̄ṇġ
Genitive slō slōs slõ
Locative sai̯i̯e slō sullu
Dative slē sullus
Instrumental sla
sa abō, "apple"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative abō aboi̯ē aboi̯iš
Vocative abo
Accusative aboi̯um aboi̯ə̄ṇġ
Genitive ablō ablōs ablõ
Locative abei̯e ablō abllu
Dative ablē abllō abllus
Instrumental abla

s-stems

There are two classes in the s-stem group, one for masculine and feminine nouns, and another for neuter ones. The masculine and feminine nouns are formally indistinct but behave like other consonant-stem nouns, with or without ablaut. The noun muš "mouse" is unique in its preservation of an initial accent. The neuter nouns fall into two groups, those with oxytone or paroxytone accents.

sē nēs, "nose"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nēs nazē naziš
Vocative nes
Accusative nahum nazəṇġ
Genitive nahō nahōs nahõ
Locative nai̯ze nahō nassu
Dative nazē nahmō nahmuš
Instrumental naza

os/es-stems

tod kretō, "intellect, power"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kretō kreteza kreteza
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive kretehō kretehuš kretehõ
Locative kretei̯ze kretehu kretessu
Dative kretesma kretesmuš
Instrumental kretera


tod menō, "mind"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative menō meneza meneza
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive menēs menehuš menehõ
Locative menei̯ze menehu menessu
Dative menehma menehmuš
Instrumental meneza
tod mēŋ, "meat"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mēṇġ meṇhī meṇha
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive mēṇġ meṇhuš meṇhõ
Locative meṇġ meṇhu meṇho
Dative meṇhma meṇhus
Instrumental meṇha

i-stems

The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In PEE, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all contexts, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different. Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.

sa socis, "ally"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative socis skoi̯ē sokoi̯iš
Vocative soci
Accusative socim skoin
Genitive skiō skiōs skiõ
Locative skoi̯e skiō skisu
Dative skiē skimō skimuš
Instrumental skī
sē mentis, "thought" tod more, "sea"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mentis mentēa mentēiš more morēa morēi̯
Vocative meinte
Accusative mentim mentīn
Genitive muntēs muntēuš muntēõ mrēs mrēuš mrēõ
Locative muntēi muntēu muntēsu mrēē mrēo mrēsu
Dative muntēma muntēmuš mrēma mrēmuš
Instrumental muntēa mrē
sa potis, "master"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative potis potī potiiš
Vocative poti
Accusative potim potīn
Genitive petis petiuš petiõ
Locative peti petiu petisu
Dative petima petimuš
Instrumental petī

u-stems

sē genus, "chin"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative genōs geneu̯ē geneu̯iš
Vocative genō
Accusative genōm geneu̯ṇġ
Genitive genuō genuōs genuõ
Locative geneu̯i genuō genuru
Dative genuē genumō genumuš
Instrumental genua
sa sui̯us, "child" = υἱύς tod pōi̯o, "flock" = πῶυ
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sui̯uš sui̯ēu̯ sui̯eu̯iš pōi̯o pai̯ēu̯ pai̯ēu̯
Vocative sui̯o
Accusative sui̯um sui̯uṇġ
Genitive sui̯eu̯s sui̯eu̯uš sui̯eu̯õ pai̯eu̯s pai̯eu̯uš pai̯eu̯õ
Locative sui̯eu̯i sui̯eu̯o sui̯eu̯so pai̯eu̯i pai̯eu̯o pai̯eu̯so
Dative sui̯eu̯ma sui̯eu̯muš pai̯eu̯ma pai̯eu̯muš
Instrumental sui̯ēu̯ pai̯ēu̯
sa θeɣus, "fish" = ἰχθύς tod doru, "wood" = δόρυ
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θeɣuš θeɣō θeɣōs doru dorō dorō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive zuš zuuš zuõ deruš deruuš deruõ
Locative zui zuo zuru derō deruo denuru
Dative zuma zumuš deruma derumuš
Instrumental derū

xͮōn

xͮōn "woman" continues the PEE proterodynamic declension ending in *-h₂. This suffix also underlies the ī- and ū-stem declensions in Northian but is otherwise rarely seen alone. The full-grade stem is from *gʷénh₂-, and the zero-grade *gʷnéh₂-.

sē xͮōn, "woman" = γυνή
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative xͮōn žnē xͮenas
Vocative xͮen
Accusative xͮenum xͮenaṇġ
Genitive žnēs žnēuš žnēõ
Locative žnēi žnēo žnēhu
Dative žnēma žnēmuš
Instrumental žnå

ī-stems

The ī-stems in oxytone is rare and contains only a few nouns.

sē sθerīs, "heifer"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sθerīs sθerī sθurīiš
Vocative sθerī
Accusative sθerīum sθurīəṇġ
Genitive sθurīō sθurīōs sθurīõ
Locative sθurīē sθurīō sθunīru
Dative sθurīmō sθurīmuš
Instrumental sθurīē

By contrast, the ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns.

sē genaθrī, "genitrix"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative gēnθrī genaθrī genaθrīes
Vocative
Accusative gēnθrīum genaθrīəṇġ
Genitive gunaθri̯ēs gnaθri̯ēuš gnaθri̯ēõ
Locative gnaθri̯ēi gnaθri̯ēo gnaθri̯ēhu
Dative gnaθri̯ēma gnaθri̯ēmuš
Instrumental gnaθri̯ē

ū-stems

The ū-stems were exactly parallel to the ī-stems at the PEE and PNN levels, but due to phonetic changes have become nearly unrecognizable. The nom. sing. of hysterokinetic stems had accented root syllable and an ending in PEE *-uh₂-s > *PNN *-ūs > Galic *-ūš. The acc. would have ended in PEE *-u̯eh₂-m̥ > PNN *-wē-um. In Galic, *-wē- regularly > -i̯ō-, as also in loc. In the oblique cases, the stem ended in -ū-, to which full-grade endings were added. The zero-grade stem has replaced the original full-grade one in the dual nom. such that it projects the (implausible) PEE form *tn̥-uh₂-h₁. The metrically trimoraic -ū ending represents final *-ūᵊ, as otherwise it would have become *-ō.

sē tenūš, "body"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tenūš tunū tunōs
Vocative
Accusative tuni̯ōum tunu̯ēəṇġ
Genitive tunūō tunuōs tunuõ
Locative tuni̯ōi tunuō tunuru
Dative tunūē tunumō tunumuš
Instrumental tunūē

The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely sokrō "mother-in-law".

sē sokrō, "mother-in-law" = socrus
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative sokrō sokrēu̯ sokrēu̯iš
Vocative
Accusative sokrēu̯u̯ŋ sokrēu̯ŋ
Genitive sokrēu̯s sokrēu̯uš sokrēu̯õ
Locative sokrēi̯e sokrēu̯ō sokrēu̯ru
Dative sokrēu̯ma sokrēu̯muš
Instrumental sokrēu̯[a?]

The term pūlθvēs "crowd, multitude" has a unique pattern and is only found in the singular.

sē pūlθvēs, "crowd, multitude" = plebs
Singular
Nominative pūlθvēs
Vocative pūlθvē
Accusative pūlθvēum
Genitive pūlθuō
Locative pūlθvē
Dative pūlθuē
Instrumental pūlθuē

r/n-stems

i̯å "year", with acrostatic ablaut, is from PNN *yō-ur, gen. *yē-uns. In Galic, unaccented final -ur regularly drops and lengthens preceding syllable. The strong stem with *-r- is visible in the dual. In the oblique stem, *uns > *ə̄ṇġ. In the dat. the long vowel resists mutation caused by final short *-i. The ins. ending has dropped, but the preceding long vowel cannot be further lengthened to *å because it is closed.

tod i̯å, "year" = ὥρα
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative i̯å i̯ōrī i̯ēōr
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive i̯ə̄ṇġ i̯ēnuš īnō
Locative i̯ēne i̯ēno iei̯ne
Dative i̯ēi̯ṇhma īnē
Instrumental i̯ēn īnā

pāō "fire" represents the heteroclitic nouns with proterokinetic pattern, with accented stem in the oblique cases. The PNN form is *pēwur and gen. *pəwens, from PEE *peh₂-wr̥ and gen. *ph₂wen-s. In the nom., the sequence *-wu- differentiates to *-wo- prehistorically and then gives -ō- regularly. *-ēō- is assimilated to -āō- because the preceding consonant is a labial. In the gen. *ə before -e- regularly becomes -a-. Final *-s drops and causes the preceding *-e- to lengthen. Mutation occurs in the dat. with *-e- > -ei̯-.

tod pāō, "fire" = πῦρ
Singular Dual Collective
Nominative pāō pāōrī pēwō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive pau̯ēn pau̯enuš pūnō
Locative pau̯ei̯ne pau̯eno pūne
Dative pau̯ei̯ṇhma pūnē
Instrumental pau̯ēn pūn

sāu̯u̯ō

The noun sāu̯u̯ō "sun" continues the PEE heteroclitic stem in *-l/n-. The nominative is due to assimilation of approximants and the regular sound change of *wu > wo. Genitive has hu̯ə̄ṇġ, for expected *hwēn < *swens < *sh₂wens; this possibly suggests the proterokinetic ending *-ens was replaced by acrostatic ending *-n̥s prehistorically, as from from PNN *swuns < PEE *sh₂wn̥s. However, because other Nordic languages show a reflex of *sh₂wens, the insertion of the acrostatic ending must have occurred only after Northian diverged from PNN.

sē sāu̯u̯ō, "Sun"
Singular
Nominative sāu̯u̯ō
Vocative
Accusative
Genitive xͮu̯ə̄ṇġ
Locative xͮu̯ei̯ne
Dative
Instrumental xͮu̯ēn

d-stems

The d-stems are a special class in Northian because *-d behaves like a resonant, rather than an obstruent, in certain phonetic environments and permits compensatory lengthening when final *-ə drops after it, cf. dual nom. in paroxytone.

sē xͮrēθs, "root" tod kerd, "heart" = καρδία
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative xͮrēθs xͮrēθē xͮrēθiš kerd krēd kordō
Vocative xͮrēd
Accusative xͮrēdum xͮrēdəṇġ
Genitive ōrdō ōrdōs ōrdō krēθs kreθuš kurdō
Locative xͮrēd ōrdo ōrššu kerde kreθu kerde
Dative ōrdē ōrhmō ōrhmuš kresma kurdē
Instrumental ōrdē krēd

t-stems

sa nēp, "grandchild"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nēpōt nepotē nepotiš
Vocative
Accusative nepotum neptəṇġ
Genitive neptō neptōs neptõ
Locative nepoti neptō neptru
Dative nepte neptmō neptmuš
Instrumental nepta
sē nōi̯h, "evening, night"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nōi̯h nexͮša noxͮšiš
Vocative
Accusative noxͮšum noxͮšəṇġ
Genitive nēh nexͮšuš nexͮšõ
Locative nexͮše nexͮšo nexͮššu
Dative naohma naohmuš
Instrumental nexͮša

From PEE *n̥-mr̥teh₂ts.

sē ummurtēθs, "immortality"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ummurtēθs ummurtētē ummurtētiš
Vocative ummurtēθ
Accusative ummurtētum ummurtētəṇġ
Genitive ummurtētō ummurtētōs ummurtētõ
Locative ummurtēθ ummurtētō ummurtēššu
Dative ummurtētē ummurtēsmuš
Instrumental ummurtēta

ponθōs

The word ponθōs "path" had a stem ending in PEE *póntoh₁- ~ pn̥th₁-, with dual ablauting syllables that always show the same grades. This word appears to be unique in all Erani-Eracuran languages in the stem formation it has.

sa ponθōs, "path, way"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ponθōs ponθōi̯ ponθōiš
Vocative
Accusative ponθōm punθōn
Genitive punθō punθōs punθõ
Locative ponθō punθō punθu
Dative punθē punθmō punθmuš
Instrumental punθē

a-stems

sē mihrə̄, "mist"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative mihrə̄ mihreī mihrās
Vocative
Accusative mihrām mihrāṇġ
Genitive mihrēō mihrēōs mihrõ
Locative mihrēi mihrēō mihru
Dative mihrāē mihrēmō mihurmuš
Instrumental mihrē

o-stems

sa θūmō, "smoke" tod i̯uɣõ, "yoke"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θūmō θūmō θūmōis i̯uɣõ i̯uɣōī i̯uɣō
Vocative θūme
Accusative θūmõ θūmōn
Genitive θūmōhi̯o θūmōuš θūmōõ i̯uɣōhi̯o i̯uɣōuš i̯uɣōõ
Locative θūmē θūmōu θūmōi̯o i̯uɣē i̯uɣōu i̯uɣōi̯o
Dative θūmōi̯ θūmōma θūmōmuš i̯uɣōi̯ i̯uɣōma i̯uɣōmuš
Instrumental θūmō i̯uɣō

Acrean words

Many words in Northian are Old Nordic loanwords from speakers of Acrean, which was used as a lingua franca in western Eracura for centuries under the influence of the Acrean Empire. These words were so numerouš that many were not nativized and were declined according to an approximation of the thematic declension in Old Nordic. For the most part, these endings are exact cognates with the thematic ones in Northian, but because of intervening sound changes, they are taught separately. Where there was a distinct vocative, the nominative form has displaced it. There are also no dual forms for these nouns, for which neologisms have sometimes been suggested, to no general acceptance. Since Old Nordic had no locative case, this form is always identical to the dative where Northian syntax demands the locative.

sa wulhʷā, "any lupine animal" = lupus tod ēta, "food"
Singular Dual and plural Singular Dual and plural
Nominative wulhʷā wulhʷōs ēta ētō
Vocative
Accusative wulhʷuŋ wulhʷān
Genitive wulhʷas wulhʷõ ētas ētõ
Locative wulhʷāi wulhʷamas ētai̯ ētamas
Dative
Instrumental wulhʷō wulhʷamis ētō ētamis

Irregular nouns

Country names

"Æþurheim", the name of the country to the southwest of Shalum, has an invariant stem with full grade throughout and initial persistent accent in Aí̯θrō-, which takes oxytone endings. The vocative form is identical to the nominative, showing full grade. Because the accent is in its expected position in the nom. and voc. forms, the acute accent on the i is not necessary there, while it is found in all other forms to denote the irregular accent.

"Shalum" behaves in a manner more reminiscent of a regular n-stem noun in oxytone and has the expected endings and accentual positions, but the stem does not display apophony as is usual in this class of nouns.

"Acrea" is named Aṇhrōs, which is a compound from aṇh- "lord" and rōs "realm, power", gen. Aṇhurō.

sē Ai̯θrō, "Æþurheim" sē Halō, "Shalum" sē Aṇhrōs, "Acrea" sē Silū, "Silua" sē Hu̯inī, "Svinia" sē Ossorī, "Ossoria"
Singular Singular Singular Singular Singular Singular
Nominative Ai̯θrō Halō
Vocative
Accusative Aí̯θrōnum Halomnum
Genitive Aí̯θrōnō Halomnō
Locative Aí̯θrōni Halomei̯ne
Dative Aí̯θrōnē Halomnē
Instrumental Aí̯θrōn Halomna

Adjectives

Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case, within their lexical paradigms. Inasmuch as nouns have differing endings that convey the same number and case, so too do adjectives have lexical paradigms; adjectives do not agree with the paradigms of nouns that they modify.

u-stems

Two-stem

meθus; umθeus

m. and f. meθus, "sweet" n. meθu, "sweet"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative meθus meθēu meθeuiš meθu meθuī meθū
Vocative meθu
Accusative meθum meθūŋ
Genitive umθeus umθeuō umθeuõ umθeus umθeuō umθeuõ
Locative umθeu umθeuo umθeuhu umθeu umθeuo umθeuhu
Dative umθeui umθeuma umθeumus umθeui umθeuma umθeumus
Instrumental umθēu umθēu

-us/-o/-ō

m. tenus, "thin" n. teno, "thin" f. tenō, "thin"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tenus tenēu̯ teneu̯iš teno teneu̯ī tenēu̯ tenō tenū tenuas
Vocative teno
Accusative tenum tenuṅ tenūum tenūūŋ
Genitive tuneu̯s tuneu̯ō tuneu̯õ tuneu̯s tuneu̯ō tuneu̯õ tunu̯ōs tunu̯ōus tunu̯ōõ
Locative tuneu̯ tuneu̯o tuneu̯hu tuneu̯ tuneu̯o tuneu̯hu tunu̯ōi tunu̯ōu tunu̯ōhu
Dative tuneu̯i tuneu̯ma tuneu̯mus tuneu̯i tuneu̯ma tuneu̯mus tunu̯ōi tunu̯ōma tunu̯ōmus
Instrumental tunēu̯ tunēu̯ tunu̯å

-us/-u/-wī

m. hu̯ēθus, "sweet" n. hu̯ēθo, "sweet" f. hu̯ēsu̯ī, "sweet"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative hu̯ēθus hu̯ēθēu̯ hu̯ēθeu̯iš hu̯ēθo hu̯ēθeu̯ī hu̯ēθēu̯ hu̯ēsu̯ī hu̯ēsu̯īi hu̯ēsu̯ias
Vocative hu̯ēθo
Accusative hu̯ēθum hu̯ēθuṅ hu̯ēsu̯īəm hu̯ēsu̯īə̄ṅḫ
Genitive hūθeu̯š hūθeu̯ō hūθeu̯õ hūθeu̯š hūθeu̯ō hūθeu̯õ hūθui̯ēs hūθui̯ēus hūθui̯ēõ
Locative hūθeu̯ hūθeu̯o hūθeu̯šu hūθeu̯ hūθeu̯o hūθeu̯šu hūθui̯ēi hūθui̯ēu hūθui̯ēhu
Dative hūθeu̯i hūθeu̯ma hūθeu̯muš hūθeu̯i hūθeu̯ma hūθeu̯muš hūθui̯ēi hūθui̯ēma hūθui̯ēmuš
Instrumental hūθēu̯ hūθēu̯ hūθui̯ō

i-stems

m. θrēstiš, "sad" n. θrēste, "sad" f. θristēī, "sad"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative θrēstiš θrēstī θrēstēiš θrēste θristēī θristē θristēī θristēīi θristēas
Vocative θrēste
Accusative θrēstim θrēstiuṅ θristēīəm θristēīə̄ṅḫ
Genitive θristēš θristēus θristēõ θristēš θristēus θristēõ θristiēs θristiēus θristiēõ
Locative θristēi̯ θristēo θristēhu θristēi̯ θristēo θristēhu θristiēi θristiēu θristiēhu
Dative θristēi θristēma θristēmuš θristēi θristēma θristēmuš θristiēi θristiēma θristiēmuš
Instrumental θristēi̯ θristēi̯ θristiē

nt-stems

From PEE *rh₁-wénts, "rich in possessions", from *reh₁s, "possession".

m. raå, "wealthy" n. raōn, "wealthy" f. raōnθī, "wealthy"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative raå raōnθē raōnθiš raōn raōnθī raōnθa raōnθī raōnθī raōnθias
Vocative raōn
Accusative raōnθum raōnθə̄ṇġ raōnθīum raōnθīə̄ṇġ
Genitive raunθō raunθōs raunθõ raunθō raunθōs raunθõ raunθi̯ēs raunθi̯ōus raunθi̯ōõ
Locative raōn raunθō raunššu raōn raunθō raunššu raunθi̯ō raunθi̯ōu raunθi̯ōhu
Dative raunθē raūṇhmō raunθmus raunθē raūṇhmō raunθmus raunθi̯ēi̯ raunθi̯ōma raunθi̯ōmus
Instrumental raunθē raunθē raunθi̯å

The present active participles of verbs have a stem ending in -nt-. From PEE *h₁es-n̥ts.

m. ehūš, "being" n. ehūnθ, "being" f. ehunθī, "being"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ehūš ehunθē erunθiš ehūnθ ehunθī ehunθa ehunθī ehunθī ehunθīas
Vocative ehūθ
Accusative senθum senθə̄ṇġ senθīum senθīə̄ṇġ
Genitive hunθō hunθōs hunθõ hunθō hunθōs hunθõ hunθi̯ēs hunθi̯ōuš hunθi̯ōõ
Locative senθe hunθō hunššu senθe hunθō hunššu hunθi̯ō hunθi̯ōu hunθi̯ōhu
Dative hunθē huṇhmō hunθmuš hunθē huṇhmō hunθmuš hunθi̯ēi̯ hunθi̯ōma hunθi̯ōmuš
Instrumental hunθē hunθē hunθi̯å

es-stems

m. and f. humenēs, "well-intended" n. huméniš, "well-intended"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative humenēs humenerē humeneriš huméniš humenerī hunmeneha
Vocative huméniš
Accusative humenehum hunenehəṇġ
Genitive humenezō humenehōs humenehõ humenezō humenehōs humenehõ
Locative humenes humenehō humenessu humenes humenehō humenessu
Dative humenezē humenehmō humenehmus humenezē humenehmō humenehmus
Instrumental humenezē humenezē

woḏs-stems

From PEE *bʰebʰidʰ-wṓs, forms perfect active participles from the zero-grade perfect root. The exact proto-form of the perfect active participle in Northian has long been an unresolved issue, as the final *-s of the stem does not undergo rhotacism as expected in other words. This has led to be postulation that the pre-form was actually *-wos-s or *-wōs-s, with a restored final *-s. The first *s then changed into a consonant of unknown value usually written *ḏ, which then disappeared in all forms except in the neuter nominative singular, where it surfaces as an anomalous -ḫ.

m. vevizvå, "sympathetic" = πεποιθώς n. vevizōḫ, "sympathetic" = πεποιθός f. veviθuzī, "sympathetic" = πεποιθυῖα
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative vevizvå vevizōha veviθōziš vevizōh vevizōhī vevizōha veviθūhī veviθūhī veviθūhias
Vocative veviθōh
Accusative vevizōhum veviθūhē veviθūhīum veviθūhīəṇġ
Genitive veviθūhō veviθūhōs veviθūhõ veviθūhō veviθūhōs veviθūhõ veviθūhi̯ēs veviθūhi̯ōus veviθūhi̯ōõ
Locative veviθūhe veviθūhō veviθūššu veviθūhe veviθūhō veviθūššu veviθūhi̯ō veviθūhi̯ōu veviθūhi̯ōhu
Dative veviθūhē veviθūhmō veviθūhmus veviθūhē veviθūhmō veviθūhmus veviθūhi̯ēi̯ veviθūhi̯ōma veviθūhi̯ōmus
Instrumental veviθūhē veviθūhē veviθūhi̯å

yos-stems

i̯å, irō, i̯orum; i̯erī, ihi̯ēs, i̯erīum; i̯ō wesyoss, wesyos, wesyesiH; wesisos, wesisyeHs; wesyesm, wesyesiHm

m. ōhi̯å, "better" n. ōhi̯ō, "better" f. ōhi̯ēzī, "better"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative ōhi̯å ōhi̯eha ōhi̯ehiš ōhi̯ō ōhi̯ezī ōhi̯eha ōhi̯ēzī ōhi̯ēzīạ ōhi̯ēzīas
Vocative ōhi̯ō
Accusative ōhi̯ehum ōhi̯ehūŋ ōhi̯ēzīum ōhi̯ēzīəṇġ
Genitive ōzizō ōzizōs ōzizõ ōzizō ōzizōs ōzizõ ōzihi̯ēs ōzihi̯ōus ōzihi̯ōõ
Locative ōzize ōzizō ōziššu ōzize ōzizō ōziššu ōzihi̯ō ōzihi̯ōu ōzihi̯ōhu
Dative ōzizē ōzihmō ōzihmus ōzizē ōzihmō ōzihmus ōzihi̯ēi̯ ōzihi̯ōma ōzihi̯ōmus
Instrumental ōzizē ōzizē ōzihi̯å

r/n-stem

m. pei̯wō, "fat" n. pei̯ōr, "fat" f. pīə̄rī, "fat"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative pei̯wō pei̯ōnē pei̯ōniš pei̯ōr pei̯ōrī pei̯ōr pīə̄rī pīə̄rīạ pīə̄rias
Vocative pei̯ōn
Accusative pei̯ōnum pei̯ōnə̄ṇ pīə̄rīum pīə̄rīə̄ṇġ
Genitive pīənō pīənōs pīənõ pīə̄n pīə̄nuš pīə̄nõ pīuri̯ēs pīuri̯ōus pīuri̯ōõ
Locative pei̯ōn ōzizō pīəṅḫu pīə̄i̯ne pīə̄no pīə̄ṅhu pīuri̯ō pīuri̯ōu pīuri̯ōhu
Dative pīənē pīəṅmō pīəṅmus ōzihmō pīə̄ṅmus pīuri̯ēi̯ pīuri̯ōma pīuri̯ōmus
Instrumental pīənē pīə̄n pīuri̯å

mehas

mehas, meha, aṇhī

m. pei̯wō, "fat" n. pei̯ōr, "fat" f. pīə̄rī, "fat"
Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative pei̯wō pei̯ōnē pei̯ōniš pei̯ōr pei̯ōrī pei̯ōr pīə̄rī pīə̄rīạ pīə̄rias
Vocative pei̯ōn
Accusative pei̯ōnum pei̯ōnə̄ṇ pīə̄rīum pīə̄rīə̄ṇġ
Genitive pīənō pīənōs pīənõ pīə̄n pīə̄nuš pīə̄nõ pīuri̯ēs pīuri̯ōus pīuri̯ōõ
Locative pei̯ōn ōzizō pīəṅḫu pīə̄i̯ne pīə̄no pīə̄ṅhu pīuri̯ō pīuri̯ōu pīuri̯ōhu
Dative pīənē pīəṅmō pīəṅmus ōzihmō pīə̄ṅmus pīuri̯ēi̯ pīuri̯ōma pīuri̯ōmus
Instrumental pīənē pīə̄n pīuri̯å

Numerals

Verbs

Athematic verbs

The athematic conjugation is demonstrated with the verb ed-d-eod-ēd "eat".  Its present stems are from PEE *h₁ed- ~ h₁d-, and perfect stems *h₁eh₁od- ~ h₁eh₁d-. This verb does not create an aorist stem, but all applicable endings are found below had it formed an aorist stem.

Indicative active endings Indicative middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P edme sōne smei̯ne 1P sai sōzθa smozθa
2P esse stas ste 2P stai stom zθō
3P este stes dunθe 3P stoi stēm dūs
Injunctive active endings Injunctive middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P edum sme 1P da sōθa meθa
2P es stas ste 2P sta date zθō
3P est stes sunθ 3P sto datē də̄
Subjunctive active endings Subjunctive middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P edō edou̯ōs edomōs 1P esōi edou̯ōzθa edomozθa
2P edei̯ze edetas edete 2P edetai edetom edeθō
3P edei̯te edetes edo 3P edetoi edetēm edēr
Opatative active endings Opatative middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P si̯ēm dīō dīme 1P dị dīōθa dīmeθa
2P di̯ēs dītas dīte 2P īta dịte dīθō
3P di̯ēt dītes dīnθ 3P dīto dịtē dīə̄
Imperative active endings Imperative middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P 1P
2P sθe sta este 2P sto ste sunθo
3P stō ste zθō 3P stō stē sunθō
Perfect active endings Perfect middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P eoda ēsō ēsme 1P Where the perfect has transitive meaning, the middle is formed with the injunctive of es "to be" + perfect active participle
2P eosta ēdeta ēde 2P
3P eode ēdēte ēdr 3P
Perfect imperative active endings Perfect imperative middle endings
Sing. Du. Pl. Sing. Du. Pl.
1P 1P Where the perfect has active meaning, the middle is formed with the imperative of es "to be" + perfect active participle
2P eosso ēdata ēda 2P
3P ēde ēdāte ēdūr 3P

See also