Northian grammar is highly synthetic.
Overview
Ablaut is a system of vowel apophony, altering the quality or quantity of vowels but not their lexical meaning, that affects most classes of words in Northian. The system is most prominent in substantives, i.e. nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Though ablaut was transparent in reconstructed Proto-Erani-Eracuran, it has been obscured by sound change and analogical replacement in the process of its evolution into Proto-Nordic-Northian and subsequently Galic Northian, the oldest attested stage of the Northian language. In particular, the erosion of consonant clusters and sound change in unaccented and coda vowels in the immediate prehistory of Galic has made many inflectional endings unrecognizable, yet protected by poetic metre and strict tradition, Galic texts retain many archaicisms. These processes have not occurred to the same extent in the Epic language, but there the word forms were subject to more rigorous regularization.
It is generally accepted that there was a fairly rigorous system of derivation in Proto-Erani-Eracuran, extending lexical roots by various affixes, before attaching inflectional endings. In this way, roots representing abstract meanings gave rise to nouns, adjectives, and verbs.
Grammatical tradition
By and large, the first grammatical work that survives as a received text was written in the 1st century BCE, when the Northians have become accustomed to urban living and are under Acrean dominion. It seems that these grammatical treatises were intended by authors to stem linguistic changes considered "erroneous" in ritualistic contexts, suggesting that many of the forms given by the treatises were no longer in living usage and were threatened even in liturgical ones. The Grammarian chastises those who say mēθras menerōs and mēθrō menerō for mētūs menēs "of mothers-minds" and claims that "neither mother nor god, above the heavens and below the earth, will understand what you say, for the ignorance even in the names of family members drives away Good".
Nouns
Basic endings
|
Basic endings
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
-Ø, -s |
-ē, -a |
-es
|
Vocative
|
-Ø
|
Accusative
|
-m |
-ns
|
Genitive
|
-os, -s |
-ou̯s, -us |
-õ
|
Locative
|
-i, -Ø |
-ou̯, -u |
-su
|
Dative
|
-ei̯, -i |
-mō, -ma |
-mus
|
Instrumental
|
-a, -Ø
|
Northian is one of the few Erani-Eracuran languages that retains multiple productive ablaut patterns in nouns, though hysterokinetic endings are generally preferred due to their regularity. Some linguists propose that Galic poets retained more archaic patterns for their flexibility in verse, as full-grade endings generated heavy syllables and zero-grade generated light syllables. It is criticized that metrical considerations are absent in common speech, so it is questionable if ablaut patterns were retained there as long as it did in the poetic language. Indeed, while younger Galic metre may have been written as late as the 5th century BCE, productive proterokinetic patterns in Epic verse has been whittled to the i-, u-, and n-stems. The acrostatic pattern has been a vestigial, closed set since the earliest stages of Northian canon—it seems hard to avoid this conclusion if a term as basic as E.Nr. maetūr (G.Nr. mētūš) "mother's" was disappearing from children's speech in favour of maeθrō.
Nevertheless, awareness of multiple ablaut patterns persisted well into the Imperial period, attested in the chastisement of children who substitute oxytone endings for their paroxytone counterparts. Ancient grammarians divided nouns into two kinds based on the position of the accent in the gen. sing. form. The oxytone group includes all nouns that have accented endings, and paroxytone group, nouns that have unaccented endings. The grammarians teach that this predicts the endings and accent positions in other forms. Modern scholars accept that some parts of their teaching correctly identifies the contrast between proterodynamic and hysterodynamic endings, but the shape of the stem was not attributed by the ancient grammarians to the position of the accent.
m-stems
This class is known from only three but important nouns, θéɣõ "earth", žõ "winter", and dõ "house". All m-stem nouns in Northian are feminine in gender, though with only three examples, this may not be an actual rule.
|
se θéɣõ, "earth"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
θéɣõ |
zθémē |
zθémes
|
Vocative
|
θéɣom
|
Accusative
|
zθémum |
zumūŋ
|
Genitive
|
zu̯u̯ō |
zu̯ōs |
zu̯õ
|
Locative
|
zθéi̯me |
zu̯ō |
zumsu
|
Dative
|
zu̯ē |
zuŋu̯ō |
zuŋu̯ō
|
Instrumental
|
zoa
|
θéɣõ is one of the rarer Northian words that reflects all three ablaut grades.
θéɣõ "eath" is from the full-grade stem of Proto-Erani-Eracuran *dʰeǵʰōm "earth", where final -m drops and causes the preceding long vowel to become nasalized. Gen. zu̯u̯ō and dat. zu̯ē are the results of the zero-grade stem *dʰǵʰm̥ > *zm̥- > zw-. Final *-os regularly contracts to -ō, lengthening the vowel, and *-ey monophthongized into -ē. The e-grade stem is visible in the strong cases in singular and dual, sing. loc., as well as plural nom., as zθém < *dʰǵʰem-. In the sing. loc., the lowering of final *-i triggered the regular mutation in the preceding short vowel. The plural acc. unexpectedly displays zero-grade stem; final *-n̥s regularly > *-uns > Galic -ūŋ. The stem ending in -m mutates with the initial m- of the du. and pl. dat.-ins. endings.
The behaviour of žõ "winter" is underlyingly similar to that of θéɣõ, but other phonetic changes have caused the surface forms to be altered in other ways.
|
se dõ, "house"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
dõ |
doma |
domes
|
Vocative
|
dom
|
Accusative
|
dōm, domum |
domūŋ
|
Genitive
|
dēŋ |
demus |
demõ
|
Locative
|
déi̯me |
demu |
deŋsu
|
Dative
|
dei̯ma |
deŋu̯ō
|
Instrumental
|
dema
|
dõ "house", an extremely common noun, also displays three ablaut grades; however, its stems differ by the quantity and quality of the vowel in the same root syllable, as it has no suffix. In the sing. nom., final vowel is lengthened already in PEE. The regular strong stem is visible in the sing. acc., which has two forms. dōm stands as a poetic or dialectal term in place of expected domum sometimes; its creation is either late, as it does not have vowel nasalization, or reflects compensatory lengthening from dropping the final syllable of domum. dõ displays a paroxytone accentual pattern and has the zero-grade endings: sing. gen. dēŋ < *dems and dat. déi̯me < *demi, the latter showing regular mutation after the lowering of the final *-i.
n-stems
|
sē akmō, "stone"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
akmō |
akmenē |
akmenes
|
Vocative
|
akmo
|
Accusative
|
akmenum |
kuŋmūŋ
|
Genitive
|
kuŋmō |
kuŋmōs |
kuŋmõ
|
Locative
|
kumeine |
kumnō |
kumuŋsu
|
Dative
|
kuŋmē |
kuŋmō |
kuŋmus
|
Instrumental
|
kuŋma
|
|
tod dēmuŋ, "house of a god, temple"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
θēmuŋ |
θēmunī |
θēmnō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
šmēn |
šmenus |
θumnō
|
Locative
|
šmeno |
šmeni
|
Dative
|
šmeni |
šmeŋma |
θumunmus
|
Instrumental
|
šmēn
|
|
tod nomuŋ, "name"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
nomuŋ |
nomnī |
nomnō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
nemuŋ |
nemunus |
nemnõ
|
Locative
|
nemunu |
nemsu
|
Dative
|
nemne |
nemuŋma |
nemuŋmos
|
Instrumental
|
nemna
|
r-stems
There are three subtypes within the r-stem group. mētur "mother" represents the group with initial accent, which persists on the root syllable and always takes suffix and ending in zero-grade. βrētur "brother" is inflected in the same manner. This is a small group of nouns recognized by their unaccented endings in both nom. and gen.
|
sē mētur, "mother"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
mētur |
mētu̯ra |
mēθres
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
mēθrum |
mētu̯ruŋ
|
Genitive
|
mētūr, mētūs |
mētu̯rus |
mēθrõ
|
Locative
|
mēθre |
mētu̯ru |
mētuiru
|
Dative
|
mēturma |
mēturmus
|
Instrumental
|
mēθra
|
Gen. mētūs < *meHtr̥s, while mētūr appears to be a later regularization, restoring the *r that has been dropped in *-rs. Dat. mētrė < *meHtri, acc. mētrum show regular forms. Loc. mēteire appears with full grade suffix.
su̯éhi̯itur "daughter" represents the oxytone group of the r-stems, which includes many agentive nouns that terminate in -er and -or. They are recognizable by their zero-grade nom. endings and full-grade -ō endings in gen. The behaviour of the word ɣenur "hand" is underlyingly identical.
|
sē su̯éhi̯itur, "daughter"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
su̯éhi̯itur |
duɣaterē |
duɣateres
|
Vocative
|
su̯éhi̯itur
|
Accusative
|
duɣaterum |
duɣateruŋ
|
Genitive
|
duɣaθrō |
duɣaθrōs |
duɣaθrõ
|
Locative
|
duɣaθrē |
duɣaterō |
duɣatuiru
|
Dative
|
duɣaturmō |
duɣaturmō
|
Instrumental
|
duɣaθra
|
patēr "father" is a variation of the pattern of "daughter", where in the nom. the accent is on the ending instead of the stem; otherwise, it follows the pattern of "daughter" exactly.
|
sē patēr, "father"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
patēr |
paterē |
pateres
|
Vocative
|
pater
|
Accusative
|
paterum |
pateruŋ
|
Genitive
|
paθrō |
paθrōs |
paθrõ
|
Locative
|
paθrē |
paterō |
paθruiru
|
Dative
|
patu̯rmō |
patu̯rmō
|
Instrumental
|
paθra
|
The paroxytone declension of ster "star" is unique, sg. gen. stēr < *Hsters, dat. steire, etc.
l-stems
The l-stems originally inflect as other ablauting consonant stems, but because intervocalic *-l- regularly > -y-, the resulting paradigm presents certain quirks not seen in the normal consonant-stem paradigm.
|
sa sē, "salt" = ἅλς
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
sē |
sai̯ē |
sai̯is
|
Vocative
|
se
|
Accusative
|
sai̯um |
sai̯ūŋ
|
Genitive
|
slō |
slōs |
slõ
|
Locative
|
sai̯i̯e |
slō |
sullu
|
Dative
|
slē |
sō |
sullus
|
Instrumental
|
sla
|
|
sa abō, "apple"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
abō |
aboi̯ē |
aboi̯is
|
Vocative
|
abo
|
Accusative
|
aboi̯um |
aboi̯ūŋ
|
Genitive
|
ablō |
ablōs |
ablõ
|
Locative
|
abei̯e |
ablō |
abllu
|
Dative
|
ablē |
abllō |
abllus
|
Instrumental
|
abla
|
s-stems
There are two classes in the s-stem group, one for masculine and feminine nouns, and another for neuter ones. The masculine and feminine nouns are formally indistinct but behave like other consonant-stem nouns, with or without ablaut. The noun mus "mouse" is unique in its preservation of an initial accent. The neuter nouns fall into two groups, those with oxytone or paroxytone accents.
|
sē nēs, "nose"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
nēs |
narē |
nares
|
Vocative
|
nes
|
Accusative
|
narum |
naruŋ
|
Genitive
|
narō |
narōs |
narõ
|
Locative
|
naere |
narō |
nassu
|
Dative
|
narē |
nasmō |
nasmus
|
Instrumental
|
nara
|
|
tod kretō, "intellect, power"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
kretō |
kretera |
kretera
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
kreterō |
kreterus |
kreterõ
|
Locative
|
kreteire |
kreteru |
kretessu
|
Dative
|
kretesma |
kretesmus
|
Instrumental
|
kretera
|
|
tod menō, "mind"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
menō |
menera |
menera
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
menēs |
menerus |
menerõ
|
Locative
|
meneire |
meneru |
menessu
|
Dative
|
menesma |
menesmus
|
Instrumental
|
menera
|
|
tod mēŋ, "meat"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
mēŋ |
meŋhī |
meŋha
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
mēŋ |
meŋhus |
meŋhõ
|
Locative
|
meŋ |
meŋhu |
meŋho
|
Dative
|
meŋhma |
meŋhus
|
Instrumental
|
meŋha
|
i-stems
The i-stems were a prolific class of nouns in Northian during the Galic period. In PEE, the i-stems were completely parallel to the u-stems in virtually all contexts, but due to sound changes their surface forms in Northian are quite different. Accordingly, they are considered separate classes in Northian tradition.
|
sa socis, "ally"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
socis |
skoi̯ē |
sokoi̯is
|
Vocative
|
soci
|
Accusative
|
socim |
skoin
|
Genitive
|
skiō |
skiōs |
skiõ
|
Locative
|
skoi̯e |
skiō |
skisu
|
Dative
|
skiē |
skimō |
skimus
|
Instrumental
|
skī
|
|
sē mentis, "thought" |
tod more, "sea"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
mentis |
mentēa |
mentēis
|
more |
morēa |
morēi̯
|
Vocative
|
meinte
|
Accusative
|
mentim |
mentīn
|
Genitive
|
muntēs |
muntēus |
muntēõ
|
mrēs |
mrēus |
mrēõ
|
Locative
|
muntēi |
muntēu |
muntēsu
|
mrēē |
mrēo |
mrēsu
|
Dative
|
muntēma |
muntēmus
|
mrēma |
mrēmus
|
Instrumental
|
muntēa
|
mrē
|
|
sa potis, "master"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
potis |
potī |
potiis
|
Vocative
|
poti
|
Accusative
|
potim |
potīn
|
Genitive
|
petis |
petius |
petiõ
|
Locative
|
peti |
petiu |
petisu
|
Dative
|
petima |
petimus
|
Instrumental
|
petī
|
u-stems
|
sē genus, "chin"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
genōs |
geneu̯ē |
geneu̯is
|
Vocative
|
genō
|
Accusative
|
genōm |
geneu̯uŋ
|
Genitive
|
genuō |
genuōs |
genuõ
|
Locative
|
geneu̯i |
genuō |
genuru
|
Dative
|
genuē |
genumō |
genumus
|
Instrumental
|
genua
|
|
sa sui̯us, "child" = υἱύς |
tod pōi̯o, "flock" = πῶυ
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
sui̯us |
sui̯ēu̯ |
sui̯eu̯is
|
pōi̯o |
pai̯ēu̯ |
pai̯ēu̯
|
Vocative
|
sui̯o
|
Accusative
|
sui̯um |
sui̯uuŋ
|
Genitive
|
sui̯eu̯s |
sui̯eu̯us |
sui̯eu̯õ
|
pai̯eu̯s |
pai̯eu̯us |
pai̯eu̯õ
|
Locative
|
sui̯eu̯i |
sui̯eu̯o |
sui̯eu̯so
|
pai̯eu̯i |
pai̯eu̯o |
pai̯eu̯so
|
Dative
|
sui̯eu̯ma |
sui̯eu̯mus
|
pai̯eu̯ma |
pai̯eu̯mus
|
Instrumental
|
sui̯ēu̯
|
pai̯ēu̯
|
|
sa θeɣus, "fish" = ἰχθύς |
tod doru, "wood" = δόρυ
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
θeɣus |
θeɣō |
θeɣōs
|
doru |
dorō |
dorō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
zus |
zuus |
zuõ
|
derus |
deruus |
deruõ
|
Locative
|
zui |
zuo |
zuru
|
derō |
deruo |
denuru
|
Dative
|
zuma |
zumus
|
deruma |
derumus
|
Instrumental
|
zū
|
derū
|
hʷōn
hʷōn "woman" continues the PEE proterodynamic declension ending in *-h₂. This suffix also underlies the ī- and ū-stem declensions in Northian but is otherwise rarely seen alone. The full-grade stem is from *gʷénh₂-, and the zero-grade *gʷneh₂-.
|
sē hʷōn, "woman" = γυνή
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
hʷōn |
gnē |
hʷenas
|
Vocative
|
hʷen
|
Accusative
|
hʷenum |
hʷenau̯ŋ
|
Genitive
|
gnēs |
gnēus |
gnēõ
|
Locative
|
gnēi |
gnēo |
gnēru
|
Dative
|
gnēma |
gnēmus
|
Instrumental
|
gnē
|
ī-stems
The ī-stems in oxytone is rare and contains only a few nouns.
|
sē sθerīs, "heifer"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
sθerīs |
sθerīa |
sθurīis
|
Vocative
|
sθerī
|
Accusative
|
sθerīum |
sθurīuŋ
|
Genitive
|
sθurīō |
sθurīōs |
sθurīõ
|
Locative
|
sθurīē |
sθurīō |
sθunīru
|
Dative
|
sθurīmō |
sθurīmus
|
Instrumental
|
sθurīa
|
By contrast, the ī-stems in paroxytone has remained productive down to the Epic period as a feminizing suffix for athematic nouns.
|
sē genaθrī, "genitrix"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
genaθrī |
genaθrīa |
genaθrīis
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
genaθrīum |
genaθrīuŋ
|
Genitive
|
ŋaθri̯ēs |
ŋaθri̯ēus |
ŋaθri̯ēõ
|
Locative
|
ŋaθri̯ēi |
ŋaθri̯ēo |
ŋaθri̯ēru
|
Dative
|
ŋaθri̯ēma |
ŋaθri̯ēmus
|
Instrumental
|
ŋaθri̯ēa
|
ū-stems
|
sē tenūs, "body"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
tenūs |
tenōa |
tunu̯ēis
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
tunu̯ēum |
tunu̯ēuŋ
|
Genitive
|
tunuō |
tunuōs |
tunuõ
|
Locative
|
tunu̯ēi |
tunuō |
tunuru
|
Dative
|
tunuē |
tunumō |
tunumus
|
Instrumental
|
tunua
|
The ū-stems also includes one member with paroxytone accent, namely sokrō "mother-in-law".
|
sē sokrō, "mother-in-law" = socrus
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
sokrō |
sokrēu̯ |
sokrēu̯is
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
sokrēu̯u̯ŋ |
sokrēu̯ŋ
|
Genitive
|
sokrēu̯s |
sokrēu̯us |
sokrēu̯õ
|
Locative
|
sokrēi̯e |
sokrēu̯ō |
sokrēu̯ru
|
Dative
|
sokrēu̯ma |
sokrēu̯mus
|
Instrumental
|
sokrēu̯[a?]
|
r/n-stems
|
tod i̯ōr, "year" = ὥρα
|
Singular |
Dual |
Collective
|
Nominative
|
i̯ō |
i̯ōrī |
i̯ēōr
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
i̯ēi̯ŋ |
i̯ēnus |
īnō
|
Locative
|
i̯ēne |
i̯ēno |
iei̯ne
|
Dative
|
i̯ēi̯ŋma |
īnē
|
Instrumental
|
i̯ēn |
īnā
|
|
tod pāō, "fire" = πῦρ
|
Singular |
Dual |
Collective
|
Nominative
|
pāō |
pāōrī |
pēwō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
pau̯ēn |
pau̯enus |
pūnō
|
Locative
|
pau̯ei̯ne |
pau̯eno |
pūne
|
Dative
|
pau̯ei̯ŋma |
pūnē
|
Instrumental
|
pau̯ēn |
pūn
|
sāu̯u̯ō
The noun sāu̯u̯ō "sun" continues the PEE heteroclitic stem in *-l/n-. The nominative is due to assimilation of approximants and the regular sound change of *wu > wo. Genitive has χu̯eīŋ, for expected *xʷvēn < *swens.
|
sē sāu̯u̯ō, "Sun"
|
Singular
|
Nominative
|
sāu̯u̯ō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
hʷu̯eīŋ
|
Locative
|
hʷu̯eine
|
Dative
|
Instrumental
|
hʷu̯ena
|
d-stems
|
tod kerd, "heart" = καρδία
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
kerd |
kreda |
kordō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Genitive
|
krēθs |
kredus |
kurdō
|
Locative
|
kerde |
kredu |
kerde
|
Dative
|
kresma |
kurdē
|
Instrumental
|
kreda
|
t-stems
|
sa nēp, "grandchild"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
nēp |
nepotē |
nepotis
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
nepotum |
neptuŋ
|
Genitive
|
neptō |
neptōs |
neptõ
|
Locative
|
nepoti |
neptō |
neptru
|
Dative
|
nepte |
neptmō |
neptmus
|
Instrumental
|
nepta
|
|
sē nōi̯h, "evening, night"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
nōi̯h |
nehʷša |
nohʷšis
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
nohʷšum |
nohʷšuŋ
|
Genitive
|
nēh |
nehʷšus |
nehʷšõ
|
Locative
|
nehʷše |
nehʷšo |
nehʷššu
|
Dative
|
naohma |
naohmus
|
Instrumental
|
nehʷša
|
a-stems
|
sē mihrē, "mist"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
mihrē |
mihrē |
mihrās
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
mihrēm |
mihrāu̯ŋ
|
Genitive
|
mihrēs |
mihrēōs |
mihrõ
|
Locative
|
mihrēi |
mihrēō |
mihru
|
Dative
|
mihrēi |
mihrēmō |
mihurmus
|
Instrumental
|
mihrē
|
o-stems
|
sa θūmō, "smoke" |
tod i̯uɣõ, "yoke"
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Singular |
Dual |
Plural
|
Nominative
|
θūmō |
θūmō |
θūmōis
|
i̯uɣõ |
i̯uɣōī |
i̯uɣō
|
Vocative
|
θūme
|
Accusative
|
θūmõ |
θūmōn
|
Genitive
|
θūmōhi̯o |
θūmōus |
θūmōõ
|
i̯uɣōhi̯o |
i̯uɣōus |
i̯uɣōõ
|
Locative
|
θūmē |
θūmōu |
θūmōi̯o
|
i̯uɣē |
i̯uɣōu |
i̯uɣōi̯o
|
Dative
|
θūmōi̯ |
θūmōma |
θūmōmus
|
i̯uɣōi̯ |
i̯uɣōma |
i̯uɣōmus
|
Instrumental
|
θūmō
|
i̯uɣō
|
Acrean words
Many words in Northian are Old Nordic loanwords from speakers of Acrean, which was used as a lingua franca in western Eracura for centuries under the influence of the Acrean Empire. These words were so numerous that many were not nativized and were declined according to an approximation of the thematic declension in Old Nordic. For the most part, these endings are exact cognates with the thematic ones in Northian, but because differing sound changes have intervened, they are taught separately. Where there was a distinct vocative, the nominative form has displaced it. There are also no dual forms for these nouns, for which neologisms have sometimes been suggested, to no general acceptance.
|
sa wulhʷā, "any lupine animal" = lupus |
tod i̯uɣõ, "yoke"
|
Singular |
Dual and plural
|
Singular |
Dual and plural
|
Nominative
|
wulhʷā |
θūmōis
|
i̯uɣõ |
i̯uɣō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
wulhʷaŋ |
θūmōn
|
Genitive
|
wulhʷas |
θūmōõ
|
i̯uɣōro |
i̯uɣōõ
|
Locative
|
wulhʷāi |
θūmōi̯o
|
i̯uɣē |
i̯uɣōi̯o
|
Dative
|
θūmōmus
|
i̯uɣōi̯ |
i̯uɣōmus
|
Instrumental
|
wulhʷō
|
i̯uɣō
|
Irregular nouns
Country names
"Æþurheim", the name of the country to the southwest of Shalum, has an invariant stem with full grade throughout and initial persistent accent in Aí̯θrō-, which takes oxytone endings. The vocative form is identical to the nominative, showing full grade. Because the accent is in its expected position in the nom. and voc. forms, the acute accent on the i is not necessary there, while it is found in all other forms to denote the irregular accent. "Shalum" behaves in a manner more reminiscent of a regular n-stem noun in oxytone and has the expected endings and accentual positions, but the stem does not display apophony as is usual in this class of nouns.
|
sē Ai̯θrō, "Æþurheim" |
sē Halō, "Shalum"
|
Singular |
Singular
|
Nominative
|
Ai̯θrō |
Halō
|
Vocative
|
Accusative
|
Aí̯θrōnum |
Halomnum
|
Genitive
|
Aí̯θrōnō |
Halomnō
|
Locative
|
Aí̯θrōni |
Halomei̯ne
|
Dative
|
Aí̯θrōnē |
Halomnē
|
Instrumental
|
Aí̯θrōn |
Halomna
|
Verbs
See also