Passenger rail transport in Themiclesia

Rail transport in Themiclesia originated in 1829 for shipping coal and now encompasses a large network of railways serving both passengers and freight. Inter-city railways grew with government support from 1853 and accompanied the Industrial Revolution to support long-distance commerce and modernizing manufacturing needs; these inter-city railways were bought by the government between 1892 and 1898 to prevent the laying of redundant railways, but private companies continued to operate trains on nationalized railways and branch lines. Improved revenues were taxed by the government to support expansion and maintenance of infrastructure. Urban railways and trams appeared the late 19th century. More recently, branch lines have seen development, and a high speed rail with speeds up to 300 km/h was introduced in 1967.

Despite a decline in ridership in the 1960s, the railway continues to be a principal means of both urban, suburban, and inter-city travel in Themiclesia. Inter-city transport is mainly offered by National Railway, a joint venture of public and private investment, but excursion trains are regularly operated by private companies. The railway accounts for nearly half of all inter-city freight by weight, but less by value as it is better suited to bulk goods in loose or containerized format.

History

Mining railways

The first railway in Themiclesia was laid down in 1831 by Asikainen, a Hallian company oeprating a coal mine in Prets. The company had relied on draft animals and barges to ship its products into the Meh but found a more profitable mine away some 16 km from the river, which a railway covered. The line was operated with a single locomotive, the Kaveli. The introduction of the railway made Asikainen more profitable than others relying on draft animals, and by 1840 no fewer than eight mining operations utilized railways in the Themiclesian north, where mining rights have been leased to Hallia through the Treaty of Kien-k'ang of 1796.

In 1844, a railway from Prets to Gra was opened, which allowed Hallian merchants to undercut coal from Themiclesian mines, transported by draft animals. This coal was not tariffed as it was not technically imported, but it became a political crisis at the lobby of Themiclesian coal mines and merchants, who argued that the Hallian miners were outselling domestic miners. In 1844, the government responded by awarding land to Themiclesian mines that they might lay their own lines, and a testing railway was laid down between the market town of Ngek and Kien-k'ang in 1845, spanning 65 km.

1845 – 1870

A royal commission was issued at the same time to study the effects of railways on foreign states, with the conclusion that an efficient transport system allowed more goods to be marketed domestically and would be an incentive to investment in businesses. The government also saw value in a railway system as a component of defence logistics, as troops could be moved around the country more rapidly and without requisitioning goods from the towns they passed through. As a result of the initially-good results of test railway and of the recommendations of the royal commission, the building of railways became the Ra-lang government's policy. New railways were constructed with government grants in land and backed by high-interest bonds sold to the government. In 1847, the first inter-city railway over 300 km opened between Kien-k'ang and Twar, hoping to compete with river transport and to open a passenger service, bringing individuals arriving by boat to the capital city.

In 1854 and 1855, both Menghe and Dayashina agreed to open trade with foreign states, causing the trinity of Themiclesian exports—porcelains, tea, and silks—to face competition and triggering the Depression of 1857, which rippled to railway bonds as the first railways struggled to generate revenue to cover interest. Facing dwindling customs revenue, the Ra-lang government diverted its money to stimulate other industries and could not continue to support the building of railways. By 1861, Themiclesian industry regained its footing, and new railways were built to transport grain from docks to the cities that experienced population boom. Manufacturing businesses began to rely more on railways to source materials from the countryside. A second, largely privately-funded drive to build railways in the 1870s thus occurred.

The 1850 – 60s also saw the first regulations appear over travelling conditions and amenities. In 1853, it had been decreed that railways shall not carry passengers in "vehicles not made for the transport of mankind", to prohibit mining railways from carrying them in coal wagons or on carriage roofs, but the law was passed mostly on the strength of public outcry arising from a terrible accident in 1852. This requirement was made operative in 1857 by requiring each operator to inspect the structural soundness of its coaching stock annually. In 1865, third-class passengers obtained rights to seats, a roof above the compartment, and openings for lighting and ventilation, but this did not require glazing, a hole in the carriage wall being judged sufficient. In 1864, the Railways Act required railways to charge no more than 1 grain per Imperial mile travelled. Though facilitating urbanization, fare restrictions also discouraged railways from offering improved coaches in third class.

Revenues on early railways were chiefly generated from freight, so passenger trains were not then prioritized. Yet in the 1850s, travel by railway gained in popularity against private coach as the more comfortable and punctual option, and operators increasingly used passenger services to generate revenues, evidenced by booming variety in railway coach design and manufacture. In 1859, the first express passenger service appeared, connecting Kien-k'ang, Sin, Rak, and Qwang; the train took 16 hours to cover the 402 miles between the cities.

1871 – 1890

The only railways that received government funding between 1871 and 1892 were ones connecting mining towns in the northeast to the Themiclesian heartland, as distances were too long for private investment to cover; additionally, the government welcomed the establishment of homes and businesses in the distant countryside, as it was seen to ward away territorial claims by other powers. Under these auspices, the Great Northeastern Railway was completed in 1884, extending over 2,200 km to reach ′An from Rak. In these, the government took an interest in tariffing goods shipped but did not interfere with their operations.

In terms of railway operators, the operator and coachbuilder Lower Themiclesia Railroad (LTRR) achieved renown for its sleeper coaches that debuted in 1866, and these dominated the long-distance market owing to long running times on routes hastily laid and of poor geometry. LTRR also accrued considerable profit from exporting its exquisitely-appointed rolling stock, nicknamed "palace cars" on foreign railways; to accomplish this, it employed skilled artisans, some from manufacturers of porcelains and luxury fabrics. Though these exports were successful, it soon sparked competition, most notably in Tír Glas and adjoining states, and the domestic market remained its main source of revenue.

Between 1871 and 1890, much effort was made to accelerate passenger trains as operators realized that express fares were far more profitable than those stipulated for parliamentary trains. In consequence of this effort, passenger services began to diversify in terms of rolling stock, scheduling, and associated services like seat reservations. While sleeper services had boomed in the 1870s, day expresses started to challenge sleepers in the 1880s on some routes that formerly must be served by sleepers in premium services, owing to running times. The service from Kien-k'ang to Qwang, taking 16 hours in 1863, was shortened to 10:40 by 1880, making a daytime express service practical. Such changes were enabled by consistent improvements in lines, engines, and schedules.

In 1877, the first reserved service (對號), where all passengers were guaranteed a reserved and assigned seat, was operated. This was only practical on trains with limited calls, as the reservation process required maintenance of a seating record (one ledger representing the seating situation between each stops), to ensure a specific seat was always available. The practice of seat reservation was carried over from sleeper services (where each bed was sold only once per journey), but when applied to day trains, seat assignment was co-ordinated by telegraph between stations such that a single seat could be used more than once per journey; the process was labour intensive and sold for a hefty premium as an element of prestige.

In 1885, the first limited service (特快, literally "singularly express") appeared, the term "limited" indicating a schedule that brooked no yields or delays for any other train whatsoever. The limited service was alloted the highest priority on the line, and the engine and entire rolling stock were customized to maximize speed and minimize water and coal stops. Given that a limited service must have a restricted number of stops, they were similarly amenable to seat reservations, and indeed in practice seats on limited services were always sold as reserved seats. Advertisements appealed to a strong sense of prestige in travelling with a reserved seat, on a service that ranked above other trains on the same route, and with the best engines and rolling stock available. It was the general practice of the 1880s through 1900s that limited trains consisted of only first and second class coaches—third class coaches were not used on limited services.

Pre-war regulation

By 1890, revenue mileage of main and branch lines in Themiclesia reached 9,520 km. Railroad was yet an unregulated business, as it was assumed the demand would guide the efficient building of lines. On the freight side, the laying down of parallel railways and price cutting competition cut railway profits to razor-thin margins and occasioned scandalous bankruptcies at the close of the 19th century, prompting the government regulate the building of lines, though leaving passenger services, which had higher margins (though not necessarily more profits in toto) than freight, mostly untouched. The newly-inaugurated National Railway Company began its own passenger operations in 1893 using coaching stock inherited from the operators it absorbed. Under a late 1890s economic downturn, many railways folded and either merged or were sold to National Rail, which emerged as the largest Themiclesian railway by 1900.

National Rail's early coaching stock was inherited from absorbed railroads and thus a motley of coaches with no standard design. While Themiclesian railway laws assumed a three-class structure, actual regulations had hitherto provided only the minimum standard for Third coaches, leaving others entirely up to the private railways. Thus, non-Third coaches differed drastically between railroads, while Third coaches were often built to the absolute minimum standard. Seeking to utilize this heterogeneous fleet across its entire network, National Rail reassigned coaches to make each class consistent. The best coaches (including saloons, parlours, drawing rooms) were retained as First. Some inherited First coaches did not meeting National Rail's new standards and were relabelled Second. Padding was present on some newer Third coaches, while the majority had bare wooden seats; as it would be unfair to charge the same fare for both types, National Rail called the padded ones "New Class", giving rise to the four-class structure of First, Second, New, and Third Class.

In terms of passenger services, the process of consolidation eventually brought a standardized set of passenger service rules to most operators, at least on the main lines. In 1895, it was generally the case that on each line there could only be one limited service running at any given time, to satisfy the "top priority" component. If there were two, either they were day and night services (the "sleeper limited") respectively or one was a temporary/charter service. After 1900, railways sometimes ran two or more limited services that had no possible scheduling conflicts and gave them separate names (the "Coastal Reserved" and "Star Reserved" under numbers 3/4 and 15/16 are examples of two limited services on the same route). On timetables, these names trains were noted as "the name reserved", e.g. the Coastal Reserved (海對號). By the 1920s, main lines saw several limited services per day.

In 1907, National Rail presented drawings for its own coaches to Parliament, utilizing more steel components for added safety as well as thoroughly eliminating compartment coaches. Because the rate for Third Class was statutorily fixed, National Rail retained the New Class as an offering for which it could charge willing passengers a little more than Third for a padded seat, hoping that the surcharge could act as a buffer source of revenue in case Parliament fails to adjust fares for Third while costs rise (this happened to be quite accurate). The long-term plan, however, was that unpadded Third coaches should be retired in favour of padded ones, though this would not actually occur until 1946. Its first series of standardized coaches entered service in 1910 and still used the somewhat haphazard four-class system rather than the three-class system that the nomenclature suggests.

Calls for the inclusion of Third class on limited trains reached and convinced Parliament to study the option. However, lower profit margins and the large quantity of expected III passengers, which would make seat reservations very taxing, left operators hesitent to operate III limited services. It was feared that including III coaches would alienate those paying for a more exclusive mode of travel. Nevertheless, to respond to parliamentary views, National Rail operated from 1931 the very plainly named "Limited Express" with only III coaches but using the same engines and similar schedules; reserved seating was not provided, making overcrowding likely. The service was a financial success, many willing to risk a standing journey that was at least shorter—compared to a standing journey on a stopping train that could run easily for twice as long.

Further series of standardized coaches were introduced in 1921, 1927, and 1930. Series 4 coaches, manufactured in limited quantities in 1927, were the first to have all-steel bodies with a length of 72'; a redesigned underframe launched in 1930 was numbered series 5, which remains the longest-lasting series in the history of National Rail thus far (production continued until 1953). Increased weight of coaches in turn encouraged National Rail's engineering departments to supply more powerful engines. In 1931, mechanical air conditioning was introduced and soon spread to all First class coaches. This was achieved with electricity generated from a dynamo attached to the coach's spinning axles. 1933 is often described as the peak year for railways in Themiclesia, as it captured 94% of passenger and 90% of freign traffic over 50 miles.

Wartime

After general mobilization in response to invasion, the intercity network was nationalized in 1937, making National Rail the sole operator in the interest of efficiency and centralized planning. Rolling stock were regularly commandeered by the government to support freight and troop movements. Under the War Measures Act, National Rail suspended I coaches (mostly FS, D, and FDB coaches) from regular service, citing concerns for the railway's efficiency, and also limited II coaches mostly to official uses. Limited and express services were suspended as they required freight trains to yield. The public operator retrofitted some premium coaches as III coaches to support troop transportation. Otherwise, National Rail took to removing the toilets and luggage racks to install even more seats. These "defence coaches" were often reviled as a "fourth class" of coaches, being even less furnished than conventional III coaches. Sleeper trains were suspended, since room and section sleepers (with capacity 12 and 32 respectively) were deemed too wasteful of schedule time and pulling power.

During the war, the railway networks of both operators suffered considerable damage, some self-imposed. National Rail was granted a new Parliamentary charter and was required to re-invest a portion of proceeds into maintenance, employee welfare, and fare reductions before dividends could be paid to shareholders; to stimulate investment, the government reimbursed dividends paid to it as the major shareholder for the first 40 years of its operation. To compensate for damages to its infrastructure, the armed forces were ordered to restore all tracks and related infrastructure that are self-damaged and transfer all spurs and branches they constructed for war purposes to National Rail by Jan. 1, 1949.

National Rail re-introduced the Recliner coach in 1940 as a workaround for its directors and employees, who lost the ability to use sleeper coaches as they were suspended during the war. The Recliner had debuted in 1932 as a more economical alternative to the open section sleeper but was withdrawn in 1935. The coach was permissible as it technically met the description of a sitting coach even though its seats could recline to 165°, forming an almost-flat bed. With a 2+2 seating pattern, the Recliner coach could sit 44 people, more than the open section sleeper and nearly as much as a normal II coach which was acceptable under war economy. National Rail let out bedding for these coaches. Eventually, civil servants and military officers on public business necessitating overnight travel also received permission to use the Recliners―the army's regiments each received a fixed monthly quota of Recliner tickets during the late stage of the war (typically 2), which were extremely hotly contested by officers and troops on furlough.

Postwar

During the early phase of the post-war reconstruction period, the authorities minimized express services, to prioritize trains carrying reconstruction materials; manual seat reservation, labour intensive, likewise remained suspended. Expresses reappeared between 1946 and 1948, but named trains operated with II coaches only, as the railroad prioritized density in passenger services. But on 1 January 1949, the 1/2 Northern was restored to its pre-war I/II consist, and other reserved trains followed suit between 1949 – 50. Objections were heard against this development at a time when rationing was not yet lifted on food and other critical resources and amidst reports that I coaches were mostly used by non-paying ministers and officials.

After the ban on sleepers lifted in 1947, National Rail repurposed the Recliner coach, originally an austere alternative to a sleeper on overnight services, for day service rakes. Recliners also appear to have been intended to relieve the ban on I coaches on named trains, in view of some of the ageing II stock. Recliners becoming well-received, the railroad extended them to other express services. With its airline-style layout and reclinable seats, was to have an extensive impact and gradually replaced older bay-style seating, which had non-reclinable, opposing seats.

1950s to electrification

In the initial years of the 1950s, National Rail hosted several "general conferences" where a general plan for the railway's foreseeable future was laid out. Steam adhesion on all lines would be gradually replaced over 20 years with a mixture of diesel and electric adhesion, with electrification for six mainlines earmarked for passenger service. Dieselization would be marked by considerable and rapid savings over steam in operating costs, while electrical adhesion was seen as the more expensive option in the initial stage. Thus, the railroad eventually adopted a hybrid solution that would promote dieselization in the immediate term and transition to electrical power in the longer term and for select lines.

In 1954, the mainline electrification plan was further boosted with a planned "high speed express line" between the cities of Qwang-Rak-Kien-k'ang-Kwang, because the existing rail alignment had too many curves and was not direct. The high speed line was intended to make rail travel competitive with air. This line became the first operation line of the Themiclesian High Speed Rail in 1967. On this project, Themiclesian heavily co-operated with Dayashina in developing the track work and rolling stock that could yield revolutionary speeds.

Additional tractive effort afforded by diesel engines, the public railroad lengthened its express trains from six to ten coaches in the early 50s. Yet the named trains, which had the tightest schedules remained under steam adhesion until 1961, especially by the 4-6-2 Class 3700 and the post-war 4-6-4 Class 3900, which could reliably achieve a timetable speed of 107 MPH and outran any contemporary locomotive, steam or diesel.

In the passenger service department, National Rail was weary of the challenge of highways to rail, as seen in the flourishing state of national motorways in Hallia. The operator publicly stressed convenience, punctuality, speed, and comfort as natural strengths of rail travel. In 1950, Themiclesia's intercity highway network was yet anemic, and the principal challenge posed by car ownership was instead in commuting, since the railways could not capture rapid suburanization promoted post-war as a matter of policy. National Rail declared a new policy in 1952 to improve railways, above merely restoring the railway to its pre-war state: all long distance travel should be by express train and with reserved seats, whereas in 1953 some 75% of Themiclesian still travelled by unreserved stopping train even long-distance.

Pre-war, National Rail operated "Express III" coaches with maximized density, catering to long-distance travellers willing to spend more for speed but not for comfort. But since standard underframes extended from pre-war 72' to post-war 84', the railroad chose not to use the added length to install more seats but instead to improve legroom from 28" to 32" per row on III coaches. Further, crowding was reduced by lengthening trains from the typical 7 coaches pre-war to 10 or 12 coaches by 1960.

Computerized ticketing appeared in 1956, powered by the DPRM 780 vacuum tube computer. With ledgers between stops now checked digitally, efficient reservation of seats for more or even all passengers was now possible. Indeed, the railroad planned that all intercity travellers should travel with reserved seats and on express trains. Long-distance travel on unreserved, stopping trains was expected to appear uncompetitive with road travel. Hence, the formerly unreserved Limited Express (特快) services all became reserved from December 1, 1957, the category renamed Reserved Limited Express (對號特快).

Highway B2 was planned for completion in 1957, and in view of challenges posed by road voyage on foreign railways, National Rail sought to remain competitive by improved comfort and introduced air conditioning, hitherto a I prerogative, on II coaches. The plan proved successful as the first private long-distance bus operator, Highway Bus Line, declared bankruptcy in 1960 amidst a tortured attempt to retrofit its fleet of wartime buses with AC units which turned out very prone to malfunction and leaks due to bumpy riding. The new II coaches with AC were powered by Head End Power generators behind the locomotive.

The 1950s was a transformative decade for National Rail's passenger service. At the end of the decade, the railroad offered a plethora of seating classes—First, Recliner, AC Second, Second, New Third, and Third. Railway commentators have mentioned the 1950s as one of the most successful decades of the railway's history, marked by a strong effort to take advantage of the booming economy and remain competitive against road voyage. A strong fiscal foundation has been attributed to the managmenet of the 1950s that ultimately made heavier infrastructure investments possible in the two following decades.

Post-electrification

Aside from the high-speed line, six other mainlines were also electrified for conventional speeds in the 60s and 70s. Initially, these lines saw electric locomotives hauling unpowered coaches much as diesel and steam engines had done before, but experience on the high-speed line also brought the electric multiple-unit trainsets or EMUs to conventional lines. Since the Inland Mainline's express passenger traffic was partly taken over by the high-speed line, the railroad rescheduled many services to make more stops, meaning the train needed to stop and then start more often. EMUs usually had acceleration performance superior to loco-hauled trains, so they would replace many loco-hauled trains on electrified lines.

In the 60s, the air-conditioned II coach (introduced 1959) saw increasing demand despite higher fare, while the 120-seat, non-AC III coach saw a decline in demand, despite improved legroom after coaches were extended from 72' to 84' (no added seats). In 1972, National Rail experimentally altered the layout of III coaches from 3+2 to 2+2, eliminating the disliked middle seat on one side of the corridor and increasing seat width from 18" to 20.5". This alteration only marginally improved travellers' opinions. With mainlines electrified, the provision of air conditioning was no longer constrained by head-end-power and thus apt for generalization. In the new EMUs launching 1975, National Rail introduced the AC Standard Coach as a replacement for both AC II and non-AC III coachs.

The new coach sat 80 people and was charged at around 1.5 times III. The Progressive government immediately hailed this as a success of deregulation, claiming that third-class travel was abolished by the forces of the market and air conditioning has thereby been made available for a lower fare. But it is also pointed out that this is only true from a II traveller's perspective, since AC was now available for a smaller fare albeit at the cost of some legroom, while a traveller formerly on III would now have to pay 50% more for AC. Equally, the "abolition" of III was only for EMUs, as most loco-hauled services still had plenty of non-AC III coaches sitting 100 passengers.

Train classifications

Passenger services are classified by National Rail and T&S into the following categories, which determine the priorities trains have in allocation of right of way, particularly on single-track sections of routes or platform at stations. It should be noted that while schedulers respect train priorities, priorities are ultimately only guiding principles in drawing up the schedule and foresee and unforeseen operational issues can and regularly prompt the signal staff to grant right of way to a train of lower priority over one of higher priority.

Service		Consist	Scope	Stops	Assigned seat	Train #	Description
Reserved	對號車, tups-qu-kla	First/Business or First/Business/Standard	Main lines only	No more than 10 stops	Always	1 – 40	Highest possible priority for a regular service, usually only one service per route and given a specific name. May be oriented towards tourists.
Night Express	夜快車, laqs-kots-kla	Sleepers			Always		For long distance routes only
Reserved Limited	對號特快車, tups-qu-neleq-kots-kla	Business/Standard or Standard			Yes	41 – 300	Main option for travellers between major cities
Intercity Express	快車, kots-kla			No more than 1/4 of stops	Some	301 – 800	Main option for travellers between smaller cities
Regional Express	縣快車, ghwin-kots-kla		Main and branch lines		Some	1001 – 2000	Generally running between two major cities on main and branch lines, serving short-distance travellers or as shuttle service to change trains at a major station
Local Train	通車, qlwang-kla	Standard		All stations en route	No	2001 – 3000
EMU Limited	電特快, nelinh-nelek-kots	Business/Standard	High speed lines only	All stations en route	Yes	3001 – 4000	Designation for all services on high-speed lines

Reserved Service

Reserved Service, usually only one or two services per route and are meant to represent the best service on that route. With few exceptions, Reserved Service include dining facilities and premium coaches in first and business class. After the 1970s, these trains are often advertised to tourists or select business travellers and may have customized rolling stock to enhance their appeal. Fares are also the highest of all services, trumping high-speed lines; this is because Reserved Service are subject to the Seat Reservation Surcharge and Limited Surcharge, which nearly double the ticket cost.

During the pioneering days of Themiclesian railways from 1845 to 1870, slow running speeds effectively required sleeper service to reach distant destinations in comfort, but considerable gains in speed in the 1870s and 80s allowed some journeys to be covered by a daytime service, albeit requiring a combination of prioritized schedules, specialized engines, and short trains (to restrict tonnage). Sleeper services (where a bed is guaranteed) are always reserved, while contemporary day trains were not. Daytime reserved services thus aimed to bring the guarantee of a specific place to day services.

These were advertised as "limited reserved" services by then-private railways, in contradistinction to "sleeper express" services that ran on laxer schedules and often at limited speed to reduce vibrations that may prevent any rest at all; in the era of public regulation, the term "reserved" still applied to the best possible service on a given route, and most were eventually nicknamed, e.g. Coastal Reserved (longest-running service, since 1894). Given the elite status of these services, they were always combined with seat reservation service and the best-appointed coaches; third-class coaches were not regularly used on these trains.

Services in this category include:

• 1/2 Northern Reserved, between Kien-k'ang and Rak. A previous incarnation of this service had a pre-PSW route of Rak to Yannarksburg, Maverica; in the early 50s, this service was through-running to Sunju, Menghe. In this period it was called
• 3/4 Coastal Reserved, between Kien-k'ang and Sngrak.
• 5/6 Upper Sleeper, between Kien-k'ang and Srum-qlun. Summer service extends to Kir.
• 7/8, between Kien-k'ang and Apollonia.
• 9/10 Star Reserved, between Kien-k'ang and Estoria.

Limited Express

Limited trains (formal name Reserved Limited Express) services are intercity trains providing fast and frequent service, calling at only major cities. As indicated by this stop pattern, these services are aimed at travellers who intend to travel quickly between cities and beyond a normal commuting/regional distance.

Despite the similar name, Reserved Limited services has a different and more recent origin compared to Reserved trains. Since the introduction of Limited Express (as a level of service above Express) in 1885 and until 1930, railways generally operated Limited Expresses only I/II coaches, not III, even though the vast majority of passengers (circa 95% in 1928) travelled III. In 1928, National Rail experimented with a III Limited Express service; to recuperate costs, National Rail used capacity-maximized stock, eliminated the dining carriage, and then oversold tickets to increase ridership even further. Seat reservation, a service standard to Reserved trains, was not offered, as manual reservation of seats ate into thin margins. Despite cramped accommodations and the lack of an assigned seat, the III Limited Express service was a commercial success, prompting its duplication in several routes. These services became increasingly popular through the 30s until the Pan-Septentrion War was joined in earnest.

After the PSW, Limited Express and Reserved services recommenced in 1947. In 1955, National Rail replaced some express steam engines with diesel engines, which enabled longer trains to run at express speeds, and the railway also gradually phased out the overly cramped pre-PSW coaches, the lost capacity being compensated by additional coaches. Two years later in 1957, National Rail computerized its seat reservation system and offered assigned seating to III Limited Express services. These improvements corroborate improving travel options for Themiclesians who could not formerly afford to travel in luxury―an intercity journey to visit friends and family by stopping train was quickly becoming unacceptable. In 1953, National Rail published a half-century report that asserted the future of railway was express trains for all intercity travel, and the category of Limited Express was slated for expansion to those goals.

Classes of service

First Class

Available on loco-hauled Reserved services, this is the most luxurious option in regular service, using a 1+1 seating pattern.

There are two seating styles of First Class coaches: bay and parlour seating (official terminology "drawing room seating", rarely used). The general style seating is similar to the conventionl Second Class or Third Class seating, with opposite seats on two ends of a bay, except in First Class there are only two seats per bay. This was the original style of First Class open coach. But on sleeper trains, a parlour coach with swivel chairs and couches in an open setting was often attached as an area for entertainment, and since it was a secondary area for sleeper passengers, seats here were not separately sold. This type of coach came to be attached to important day trains in addition to the bay style day coaches. The usage of these two seating styles has varied over time and amongst different services.

• On Reserved services like the 11/12 Rak Evening Reserved, several coaches of bay-style coaches and one (or even two) of parlour coaches (the last with open platform as an observation deck) would be in the rake; the railroad sold tickets only for the bay seats, while the parlour coach still functioned as a secondary area for entertainment.

• On lesser services with rakes that had I Class, parlour coaches were not attached. Where First Class seating was expected have even lower demand, a first-second composite open (FSP) coach was used. Since a parlour coach became de rigueur on Reserved services, those services with a bay-style coach but no parlour coach attached became perceived as defective by 1921 and were very poorly patronized after then. Yet because of National Rail's charter, which required that "all three classes shall be available on all lines, in each direction, and every day" as the public operator's commitment to service standards, such coaches remained mandatory until the War Measures Act suspended the mandatory provision of three classes of service generally.

After the war, the mandatory service standard was not re-imposed citing fiscal difficulties, resulting in the de facto withdrawl of I Class in many services. Existing seats, if found in composites, were often sold as II Class where the latter was in short supply, until National Rail announced that I Class was to be phased out on stopping trains from Jan. 1, 1954. I Class remained in use on Reserved trains and select express trains, where parlour coaches also remained, though numbers slowly declined until the class of service was only present on a few important trains.

During the electrification era (1962 – 81), National Rail's plan was to abolish I Class wherever possible and thus built no new I coaches of either the bay or parlour style. Yet the number of I Class passengers stopped dwindling by the late 60s and slightly rebounded in the early 70s, often consisting of travellers with company accounts. This led National Rail to introduce the Club Class on EMU services, initially to reward frequent travellers with an upgraded seat, and the design of the first Club Class coaches borrowed elements from both the bay-style and parlour seats hitherto included in I Class.

The adoption of EMU service en masse in the 70s replaced a large portion of the loco-hauled services with I Class coaches, but as National Rail never fully abolished loco-hauled intercity services, neither did I Class disappear. In 1987, National Rail authorized a small batch of I coaches to be built to replace the ageing stock dating from the mid-50s that was still moderately in demand. As of 2024, there are still six services that carry conventional I Class, two on electrified lines and four on non-electrified lines. Seats on these services are very much advertised towards leisure travellers seeking luxury travel.

Premium

Noted as "Second Class Premium Cabin" (次等特別車, sniqs-keteng-alek-bryat-kla), this class characteristically features a 1+2 seating pattern. Available on EMU trains only.

This class was originally instituted as a "Club Class" which was offered as an upgrade to members of the railway loyalty programme from 1977. In the 80s, the upgrade was opened to normal ticket holders for a upgrade fee that varied according to anticipated demand. During off hours, upgrades from the normal recliner seat could be purchased for as little as 4% the recliner ticket, whereas during hours of peak demand or for select services an upgrade could cost as much as 30%.

It seems originally National Rail intended to phase out its dated First Class in favour of the Club Class, as the latter was introduced at a point where no First Class coaches had been built for around 20 years. However, this plan never completely came to fruition, resulting in the current situation where loco-hauled services have First Class, while EMU services have Club Class.

Recliner

Main article: Second Recliner (Themiclesian railway)

Named "Second Class Recliner" (次等坐臥車) on tickets. The standard feature of this seating class is the eponymous reclining chair that can rotate to face either direction as desired, positioned in a 2+2 layout. Market positioning is as a premium cabin, being either the higher of two classes offered (recliner and standard), or the middle (premium, recliner, and standard).

Recliners were originally introduced on Themiclesian railways in 1931, on sleeper services that also double as day services in the great interior; in this use, they were withdrawn from service in 1933, deemed a failure. Then, in 1941, they re-entered service as an alternative for sleepers which were abolished for the war effort. After sleeper services reappeared in 1946, these coaches were repurposed as Second Class day coaches, because many conventional non-reclining Second Class coaches had during the war been converted to Third Class and were now in short supply. Recliner coaches added on Reserved trains were retrofitted in 1950 with air conditioning powered by head-end power in 1952, resulting in the first Themiclesian train that had air conditioning on all coaches.

On the new series of monocoque coaches introduced in 1954, designed to be used with head-end power, all Recliner coaches natively had air conditioning. In the 50s, Recliner coaches came to displace conventional, non-reclining, non-AC Second Class coaches after a period of co-existence. The restoration of First Class service since Nov. 1, 1949 was slow and partial, and it never re-appeared on many services where it used to be offered. This left the newly-air conditioned Recliner coach as the best service available on many routes.

Seat pitch is 52 in (132.1 cm) and width 24 in (61.0 cm), which reflects its original design as a sleeper alternative. Maximum recline angle varies between stock but is usually 135 – 145°. On loco-hauled Series 6 stock at 84' length, capacity is 52 passengers in 13 rows; on EMU stock and loco-hauled Series 7 onwards, an extra row is present since air conditioning machinery is roof-mounted instead, providing 56 seats in 14 rows.

AC Standard

Formally the "New Stock Third Class with Air Conditioning" coach (參等新車冷暖車) , this also features a 2+2 seat pattern but has considerably less legroom at 33 in (83.8 cm) seat pitch. This seating class is the standard (and lowest) level of service on all intercity EMU and loco-hauled day services and usually makes up a majority of the rake. It is not present on Reserved services.

Air conditioning was present on First Class coaches as far back as 1935, and head-end power allowed the introduction of AC on Recliner coaches in 1954, but AC was only made available more broadly when EMUs entered service on main lines electrified between 1960 and 1983. With electricity now available through overhead catenaries, air conditioning was possible across the entire trainset. Yet with EMU services not universal, air conditioning attracted a higher fare compared to non-air conditioned services.

Meanwhile, coach design also went through a phase of re-adjustment in the 1970s. Between its inception and the late 50s, National Rail's Third Class had unpadded seats and New Class, padded. Series 6 coacking stock introduced in 1954 extended padding to all Third Class coaches, thus eliminating the difference; New Class fare was abolished in 1959 as the last unpadded coaches were retired. However, improving availability and quality of highway transit (on passenger buses) led National Rail to consider a more comfortable Third Class seat in 1963, yet it eventually concluded its Third Class coaches were still well-patronized at current fare levels.

By 1970, the situation had changed with air conditioning generally available on private cars and highway buses, the latter presenting more spacious seats than contemporary Third Class coaches. National Rail thus re-introduced New Class in 1972 as a level between Third and Second (which was then always Recliner stock on main lines), featuring 96 seats in a 2+2 bay-style seating layout. The disliked middle seat was eliminated, and legroom was improved somewhat compared to normal Third coaches that sat 130 passengers on a 84' underframe with a 3+2 layout.

New Third (non-AC)

No longer being manufactured, this seating class is being phased out gradually, with its final batch dating from 1976. This is generally only available on short-haul services running on branch lines, utilizing

Third Class

The fare for Third Class is the basis for all other fare classes, but currently this fare is not in use because rakes for normal passenger services no longer contain these coaches. It is in use, however, for defence charter services transporting soldiers, since soldiers are restricted to receiving free tickets for Third Class. While it used to be the case that National Rail would provide use actual Third Class coaches (3+2, 28" legroom) for defence charters, by the mid-90s National Rail would generally use less spartan coaches whenever available as actual Third Class coaches were being torn down and not as readily available.

Originally, Third Class stock on compartment coaches sat six abreast, and on corridor stock (becoming standard on express trains by 1890) the width of one seat formed the corridor, leaving a seating pattern of 3+2. The seating pattern of 3+2 is common to all other products tariffed as Third Class. On pre-PSW 72' coaches, a standard Third Class coach sat 120, and in post-war 84' coaches, it sat 130; despite the increased capacity, post-war coaches were actually roomier, since the added length was distributed into the seats.

Fare

The fare displayed on passenger tickets on Themiclesian railways is generally a composite of several kinds of fees. Under the modern fare calculation system used since 1975, there is only a single base tariff for mileage, of which all other surcharges are multiples. This stands in contrast with the pre-1975 fare system which had tariffs for mileage specific to each class of travel, and surcharges multiplied the tariff of each class when applied to a ticket of that class.

	Third	New	AC	Recliner	Premium	First
Tariff	1	1.2		1.7		4
Seat Reservation Fee	0	0	0	0.2	0.2	0.2
AC Fee			0.25	0.25	0.25	0.25
Tea Fee	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02
Catering Fee				0.15	0.15	0.3
Club Upgrade Fee (avg.)					0.5
Parlour Fee						1.00
Telephone Fee						0.3
Ordinary multiplier	1.02	1.22	1.47	2.32	2.82	6.07

After all fees above are taken account of, the ordinary multiplier is arrived at. The ordinary multiplier represents the pre-tax multiple of the base tariff per mile that would be charged for a ticket in that seating class on an ordinary train. Regressive express train fees are then added. The maximum express train fee is 50% of the ordinary multiply for journeys within 50 km, and the chargeable percentage decreases by 1% for each marginal 50 km travelled, to a floor of 20%.

Express fare multiple

Range (mi)	Marginal rate	Blended rate	Range (mi)	Marginal rate	Blended rate	Range (mi)	Marginal rate	Blended rate
50 – 100	49%	49.5%	550 – 600	39%	44.5%	1,050 – 1,100	29%	39.5%
100 – 150	48%	49%	600 – 650	38%	44%	1,100 – 1,150	28%	39%
150 – 200	47%	48.5%	650 – 700	37%	43.5%	1,150 – 1,200	27%	38.5%
200 – 250	46%	48%	700 – 750	36%	43%	1,200 – 1,250	26%	38%
250 – 300	45%	47.5%	750 – 800	35%	42.5%	1,250 – 1,300	25%	37.5%
300 – 350	44%	47%	800 – 850	34%	42%	1,300 – 1,350	24%	37%
350 – 400	43%	46.5%	850 – 900	33%	41.5%	1,350 – 1,400	23%	36.5%
400 – 450	42%	46%	900 – 950	32%	41%	1,400 – 1,450	22%	36%
450 – 500	41%	45.5%	950 – 1000	31%	40.5%	1,450 – 1,500	21%	35.5%
500 – 550	40%	45%	1,000 – 1,050	30%	40%	1,500 and above	20%	35%

Thus a Recliner ticket in an express train travelling 60 km would be subject to 2.32 × 1.5 × 50 km plus 2.32 × 1.49 × 10 km.

Limited service fare multiple (on express fare)

Mileage	Rate
Under 500 km	120%
501 – 1,000 km	110%
1,001 – 1,500 km	100%
1,501 km and above	90%

Tariff

From the era of private railroading, Themiclesian railways had for the most part operated a three-class system adopted from Casaterran railways with one tariff for each class per mile travelled. Most roads had a 1:2:3 or 1:2:4 tariff ratio amongst III, II, and I class. Parliament mandated in 1901 the 1:2:4 tariff ratio for the public railroad. Until official repeal in 1977, this fare structure was mostly unmodified in the Public Railways Act, though the base tariff for III was modified from time to time, bringing along with it the tariffs for the other classes. Before the Pan-Septentrion War, a long-distance I class ticket could cost as much as 40 days' wages of a menial labourer.

Prior to the Pan-Septentrion War, each class of service was actively standardized through stable coach designs, so each tariff rate more or less corresponded to a single product. National Rail abandoned standarization as policy in order to introduce more types of coaches to remain competitive with road voyage and air travel. On the mainlines this was particularly apparent, while on the branches changes occurred at a more sedate pace. Newer coaches resulted in a plethora of products that sometimes made little sense to classify within a three-class system as hitherto done. The introduction of S6/2 III express coaches in 1967, which sat only 84 passengers on reclinable seats, made the S5 II reclinable coaches (seating 56) appear unreasonably expensive, being priced over double.

During and after the war, the government did not amend the laws to bring tariffs into line with inflation, prompting National Rail to rely increasingly on surcharges to increase revenues. By the 60s, it was rarely possible to purchase a ticket at base tariff; such services were often simply not available. Yet the fixed proportion amongst the classes' tariffs was often felt either to make III run at a loss or I to be altogether too expensive, or both at the same time. The great disparity in ticket prices obtained by the fixed proportions also somewhat conflicted with National Rail's plans to universalize reserved seating, air conditioning, and express speeds for all long-distance travel.

A more flexible fare system was argued for in Parliament in the late 60s and came to pass in 1975 when the three-class structure, as far as fare structure was concerned, was abandoned. Between 1975 and 1986, a general tariff ceiling was provided, leaving National Rail free to price other services as is competitive. After 1987, the law mandated that a basic service at a fixed tariff be provided at all stations, such that it should be possible to travel across the entire network at this fixed tariff at a reasonable level of service; as with other laws of this kind, National Rail resorted to running such baseline parliamentary trains to discourage patronage as much as possible.

Tariff per mile on National Rail (converted to decimal)

Date	III	II	I
1901/2/1	1/24	1/12	1/6
1905/3/15	1/18	1/9	2/9
1917/3/1	1/10	1/5	2/5
1935/6/1	1/6	1/3	2/3
1958/1/1	1/2	1	2
1960/4/15	5/8	1 1/4	2 1/2
1962/12/1	3/4	1 1/2	3
1968/5/1	1	2	4

Surcharges

The law left open the possibility to charge extra for additional services of value, which during the first decade of public management was mostly for reserved, express, and sleeper services. Yet to increase revenues from passengers willing to pay, National Rail introduced premium services that carried additional fees and also carved out certain services (formerly included in the ticket) to be subject to surcharges. For both I and II, the Catering Fee was assessed from 1922, nominally on services with onboard catering as opposed to meals brought in from stations, the idea being that freshly-prepared meals were more desirable.

A new Parlour Fee was charged on all I tickets from 1912, for use of the parlour section on D (for Drawing Room) carriages, but by 1927 all trains operating a I service included a D carriage, so the charge effectively became mandatory (even if the passenger never actually uses the Parlor section). Similarly, in 1935 air conditioning was introduced on I express stock, prompting a corresponding AC Fee on services with such air conditioned stock, yet by 1953 AC was retrofitted on all I stock, so the AC Fee became an inseparable part of the I tariff.

During the early stages of the PSW, National Rail reintroduced the Recliner Coach (RII) with an airline-style layout and seating 4 abreast in 13 rows (2+2 layout). These were originally a replacement for open section sleepers, which, seating 28, were not austere enough by wartime standards. The conventional II coach sat 48 at 72' length, so the capacity of 44 on Recliners was considered permissible. By 1947, open section sleepers reappeared, so National Rail started attaching the Recliner coaches on long-haul day trains. Originally tariffed the same as CII, National Rail imposed a 20% surcharge on the RII coaches, which then often co-existed with CII on the same train and thus became a new class of service.

On the other hand, National Rail also eagerly expanded AC from I to II in the 50s, in an effort to stay ahead of road competition in comfort terms, since contemporary cars and buses were not air conditioned. Due to the weight and size of AC units, these were roof-mounted in 1957 as part of the S5/2 (series 5, revision 2) streamlined coaches; AC units were not installed on RII coaches because this would make the coaches too heavy. To increase revenues and also betting that passengers would not mind losing some legroom for air conditioning, National Rail decreased the seat pitch to sit 64 passengers (as opposed to 56) at 84' length. These new AC coaches were priced between the RII and CII coaches.

Apparently, National Rail also resisted retrofitting AC units on Recliner coaches, believing if passengers wanted both reclining seats and AC, they would pay for I instead.

In the III department, the pre-war S4 express coaches sitting 140 and non-express coaches sitting 120 (both at 84') were quickly becoming unacceptably crowded, even though improving income levels rendered them more affordable than ever. Sensing shifting standards of comfort, National Rail simply repurposed non-express stock for express service and introduced a surcharge for the coaches with less density. The express stock was repurposed for suburban services, in which crowding was more acceptable due to short travel times. Much criticism was levied against these changes. Between 1954 and 1961, the two types of III carriages operated together.

Regulations

Railways in Themiclesia are subject to a number of legal constraints passed mainly to promote efficiency in rail transport and enhance safety. Many early regulations were made by Parliament, by whom most early routes were also authorized; however, the regulation of railways often became political, and varoius bodies such as the Board of Trade and later Ministry of Transport also became involved. Most modern regulations are made by ministers with statutory authorization, but basic regulations such as the track gauge for intercity railways are fixed by statute.

Units

The standard system of measurement on Themiclesian railways, for internal purposes, are Imperial units from Anglia, as much of the technology and rolling stock on the earliest non-Hallian railways were imported from Anglia. Railway lengths are signposted in terms of Imperial miles and chains. The descriptor "Imperial" (rendered phonetically as 音卑麗, rf ′im-pi-ryal) is added to the corresponding Themiclesian unit. However, to anticipate unexpected changes by Anglia, which have not yet happened, Imperial units in Themiclesian railways were retroactively fixed by a domestic statute to their definitions on Jan. 1, 1870. Some old lines, once under Hallian operation, had their sign-posts changed from Hallian units to Imperial ones by 1896. However, in support of the Government's desire to promote the Metric system, that system has been in use for public trade since 1957.

Track gauge

Broad gauge

Several lines in the north were built for a 5 ft (1,524 mm) gauge, especially those owned by Hallian companies. As it was unlawful to re-gauge any standard-gauge railway to a different gauge, the last 5-foot gauge main line was converted to standard gauge in 1894. Nevertheless, it was permissible to operate a different gauge

The Northern Riparian Railway, located in Ladh-mgon Province and on the border with Nukkumaa, runs on a 5 ft gauge that is unique to operational lines. It was built in 1846 and serviced two coal veins located on the Themiclesian side of the river. The line was acquired by Northwestern Railways in 1896, but due to dwindling freight and passenger service, it was never converted into standard gauge. It was abandoned in 1919 but restored for tourism in 1960. The line today services open-air dome cars offering views of the river.

Standard gauge

The modern standard gauge on Themiclesia railways is 4 ft 8 ¹⁄₂ in (1,435 mm), this gauge having been established in 1851 by the Rjai-ljang Government. Since that year, any railway measuring more than five miles between its most distant points was by law required to be built in this gauge, and all main lines currently operated by National Rail conform to it. Most branch lines and industrial spurs, which act as feeder lines for freight service on main lines, are also in this gauge.

Narrow gauge

There are several narrow gauges in Themiclesia, the majority built well after the 1851 law that established the standard gauge on lines longer than five miles. Narrow gauges were permitted on lines shorter than five miles and not connected to any standard-gauge line, but also longer railways not open for public business or for which public business represented a insignificant portion of its revenues. Likewise, they were permissible for tramways, which shared the road surfaces with non-rail vehicles. Narrow-gauge lines were often constructed in mines, farmland, factories, and private estates, where restrictive space or budget forbade the construction of wider railways.

In forests, where gradients tend to be steep and turns sharp, the 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) and 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) gauges were popular and accounted for the majority of forest railways. In the northeastern Kalami mountain range, there exists a 2 ft 6 in mountain railway. There are also a number of "tourist rails" that carry tourists from one attraction to another, built in the early 20th century, that are typically in narrow gauge; these lines utilize separate sheds and vehicles and are not joined to the intercity railway network, and some also regularly carry passengers. Some light rail and tramways are on a 3 ft 6 in gauge, including the system in Kien-k'ang and Tor.

Railways within coal mines and quarries typically operate under even more restrictive gauges, of which 2 ft (610 mm), 1 ft 11 ¹⁄₂ in (597 mm), and 1 ft 8 in (508 mm) are attested in Themiclesia. These gauges are also not unknown to other applications in salt mining, agriculture, and gardens. Certain passenger railway operations, typically converted from industrial railway, also possess tracks in these gauges, though in recent years many of them have been regauged to more permissive dimensions.

Loading gauges

Old gauge

Prior to 1891, there was no standard loading gauge; the gauge on each private railway was decided by the narrowest point on its route. However, for goods wagons, it was commonly accepted that a normal width which would pass through most lines was 9 ft. The expansion of railways, however, encouraged proprietors to unify gauges across their entire network, so that a single wagon could run without the need to unload and reload. The old gauge was formalized only after the new gauge (below) became standard in the 1890s and was defined by a 9 ft (274 cm) and 12 ft 6 in (381 cm) envelope; while few lines were built to these restrictive dimensions, they were chosen for their universality applicability. Many branch lines may accommodate 9 ft 6 in or even 10 ft 2 in vehicles, though deficiencies in one dimension or another required rolling stock in the old gauge to be used in these lines. It is still seen on some branch lines currently, though periodic efforts have been made to upgrade them to the new gauge.

New gauge

When the Central Junction Railway was built, half of which was underground, dimensions of 10 ft 6 in (320 cm) wide by 14 ft 6 in (442 cm) tall were specified to accommodate the largest coaches then in use. This decision was meant to encourage railways to connect services through the Central Junction, which both provided the government a fee and reduced wagon traffic in Kien-k'ang, a major source of complaints. Between 1897 and 1910, most main lines owned by both National & Maritime and Themiclesian & Northwest were converted to the new gauge, while new constructions met the then-named Central Junction gauge. Because the continuous vaults of the underground sections are directly imprinted onto the limits of this gauge, it is also called the "tunnel gauge".

Though generous by 1890s standards, the 7-mile Central Junction tunnel under Kien-k'ang would by 1920 become the most restrictive point on the Inland Main Line, and widening or heightening the tunnel would entail rebuilding it and demolishing everything built above it. Railway engineers noticed that the immovable height limit could be circumvented if traffic were diverted through the suburbs, where trains ran above ground and were subject to fewer height restrictions. Such a practice led to the development of the over-tall gauge, which was seen on railways that passed through the sparsely-populated east.

New-new gauge

The new-new gauge is the electrified version of the new gauge and includes a modest 6-inch increase in vertical height, which enables double-decker trains to have better headroom. Restrictive height barriers were typically negotiated by lowering the track bed in the late 70s.

Over-tall gauge

The over-tall gauge originated in the 1920s after efforts were made to divert freight traffic from termini in major cities, as freight could travel more efficiently avoiding busy areas that are also more likely to have permanent structures that restrict gauge. Benefiting from benign geography, several lines were converted to accommodate boxcars as much as 16 ft 6 in (503 cm) by 11 ft 6 in (351 cm), whose heavier weight in turn encouraged larger and more powerful locomotives. Some of the largest locomotives ever in service in Themiclesia were built specifically for lines in this gauge. Some efforts were made to expand these railways for wartime requirements during the Pan-Septentrion War, which saw a further 6 in added to the width of the gauge. Despite this, the over-tall gauge is not widespread in Themiclesia, and some were (effectively) converted back to new gauge in the 70s by way of electrification.

Non-electrified lines in this gauge are mainly found in the Themiclesian east, where lines are generally single-track and have few factors which impose restrictions, like bridges and tunnels; on these lines, where services are less frequent, the ability to carry more goods per train was at a premium. After the 1970s, the excess height on the over-tall gauge permitted oversized rolling stock that catered to tourism that was booming in the east, formerly dominated by mining and forestry sectors.

Electric gauge

The electric gauge was developed jointly with Dayashina for high-speed passenger service. In the early 60s, Themiclesia proposed using its existing over-tall gauge to serve as the standard for a high-speed service, but Dayashinese engineers believed that those dimensions were too wide and not sufficiently tall to accommodate overhead catenaries that would be required to supply electricity. The modern electric gauge was thus settled to be 14 ft 9 in (4,500 mm) tall and 11 ft 2 in (3,400 mm) wide. This gauge is current on all high-speed electrified lines operated by National Rail under the brand name Themiclesian High Speed Rail.

Current loading gauges

Railway links to adjacent countries

Nukkumaa

Themiclesia is connected to Nukkumaa by at four operational railways, three of which are located in the western part of the country, and one in the far east. All four railways were built during the 19th century. One railway connected Themiclesia to Nukkumaa, Suurlaakso, and Uusimaa, where an ocean liner to Hallia was the principal means of communication between the Hemithean and Casaterran continents, and the three other railways principally served freight transport to various parts of the Hallian Commonwealth. However, there is a break of gauge at the Nukko border because the Hallian gauge, which is used in that country, does not conform to the standard gauge. Passengers typically transloaded onto Hallian rolling stock at the city of Skengrak, 9 km south of the border with Nukkumaa.

Dzhungestan

The first rail link between Themiclesia and Dzhungestan was constructed between 1937 and 1939 by Menghean forces to strengthen its logistics in the Themiclesian theatre during the Pan-Septentrion War. The line was constructed using forced labour from prisoners-of-war captured in Maverica and Innominada. This railway was later controlled by Hallian forces operating out of Themiclesia and served a similar function in the subsequent invasion of Menghe via Dzhungestan, and under this administration its capacity was enlarged significantly. At end of the war, the portion of the line within Themiclesia was ceded to that country. This railway remains operational as a freight and passenger railway to a number of small towns in the Themiclesian desert but terminates in Sn′ênk and no longer extends into Dzhungestan. A memorial has been erected in Sn′ênk in memory of the prisoners who died building this railway.

In the 2010s, the Trans-Hemithea High-Speed Railway was planned to link Dayashina, Menghe, Dzhungestan, Themiclesia, and Nukkumaa. This development was envisioned as an econmical alternative to air travel and freight that is faster than ocean transport between the states, which takes a less direct route. In design it is capable of a top speed of 300 km/h. The THHSR network is jointly operated by all parties involved and has been considered a remarkable success in political terms. It has uniform signal systems and track and loading gauge, this being enabled by congruences between the high-speed railways of Dayashina, Menghe, and Themiclesia, and dedicated customs offices permit non-stop service between origin and destination.

Maverica

Themiclesia is connected to Maverica by the Trans-Hemithean Railway, which opened in 1952 and connected further to Menghe. This line was forced to close down in 1959 in view of disquiet in Maverica that eventually led to the establishment of a Communist administration in 1960. Themiclesia removed railway infrastructure over several kilometer for fear of its utility to a hypothetical Maverican invasion. This line was reopened tentatively for freight transport in the late 80s, though trains were unable to pass without stops at the border.

Travelling direction

Most Themiclesian railway lines distinguish between "hither" (各, karāks) and "thither" (戉, mngwāts) travelling directions, which are usually equivalent to "up" and "down" trains on some other networks. During the era of private railroading, this terminology was usually applied relative to the locomotive's depot, such that journeys from the depot would be followed by the opposite journey back towards the depot. After consolidation, which permitted locomotives and trains to be maintained or assembled at more than one place, this distinction evolved to reflect the place of the railroad's headquarters, where travel towards it was considered hither. For National & Maritime, trains travelling towards Kien-k'ang were hither trains, while for Themiclesian Northwestern, those bound for Rak were hither. Currently, trains bound for Kien-k'ang are considered hither by National Rail, while those travelling away from it are thither.

Railways which are not on the inter-city network are more idiosyncratic in their nomenclature. Trains on forest and mine railways are often distinguished between trains into or out of the forest or mine.

Rolling stock

Main article: Themiclesian railway passenger stock

History

The first passenger train in Themiclesia, serving the route between Sngrak and Ped from 1836, offered only one class of service to the public—third class—but provided superior accommodations for the directors of the railway. From the 1840s, a three-class system modelled after Casaterran railways was introduced. Third-class coaches typically were open wagons fitted with benches, while second-class ones possessed glazed windows and upholstered seats. Early coaches were laid out in an open style, but soon compartment coaches became the norm for all classes under Anglian influence in the 1840s. Two-axle coaches were universal until bogie coaches, which permitted easier turning, appeared around 1852. In 1868, the Railways Act mandated that all rolling stock meant for passengers must be roofed.

Prior to the public operator's entry in 1892, there was no statutory standard for operators to classify their rolling stock in any particular way, though out of necessity most operators eventually developed systems that were more or less harmonized with each other, to enable throug running and joint operations. At the onset of the Pan-Septentrion War, all rolling stock was put on notice for commandeer and assigned a classification according to the Temporary Nomenclature issued in 1938; though so named, all Themiclesian operators continue to use it to this day.

Out of a desire for economy and interchangeability, the public operator National Rail had a policy of building standardized coaches for operation on all its lines, starting with wood-steel composite Series 2 (S2) in 1907; existing stock taken over from other operators were called S1 but are in reality not a standardized series. A standardized series usually shared the underframe and bogies and had similar external bodies, varying in internal layout. Series 3 was a short-lived experimental series, and Series 4 was made from 1920 onwards utilizing all-steel construction and 72' carriage length. S5 appeared in 1931 and was in effect a refinement of the all-steel S4; it remained in production until 1957, when the streamlined and air-conditioned S6 entered production.

Series	2	3	4	5	5.1	5.2	6	6MU	6.1	6.2	7MU	8	8MU	9	9MU
Introduced	1901	1915	1927	1930	1936	1946	1954	1961	1963	1975	1977	1987	1992	2007	2015
Underframe	54'	65'	72'				84'
TP	90	100	120	120	120	120	130	130	130	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
TPN	90	100	100	100	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
TPA	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	100	100	84	84	84	84
SP	40	48	48	48	N/A	48	56	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
SPR	N/A	N/A	N/A	44	N/A	44	52	52	52	52	52	52	52	52	52
SPA	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	64	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
SPC	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	39	N/A	42	N/A	42
FS	F8 + 24	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
DSB		36			N/A	N/A	40	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
F	20	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
FP	24	20	20	20	N/A	N/A	20	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
D	16	24	24	24	N/A	N/A	24	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	24	N/A	N/A	N/A
DB	16	24	24	20	N/A	N/A	20	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	20	N/A	N/A	N/A
FDB	N/A	N/A	N/A	20	N/A	N/A	20	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	22	N/A

First

• First (F) first appeared on Themiclesian railways in 1839. F coaches are usually in the compartment style, without a connecting corridor.
• First Open (FP) appeared in 1856 along with long-distance, through-running express services. An open design allowed sharing of lavatories and an on-board dining carriage, obviating the need for prolonged stops for lavatories or meals. Internal layouts vary but usually had bays containing two opposing rows of seats, with a central or side corridor. There were generally two or three seats in an each row in FO stock.
• Drawing Room (D) was introduced in 1875 as an alternative layout to the typical FO design at that time. Rather than rows of opposing seats, D coaches had rotating seats in an open, unobstructed layout.
  • Drawing Room with Observation Platform (DB) was first used as a separate designation for a coach that had a specialized open platform at one end, meant to be at the end of the entire train and to allow passengers to have an unobstructed rear view. As carriages by default came to be built with vestibules in the 1880s, this style can be regarded as an evolution of the D body. It appeared on scenic routes starting from 1900.
  • First with Drawing Room and Observation Platform (FDB), a further evolution, was operated by National Rail as a composite of the older FO layout and the more popular D layout, one being present on each end of the coach. Initially, passengers were allowed to specify in which section they wished to sit, but in 1901 the Drawing Room seats were no longer separate sold, being instead regarded as a secondary area for first class passengers to utilize. FDP was used as the final coach on some Reserved Trains during the pre-PSW era.
• First Sleeper (FS) appeared in 1871, providing a row of private bedrooms, for single or double occupancy, opening onto a shared corridor down one side of the coach. The number of rooms varied according to operator and coach length. In 1883 in-room toilets were provided and by 1890 was an expected feature on sleeper coaches labelled as first class. These are some of the most expensive tickets available on Themiclesian railways even today.

First/Second

• First Second Open (FSP), a composite coach used on trains where expected passenger volumes would not justify a complete first class carriage. The coach was divided into a first-class half and second-class half.
• First Second Dining (FSD), a composite coach used on long-distance trains which has separate sections for first and second class ticket holders.

Second

• Second (S), denoting a second-class coach in the compartment style. During the pre-regulation era, coach designs varied considerably in the Second range, with some railways using Second to denote what is a Third on other railways.
• Second Open (SP), denoting a second-class coach in the open style, with a central corridor separating seats. For 72' and 84' mainline coaches, there were typically 6 and 8 bays, each sitting 8, providing 48 or 56 seats straddling a central corridor.
• Second Open AC (SPK) denoting second-class coach in open style, but with air conditioning. Introduced in 1957 on 84' coaches
• Second Recliner (SR) was experimentally introduced in 1932, utilizing recliners that could be alternately used as a normal chair during day and as a makeshift bed at night. The design purported to be a more comfortable alternative to normal seats on overnight trains, commonly attached to serve passengers who would not pay for a sleeper. To allow the chair to recline, all rows face the same direction, and at least post-PSW the chairs could be turned to turn to face the travelling direction. Revived in the Pan-Septentrion War as a workaround for railroad directors and employees against the ban on sleeper coaches. At 72' capacity was 11 rows, and at 84', 13 rows, of 4 seats, for a total of 44 or 52. Post-war, the SR style gained favour over the SP style, eventually becoming the dominant standard second class layout on EMU trainsets.
• Second Dining (SD), used on trains where there was no first class service.

Third

• Third (T), denoting a third-class coach. T coaches had no standardized design prior to the Railways Act of 1864, and many were not different from goods wagons outfitted with side benches. After the Act, T coaches were generally also built as compartment coaches to a specified minimum compartment size of 4'-8".
• Third Open (TP) denoting a third-class coach in open style. Capacity varied considerably between stock but was standardized at 100 seats in 10 bays of 10 seats each.
  • Third Open Express (TPX) introduced in 1930 by National Rail, which started running an all-third monoclass Limited Express service. Due to the added costs of operating a service at Limited Express standards, capacity was maximized in TPX stock. At 72' length, each TPX coach accommodated 120 passengers, in 12 bays of 10 seats each; a central corridor divided each bay asymmetrically into 3-seat and 2-seat sides. For S/5.1 at 84', capacity peaked at 140 passengers, but in S/6 it was reduced to 120.
  • Third Recliner (TPR) introduced in 1960 as an alternative to the TPX series. These usually sat 96 passengers in chairs that provided only a moderate degree of recline.

Concessions

Official travel

Railway was designated as the means of official travel for civil and military officials at least since the era of public regulation of railways, and a common means before then. To support such travel, National Rail is required to issue tickets to public servants travelling for public business. In principle, the traveller cannot select the type of ticket, which is issued based on the urgency of the business in question and the rank of the public servant.

For officials who travel frequently, a Long-term Official Travel Pass (永年公服乘用券) issued by National Rail allows them to obtain tickets at the counter free of charge, though the Pass is not a valid ticket per se. It details the traveller's name, likeness, position, and type of ticket entitled. The official's department needs to apply for the pass on the official's behalf, providing a valid reason why the public interest is better served by having a Pass rather than claiming the expense from the official's own department each journey.

Long-term Official Travel Pass

Pass type	Ticket claimable	Issued to
First Class	First Class seat on all day trains, single bedroom on night trains	Civil servants above Under Secretary Military & naval officers above lieutenant general or vice admiral
Second Class Recliner	Recliner seats
Couchette	Couchette bunk on late night trains
Express	Third Class seating on day express train (unreserved)
General	Third Class seating on stopping train (unreserved)

National Rail restrictsk each department to a certain number of Official Travel Passes in the interest of abuse prevention, which often causes consternation (particularly in the armed forces) over their distribution.

Wartime austerity demanded that all officials travelling on public business be seated in Third Class ordinary trains, unless a letter be issued stating why express travel is required.

Inter-city network

The inter-city network of National Rail

Line	Hither end	Thither end	Length		Electrified	Cities served en route
			Metric (km)	Imperial
Inland Main Line	Tsin	Rak	406.3	251 mi 73 ch	Yes	Sin
Central Line	Tsin	Tenibh	797.1	494 mi 27 ch	No	Lrêng, Ploi, Sn′i
Northwest Main Line	Tsin	T′ub	526.7	326 mi 45 ch	Yes	Kengrakw, Mgraq
Skngrak Line	Tsin	Skngrak	833.6	516 mi 77 ch	From Ped	Mgraq, Ped, L′in
Coastal Main Line	Tsin	Skngrak	1109.8	688 mi 2 ch	No	Ngang, R′ad, Dzep
West Main Line	Rim	De	784.8	486 mi 42 ch	To Ped	Tor, Ngang, Ped, De
Tor Line	Tsin	Tor	235.6	146 mi 10 ch	No
Prjin Main Line	Tsin	Qe-pa	702.9	435 mi 70 ch	To Qe-pa	Rim, Te, Qe-pa
Eastern Line	Nek	Rak	503.2	312 mi	No	K′an
P′an Line	Tsin	P′an	1423.6	882 mi 55 ch	No
Southeast Line	Rim	Stseng	808.9	501 mi 43 ch	No	Stui, Nek
South Loop	Tsin	Nedrings	514.6	319 mi 12 ch	No	Nek, Gob-kri
South Main Line	Tsin	Ngwang-tu	362.0	224 mi 35 ch	Yes	Stui
North Transverse Line	Rak	Skngrak	692.5	429 mi 21 ch	Yes	Sn′i, T′ub, L′in
T′ub Line	Rak	De	434.6	269 mi 45 ch	No	Sn′i, Rap, T′ub
Central Transverse Line	Rak	Ngang	449.9	278 mi 79 ch	Yes	Ploi, Mgraq
Qong Main Line	Rak	Qong	218.8	135 mi 47 ch	Yes
Tenibh Line	Rak	Skngrak	693.2	429 mi 69 ch	No	Tenibh, Pê
Riparian Line	Rak	Kengrakw	278.0	172 mi 30 ch	No	Lrêng
Sin Line	Sin	Lreng	102.1	63 mi 26 ch	Yes
Kengrakw Line	Kengrakw	Ploi	113.6	70 mi 33 ch	Yes
West Isthmus Line	Qe-pa	Sam	494.4	306 mi 39 ch	No
East Isthmus Line	Te	Belong	307.3	190 mi 47 ch	No
L′in Main Line	Rim	Mek	793.5	491 mi 77 ch	No	Loi, Ngang, Tats, Ped, Hrip, De, Pê
Prabay Line	Qong	Prabay	773.5	479 mi 45 ch	No
Great Eastern Line	Rak	Sakarna	2235.8	1386 mi 17 ch	To ′An	′An
Great Northern Line	Qong	Tiba	2336.5	1448 mi 43 ch	No	′An, Apollonia
Ka-ra Line	Apollonia	Ka-ra	303.9	188 mi 31 ch	No
Southwest Line	Tsin	Nedrings	281.8	174 mi 51 ch	No	Prit
Trans-Hemithean Railway	Rim	Doi	341.1	211 mi 44 ch	No	Nedrings, Ngwang-tu
Total			19518.6	12102 mi

See also

• Themiclesia
• Twa-ts'uk-men Station