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=== Byzantium and Byzantine Empire === | === Byzantium and Byzantine Empire === | ||
The name ''Byzantine Empire'' appeared in Western sources after the 16th Century, referring to the power exercising a continuity of government from the Classical-era Roman empire. This name, while formally rejected by the country's official policy, is nonetheless used for the sake of clarity. | The name ''Byzantine Empire'' appeared in Western sources after the 16th Century, referring to the power exercising a continuity of government from the Classical-era Roman empire. This name, while formally rejected by the country's official policy, is nonetheless used for the sake of clarity. | ||
== History == | == History == | ||
The death of Sultan Mehmed II in 1453 sent shockwaves through the Ottoman Empire, leading to a power struggle and internal strife. Without the visionary leadership of Mehmed II, the Ottomans faced challenges in maintaining control over their vast territories. As a result, the Byzantine Empire seized the opportunity to regroup and launch a reconquest of Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula. | The death of Sultan Mehmed II in 1453 sent shockwaves through the Ottoman Empire, leading to a power struggle and internal strife. Without the visionary leadership of Mehmed II, the Ottomans faced challenges in maintaining control over their vast territories. As a result, the Byzantine Empire seized the opportunity to regroup and launch a reconquest of Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula. | ||
=== Western Anatolia War === | === Western Anatolia War (1454-1460) === | ||
Following the death of Sultan Mehmed II during the siege of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire plunged into internal strife and power struggles. Taking advantage of this chaotic period, the Byzantine Empire experienced a resurgence in the years immediately following 1453. The Byzantine military, reinvigorated by massive expenditures (with Byzantine subjects willingly donating to recruit troops), new leadership and a renewed sense of purpose, began consolidating its forces and preparing for the reconquest. | Following the death of Sultan Mehmed II during the siege of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire plunged into internal strife and power struggles. Taking advantage of this chaotic period, the Byzantine Empire experienced a resurgence in the years immediately following 1453. The Byzantine military, reinvigorated by massive expenditures (with Byzantine subjects willingly donating to recruit troops), new leadership and a renewed sense of purpose, began consolidating its forces and preparing for the reconquest. | ||
By 1455, the Byzantine forces launched a series of successful campaigns in Western Anatolia, strategically reclaiming key cities and territories that had fallen under Ottoman control. The weakened Ottoman state struggled to respond cohesively, facing both internal dissent and external pressure from neighboring powers eager to exploit the power vacuum. | By 1455, the Byzantine forces launched a series of successful campaigns in Western Anatolia, strategically reclaiming key coastal cities and surrounding territories that had fallen under Ottoman control. The weakened Ottoman state struggled to respond cohesively, facing both internal dissent and external pressure from neighboring powers eager to exploit the power vacuum. | ||
=== Alliance building and diplomacy === | === Alliance building and diplomacy === | ||
Recognizing the need to secure its gains and solidify its position in the region, in early 1460s | Recognizing the need to secure its gains and solidify its position in the region, in early 1460s Emperor John VIII engaged in skillful diplomacy to build alliances with neighbouring states and powers. Byzantine diplomats negotiated treaties and formed coalitions, ensuring that potential adversaries were either neutralized or persuaded to support the Byzantine cause. | ||
During this phase, the Byzantine Empire faced challenges from rival powers seeking to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire's weakened state. However, diplomatic maneuvering and strategic alliances allowed the Byzantines to maintain control over the territories they had reconquered in Western Anatolia. | During this phase, the Byzantine Empire faced challenges from rival powers seeking to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire's weakened state. However, diplomatic maneuvering and strategic alliances allowed the Byzantines to maintain control over the territories they had reconquered in Western Anatolia. | ||
=== | === Reconquest of Greece (1475-1515) === | ||
With the eastern front stabilized and alliances secured, the Byzantine Empire turned its attention to the reconquest of the Greek peninsula. Byzantine military campaigns focused on reclaiming strategic cities and territories, gradually pushing Ottoman forces out of the region. | With the eastern front stabilized and alliances secured, the Byzantine Empire turned its attention to the reconquest of the Greek peninsula. Byzantine military campaigns focused on reclaiming strategic cities and territories, gradually pushing Ottoman and European forces out of the region. | ||
The reconquest of the Greek peninsula was a complex and multifaceted process, involving both military conquest and cultural integration. Byzantine authorities worked to reestablish governance structures, rebuild infrastructure, and win the loyalty of the local population. The process was facilitated by a shared cultural and historical heritage, as the Byzantines sought to revive the glory of the Eastern Roman Empire. | The reconquest of the Greek peninsula was a complex and multifaceted process, involving both military conquest and cultural integration. Byzantine authorities worked to reestablish governance structures, rebuild infrastructure, and win the loyalty of the local population. The process saw a complex interaction with European principalities and was facilitated by a shared cultural and historical heritage, as the Byzantines sought to revive the glory of the Eastern Roman Empire. | ||
=== | === An Aegean power reborn === | ||
The reconquest of Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula had profound cultural and political implications. The Byzantine Empire, revitalized and expanded, became a center of intellectual, artistic, and religious activity. The revival of Greek influence sparked a cultural renaissance, fostering a renewed interest in literature, philosophy, and the arts. The revival of Greek influence radiated throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, influencing neighboring regions and creating a cultural sphere that transcended political boundaries. | The reconquest of Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula had profound cultural and political implications. The Byzantine Empire, revitalized and expanded, became a center of intellectual, artistic, and religious activity. The revival of Greek influence sparked a cultural renaissance, fostering a renewed interest in literature, philosophy, and the arts. The revival of Greek influence radiated throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, influencing neighboring regions and creating a cultural sphere that transcended political boundaries. | ||
By the turn of the 16th century, the Byzantine Empire had successfully reconquered Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula. The following years were marked by efforts to consolidate these gains and foster a cultural renaissance. | By the turn of the 16th century, the Byzantine Empire had successfully reconquered Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula. The following years were marked by efforts to consolidate these gains and foster a cultural renaissance. | ||
By 1517, the Byzantine Empire stood as a rejuvenated and influential power, reshaping the geopolitical landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean. | By 1517, when Michael XI solemnly entered in Athens, the Byzantine Empire stood as a rejuvenated and influential power, reshaping the geopolitical landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean. | ||
=== | === Internal Strife and War of the False Pretenders (1517–1524) === | ||
The end of the reconquest of Greece allowed internal tensions to flare. The death of the first son of Michael XI triggered internal divisions within the Byzantine Empire, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The legitimate heir, future Alexios VI, faced challenges from rival claimants — Strobilos Sphrantzes, asserting a claim from Thessaloniki, and Theodore Khoirosphaktes, establishing influence in Nicaea. Diplomatic efforts led by Anna Doukaina navigated alliances amid the power struggle. | |||
The War of the False Pretenders ended with the battle of Smirne in 1524 and the capture and execution of both Strobilos Sphrantzes and Theodore Khoirosphaktes. | |||
=== Byzantine Expansion in the Balkans (1525–1602) === | === Byzantine Expansion in the Balkans (1525–1602) === | ||
After the end of the civil war in 1524, the Byzantine Empire shifted its focus toward internal stability and regional influence. Emperor | After the end of the civil war in 1524, the Byzantine Empire shifted its focus toward internal stability and regional influence. Emperor Michael XI, cementing his rule, prioritized the consolidation of Byzantine power in the Ottoman Balkans. Key military leader John Palaiologos played a crucial role in securing control over strategic territories. | ||
In 1527, Byzantine forces successfully besieged and reclaimed Adrianople, establishing it as a strategic center. | In 1527, Byzantine forces successfully besieged and reclaimed Adrianople, establishing it as a strategic center. After nearly thirty years of war, in 1556, Byzantine conquered Achrida, solidifying control over crucial trade routes. | ||
Sporadic fighting and limited campaigns lasted until 1602 when Emperor John IX entered in Episkion. | |||
=== Conquest of Eastern Anatolia and Eastern Mediterranean (1603–1643) === | === Conquest of Eastern Anatolia and Eastern Mediterranean (1603–1643) === | ||
In the early 17th century, under the leadership of | In the early 17th century, under the leadership of John IX and of his successor Theodore III, the Byzantine Empire embarked on a series of ambitious campaigns to conquer Eastern Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean coast. Notable naval commander Ioannis Rhaptes contributed significantly to securing Byzantine dominance in the region. | ||
In 1634, Byzantine forces captured Amasia in Eastern Anatolia, securing a strategic foothold. In 1635, Trebizond was | In 1634, Byzantine forces captured Amasia in Eastern Anatolia, securing a strategic foothold. In 1635, Trebizond was conquered by the Byzantine Empire, marking a significant achievement and consolidating Byzantine control over the northeastern Black Sea coast. | ||
These conquests reshaped the geopolitical landscape, positioning the Byzantine Empire as a major power in the Eastern Mediterranean and Anatolian regions. | These conquests reshaped the geopolitical landscape, positioning the Byzantine Empire as a major power in the Eastern Mediterranean and Anatolian regions. | ||
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Emperor Theodore III, a skilled military strategist, spearheaded the Byzantine campaigns. Byzantine forces, leveraging their military might and diplomatic finesse, aimed to expand their territorial holdings and influence in Eastern Europe. Control over Eastern Mediterranean was finally secured with the War of Cyprus of 1645. Byzantine naval forces, supported by a formidable army, secured control over Cyprus, establishing a significant presence in the Eastern Mediterranean. | Emperor Theodore III, a skilled military strategist, spearheaded the Byzantine campaigns. Byzantine forces, leveraging their military might and diplomatic finesse, aimed to expand their territorial holdings and influence in Eastern Europe. Control over Eastern Mediterranean was finally secured with the War of Cyprus of 1645. Byzantine naval forces, supported by a formidable army, secured control over Cyprus, establishing a significant presence in the Eastern Mediterranean. | ||
1652–1660 Byzantine campaigns focused on Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallacchia, resulting in the consolidation of Byzantine influence. Key cities, such as Iași and Bucharest, witnessed strategic shifts in power. | Under Emperor George I, 1652–1660 Byzantine campaigns focused on Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallacchia, resulting in the consolidation of Byzantine influence. Key cities, such as Iași and Bucharest, witnessed strategic shifts in power. | ||
Byzantine forces, now well-entrenched in Eastern Europe, launched campaigns into Hungary from 1670 to 1678. The cities of Buda and Pest experienced a shift in control, with Byzantine dominance reaching strategic proportions. | Byzantine forces, now well-entrenched in Eastern Europe, launched campaigns into Hungary from 1670 to 1678. The cities of Buda and Pest experienced a shift in control, with Byzantine dominance reaching strategic proportions. | ||
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The period from 1683 to 1848, marked by a strategic retreat and internal recalibration, left a lasting impact on the Byzantine Empire. The empire's focus on the Orthodox Balkans, with the exception of Moldavia and Wallachia, shaped the trajectory of its later years, setting the stage for the geopolitical transformations that would unfold in the 19th century. The legacy of this era reflects the resilience of Byzantine institutions in the face of internal and external pressures. | The period from 1683 to 1848, marked by a strategic retreat and internal recalibration, left a lasting impact on the Byzantine Empire. The empire's focus on the Orthodox Balkans, with the exception of Moldavia and Wallachia, shaped the trajectory of its later years, setting the stage for the geopolitical transformations that would unfold in the 19th century. The legacy of this era reflects the resilience of Byzantine institutions in the face of internal and external pressures. | ||
=== The Great Isolation ( | === The Great Isolation (1685–1851) === | ||
In the aftermath of the strategic defeat at the gates of Vienna in 1683, the Byzantine Empire underwent a gradual retreat from its ambitious Central European endeavours. The ensuing period, spanning from | In the aftermath of the strategic defeat at the gates of Vienna in 1683, the Byzantine Empire underwent a gradual retreat from its ambitious Central European endeavours. The ensuing period, spanning from 1685 to 1848, is known as the Great Isolation. This period witnessed a complex interplay of internal dynamics within the empire, characterized by a delicate balance of stability punctuated by intermittent unrest. | ||
The Byzantine Empire, humbled by the setback in Central Europe, refocused its efforts on consolidating its holdings in the Orthodox Balkans. While some regions experienced relative stability, others became hotbeds of unrest, reflecting the diverse socio-political landscape of the empire. | The Byzantine Empire, humbled by the setback in Central Europe, refocused its efforts on consolidating its holdings in the Orthodox Balkans. While some regions experienced relative stability, others became hotbeds of unrest, reflecting the diverse socio-political landscape of the empire. | ||
Revision as of 21:06, 19 December 2023
Roman State in the East Ρωμαϊκό κράτος στην Ανατολή | |
|---|---|
 Flag
 Coat of arms
| |
| Anthem: Royal March (Joyful) | |
 | |
| Capital | Costantinople |
| Official languages | Greek language |
| Spoken languages |
List
|
| Religion | Eastern Orthodox Church |
| Demonym(s) | Byzantine Officially: Roman |
| Government | Unitary constitutional monarchy |
• Roman Emperor | Alexios X |
• Prime Minister of the Roman State in the East | Emilios Anasteas |
• Vice-president of the Roman Senate | Pavlos Phrantzes |
• Speaker of the House of the Representatives | Sophocles Boulellis |
| Legislature | Roman Senate House of the Representatives |
| Establishment | |
• Foundation of Rome | 21 April 753 BCE |
• Establishment of the Roman Republic | 509 BCE |
• Establishment of the Roman Empire | 27 BCE |
• Permanent establishment of the Eastern Roman Empire | 395 AD |
• Modern State established | 21 April 1723 |
• Current constitution | 29 October 1923 |
| Area | |
• Total | 1,052,656 km2 (406,433 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• December 2022 estimate |  117,139,970 |
• Density | 111.2/km2 (288.0/sq mi) |
| Currency | Roman lira (₺) (BYZ) |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (BZT) |
| Date format | dd.mm.yyyy (CE) |
| Driving side | right |
| Calling code | +90 |
| Internet TLD | .by |
Byzantium, also commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, officially the Roman State in the East (Ρωμαϊκό κράτος στην Ανατολή), is a transcontinental country located in Southeast Europe and West Asia. It borders the Black Sea, Croatia and Romania to the north; the Russian Empire to the east; Iran to the east; Iraq to the southeast; Syria and the Mediterranean Sea to the south; the Adriatic Sea to the west. The largest ethnicity of the country's citizens are ethnic Greeks. Byzantium the capital and largest city, as well as economic and financial centre.
The Byzantine Empire is a regional power with a geopolitically significant strategic location. The economy of Turkey, which is a founding member of the OECD and G20, is classified among the Emerging 7, EAGLEs and NICs. The Byzantine Empire is a charter member of the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; a founding member of the OSCE, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation, Economic Cooperation Organization; and an early member of NATO. After becoming one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, the Byzantine Empire became an associate member European integration organizations.
Name
The official name of the country is Roman State in the East, in order to reflect the legal pretense to the continuity of government from the Classical-era Roman Empire. The name was officially adopted in 1723 when Emperor George II reorganized the state and established the modern iteration of the power having its centre in Byzantium.
Byzantium and Byzantine Empire
The name Byzantine Empire appeared in Western sources after the 16th Century, referring to the power exercising a continuity of government from the Classical-era Roman empire. This name, while formally rejected by the country's official policy, is nonetheless used for the sake of clarity.
History
The death of Sultan Mehmed II in 1453 sent shockwaves through the Ottoman Empire, leading to a power struggle and internal strife. Without the visionary leadership of Mehmed II, the Ottomans faced challenges in maintaining control over their vast territories. As a result, the Byzantine Empire seized the opportunity to regroup and launch a reconquest of Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula.
Western Anatolia War (1454-1460)
Following the death of Sultan Mehmed II during the siege of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire plunged into internal strife and power struggles. Taking advantage of this chaotic period, the Byzantine Empire experienced a resurgence in the years immediately following 1453. The Byzantine military, reinvigorated by massive expenditures (with Byzantine subjects willingly donating to recruit troops), new leadership and a renewed sense of purpose, began consolidating its forces and preparing for the reconquest.
By 1455, the Byzantine forces launched a series of successful campaigns in Western Anatolia, strategically reclaiming key coastal cities and surrounding territories that had fallen under Ottoman control. The weakened Ottoman state struggled to respond cohesively, facing both internal dissent and external pressure from neighboring powers eager to exploit the power vacuum.
Alliance building and diplomacy
Recognizing the need to secure its gains and solidify its position in the region, in early 1460s Emperor John VIII engaged in skillful diplomacy to build alliances with neighbouring states and powers. Byzantine diplomats negotiated treaties and formed coalitions, ensuring that potential adversaries were either neutralized or persuaded to support the Byzantine cause.
During this phase, the Byzantine Empire faced challenges from rival powers seeking to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire's weakened state. However, diplomatic maneuvering and strategic alliances allowed the Byzantines to maintain control over the territories they had reconquered in Western Anatolia.
Reconquest of Greece (1475-1515)
With the eastern front stabilized and alliances secured, the Byzantine Empire turned its attention to the reconquest of the Greek peninsula. Byzantine military campaigns focused on reclaiming strategic cities and territories, gradually pushing Ottoman and European forces out of the region.
The reconquest of the Greek peninsula was a complex and multifaceted process, involving both military conquest and cultural integration. Byzantine authorities worked to reestablish governance structures, rebuild infrastructure, and win the loyalty of the local population. The process saw a complex interaction with European principalities and was facilitated by a shared cultural and historical heritage, as the Byzantines sought to revive the glory of the Eastern Roman Empire.
An Aegean power reborn
The reconquest of Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula had profound cultural and political implications. The Byzantine Empire, revitalized and expanded, became a center of intellectual, artistic, and religious activity. The revival of Greek influence sparked a cultural renaissance, fostering a renewed interest in literature, philosophy, and the arts. The revival of Greek influence radiated throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, influencing neighboring regions and creating a cultural sphere that transcended political boundaries.
By the turn of the 16th century, the Byzantine Empire had successfully reconquered Western Anatolia and the Greek peninsula. The following years were marked by efforts to consolidate these gains and foster a cultural renaissance.
By 1517, when Michael XI solemnly entered in Athens, the Byzantine Empire stood as a rejuvenated and influential power, reshaping the geopolitical landscape of the Eastern Mediterranean.
Internal Strife and War of the False Pretenders (1517–1524)
The end of the reconquest of Greece allowed internal tensions to flare. The death of the first son of Michael XI triggered internal divisions within the Byzantine Empire, resulting in a protracted civil conflict. The legitimate heir, future Alexios VI, faced challenges from rival claimants — Strobilos Sphrantzes, asserting a claim from Thessaloniki, and Theodore Khoirosphaktes, establishing influence in Nicaea. Diplomatic efforts led by Anna Doukaina navigated alliances amid the power struggle.
The War of the False Pretenders ended with the battle of Smirne in 1524 and the capture and execution of both Strobilos Sphrantzes and Theodore Khoirosphaktes.
Byzantine Expansion in the Balkans (1525–1602)
After the end of the civil war in 1524, the Byzantine Empire shifted its focus toward internal stability and regional influence. Emperor Michael XI, cementing his rule, prioritized the consolidation of Byzantine power in the Ottoman Balkans. Key military leader John Palaiologos played a crucial role in securing control over strategic territories.
In 1527, Byzantine forces successfully besieged and reclaimed Adrianople, establishing it as a strategic center. After nearly thirty years of war, in 1556, Byzantine conquered Achrida, solidifying control over crucial trade routes.
Sporadic fighting and limited campaigns lasted until 1602 when Emperor John IX entered in Episkion.
Conquest of Eastern Anatolia and Eastern Mediterranean (1603–1643)
In the early 17th century, under the leadership of John IX and of his successor Theodore III, the Byzantine Empire embarked on a series of ambitious campaigns to conquer Eastern Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean coast. Notable naval commander Ioannis Rhaptes contributed significantly to securing Byzantine dominance in the region.
In 1634, Byzantine forces captured Amasia in Eastern Anatolia, securing a strategic foothold. In 1635, Trebizond was conquered by the Byzantine Empire, marking a significant achievement and consolidating Byzantine control over the northeastern Black Sea coast.
These conquests reshaped the geopolitical landscape, positioning the Byzantine Empire as a major power in the Eastern Mediterranean and Anatolian regions.
Byzantine Expansion into Eastern Europe (1643–1683)
Following successful campaigns in Eastern Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, the Byzantine Empire, under sustained military and economic rejuvenation, extended its ambitions into Eastern Europe. From 1643 onwards, Byzantine forces launched strategic campaigns against Cyprus, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Hungary, aiming to solidify their influence in these regions.
Campaigns in Cyprus, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Hungary (1643–1683)
Emperor Theodore III, a skilled military strategist, spearheaded the Byzantine campaigns. Byzantine forces, leveraging their military might and diplomatic finesse, aimed to expand their territorial holdings and influence in Eastern Europe. Control over Eastern Mediterranean was finally secured with the War of Cyprus of 1645. Byzantine naval forces, supported by a formidable army, secured control over Cyprus, establishing a significant presence in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Under Emperor George I, 1652–1660 Byzantine campaigns focused on Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallacchia, resulting in the consolidation of Byzantine influence. Key cities, such as Iași and Bucharest, witnessed strategic shifts in power.
Byzantine forces, now well-entrenched in Eastern Europe, launched campaigns into Hungary from 1670 to 1678. The cities of Buda and Pest experienced a shift in control, with Byzantine dominance reaching strategic proportions.
Central European ambitions and the Siege of Vienna (1683)
As the Byzantine Empire's territorial influence expanded, the Central European powers began to feel the impact of its ambitions. In 1683, Byzantine forces, under the command of Emperor Manuel III, arrived at the gates of Vienna, signaling a pivotal moment in European history.
The Byzantine siege of Vienna marked a decisive event in the late 17th century. The city, a symbol of Habsburg power, faced a formidable challenge from the Byzantine military machine. The siege set the stage for a critical confrontation between the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Throughout this era, the Byzantine Empire faced periodic episodes of unrest, sparked by economic fluctuations, territorial disputes, and political rivalries. The Orthodox Balkans, while generally under Byzantine control, experienced intermittent challenges to imperial authority, reflecting the complexities of managing a vast and diverse empire.
The period from 1683 to 1848, marked by a strategic retreat and internal recalibration, left a lasting impact on the Byzantine Empire. The empire's focus on the Orthodox Balkans, with the exception of Moldavia and Wallachia, shaped the trajectory of its later years, setting the stage for the geopolitical transformations that would unfold in the 19th century. The legacy of this era reflects the resilience of Byzantine institutions in the face of internal and external pressures.
The Great Isolation (1685–1851)
In the aftermath of the strategic defeat at the gates of Vienna in 1683, the Byzantine Empire underwent a gradual retreat from its ambitious Central European endeavours. The ensuing period, spanning from 1685 to 1848, is known as the Great Isolation. This period witnessed a complex interplay of internal dynamics within the empire, characterized by a delicate balance of stability punctuated by intermittent unrest.
The Byzantine Empire, humbled by the setback in Central Europe, refocused its efforts on consolidating its holdings in the Orthodox Balkans. While some regions experienced relative stability, others became hotbeds of unrest, reflecting the diverse socio-political landscape of the empire.
The cultural scene during this period exhibited signs of stagnation. The Byzantine Empire, having redirected its energies toward internal matters, witnessed a decline in the vibrant cultural and artistic flourishing that had characterized earlier periods. However, pockets of cultural preservation and revival persisted, particularly in centers that managed to weather the geopolitical shifts.
On the other hand, religious and philosophical interests maintained a central role in Byzantine society. The Orthodox Church, a stabilizing force, played a crucial role in maintaining a semblance of unity. Theological debates and discussions flourished within the religious sphere, providing a source of intellectual engagement.
Scientific pursuits, once vibrant in Byzantium, experienced a relative decline during this era. The empire's strategic retreat and internal challenges led to a diminished emphasis on scientific exploration and innovation. However, isolated centers of scholarly activity continued to exist, showcasing a resilient intellectual spirit.
Government and politics
The Byzantine Empire is a constitutional monarchy within a multi-party system. The current constitution was approved by the 1923 Byzantine constitutional plebiscite, which determines the government's structure, lays forth the ideals and standards of the state's conduct, and the state's responsibility to its citizens. Furthermore, the constitution specifies the people's rights and obligations, as well as principles for the delegation and exercise of sovereignty that belongs to the "Roman Nation".
In the Byzantine local government system, citizens are subject to four levels of government: national, provincial, and eparchial and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between municipal governments and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. The Byzantine Empire is subdivided into 16 provinces for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into Eparchies.
The government, regulated by a system of distinction of powers as defined by the Byzantine constitution, comprises three branches, which are headquartered in Byzantium.
- The Imperial Parliament, a bicameral legislature, made up of the Roman Senate and the House of Representatives, makes law, aproves the declaration of war, approves treaties, and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove the Government and imperially-appointed civilian officials. The Roman Senate has 150 members, and consists of senior bureaucratic, religious, and military leaders appointed by the Emperor or ex officio. The House of Representatives has 468 members, elected for a five-year term in multiple-seat constituencies of approximately equal population (one Representative every 250,000 inhabitants).
- The Roman Emperor is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law, and appoints and dismiss the members of the Government (subject to House of Representatives vote of confidence) and other officers (subject to Senate approval), who administer and enforce laws and policies. The succession follows primogeniture with male preference.
Parties and elections
Elections in the Byzantine Empire are held for five functions of government:
- Parliamentary elections (national),
- Municipality mayors and councils (local),
- district mayors and councils (local),
- Eparchial councils (local)
- Provincial councils (local).
Apart from elections, referendums are also held occasionally.
Every Byzantine citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied since 1934. There are 468 members of the House of Representatives who are elected for a five-year term by a party-list proportional representation system from 88 electoral districts.
The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-christian or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether. The Interior Ministry can block new parties from elections even if a court rules in favour of the party. The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is five percent of the votes. Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties, in which it is sufficient that the total votes of the alliance passes 5%. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.
After World War II, starting from 1946, the Byzantine Empire operated under a multi-party system. On the right side of the Byzantine political spectrum, parties like the Justice Alliance and Motherland Party became the most popular political parties, winning numerous elections. Byzantine right-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as conservatism and nationalism. On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the Social Democratic Party and Democratic Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism or secularism.
Law
The Byzantine Empire adopts a civl law legal system based upon principles of Roman law. Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. These agencies are the Imperial Police and the Imperial Gendarmerie. Furthermore, there are other law enforcement agencies with specific or local assignments.
Foreign relations
The Byzantine diplomatic and geopolitical posture is shaped by its historical and cultural ties to both Russia and the NATO bloc, with a focus on maintaining regional stability and safeguarding its values. The Byzantine Empire officially adopts a policy of neutrality with the aim of promote conformity with Byzantine interests of adjacent regions.
Military
The Imperial Roman Armed Forces, commonly known as Byzantine Armed Forces, consist of the General Staff, the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the Emperor. The President is responsible for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the Byzantine Empire. However, the authority to approve the declaration of war and to deploy the Byzantine Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed within the Empire rests solely with the Senate.
The Gendarmerie General Command is a law enforcement agencies with military organization (ranks, structure, etc.) under the dual jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and of the Ministry of Defence.
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging from six months to two years, dependent on education and job location. The Byzantine Empire does not recognize conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service. However, military auxiliaries to civilian organizations do exist.
Administrative divisions
The local government system reflects the Imperial principles and the diverse nature of the empire, while also incorporating the principles of Orthodox Christianity and Enlightenment ideas.
Provinces
The Empire is subdivided into 16 Provinces (sing. Περιφέρεια, Periféreia; pl. Περιφέρειες, Periféreies; lit. "Regions"). for administrative purposes. Each Province has a Governor (Περιφερειάρχης, Perifereiárches) appointed by the Emperor. The Governor is assisted by a provincial parliament known as Provincial Council (Περιφερειακό Συμβούλιο, Perifereiakó Symvoúlio). These Provincial Councils are responsible for discussing and passing legislation related to regional matters, such as cultural preservation and language policies. While these parliaments have legislative powers, they also serve as advisory bodies to the Eparchs and the Roman Senate.
Eparchies
The Byzantine Empire consists of an eparchial system at the local level. Each Province is divided into smaller administrative units known as "Eparchies". Eparchies serve as the foundation of local governance and as significant hubs of central government's actions.
Each Eparchy is led by an Eparch, appointed by the Emperor. The Eparch would be responsible for overseeing local administration and ensuring that imperial policies and values are upheld within the Eparchy. Below the Eparch, elected local councils would manage local affairs, including infrastructure, education, and public services.
Archontates
Eparchies are in turn subdivided into Districts known as Archontates. The Archontate councils consist of representatives elected by the local communities, as well as individuals appointed based on their expertise and contributions to the community. The councils would have the authority to make decisions on matters related to local governance, such as infrastructure, public services, and community development.
Religion
The official religion of the Byzantine Empire is Orthodox Christianity. The Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience. Orthodox Christianity is the dominant religion in the Empire, adhered to by 82% of the total population; religiously unaffiliated people comprise 13% of the population, while 2% are Muslims.