Loulan Kingdom: Difference between revisions
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{{plainlist| | {{plainlist| | ||
* {{wpl|Loulan Kingdom|Kroraina}} (630—902) | * {{wpl|Loulan Kingdom|Kroraina}} (630—902) | ||
* | * Gaochang (902—940) | ||
* | * Korla (940—1006) | ||
* | * Beshbalik (1006—1132) | ||
}} | }} | ||
|religion = | |religion = | ||
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* {{wpl|Tocharian languages#Tocharian C|Kroraini}} | * {{wpl|Tocharian languages#Tocharian C|Kroraini}} | ||
* {{wpl|Middle Chinese}} | * {{wpl|Middle Chinese}} | ||
* {{wpl|Persian langauge#Classical Persian|New Persian}} <small>(after {{circa}} 875)</small> | |||
* {{wpl|Old Uyghur language|Old Uyghur}} <small>(after 1006)</small> | * {{wpl|Old Uyghur language|Old Uyghur}} <small>(after 1006)</small> | ||
}} | }} | ||
|p1 = Oasis states | |p1 = Oasis states | ||
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Prior to the incorporation of the city-state of Kroraina into the Tibetan Empire in 763 CE, it was one of the numerous quasi-independent oasis states in the Tang dynasty's {{wpl|Protectorate General to Pacify the West}}, overshadowed by the more populous and influential {{wpl|Tocharians|Tocharian}} kingdoms of Ārśi, Kucina, Turpan, and Qocho to the north, and the {{wpl|Saka}} kingdoms of {{wpl|Kingdom of Khotan|Xotan}} and {{wpl|Shule Kingdom|Shule}} to the west. As a Tibetan client state, the Loulan Kingdom began to expand under the reign of [[Gunachandra the Great]], who rose to power with the support of the Tibetan emperor {{wpl|Trisong Detsen}} in 769. During Gunachandra's reign, which lasted until 817, the Loulan Kingdom united all of the former Tocharian petty kingdoms under a single authority, catapulting from the status of a city-state of negligible relevance to that of an expansive and influenctial merchant kingdom occupying several important routes of the Silk Road. | Prior to the incorporation of the city-state of Kroraina into the Tibetan Empire in 763 CE, it was one of the numerous quasi-independent oasis states in the Tang dynasty's {{wpl|Protectorate General to Pacify the West}}, overshadowed by the more populous and influential {{wpl|Tocharians|Tocharian}} kingdoms of Ārśi, Kucina, Turpan, and Qocho to the north, and the {{wpl|Saka}} kingdoms of {{wpl|Kingdom of Khotan|Xotan}} and {{wpl|Shule Kingdom|Shule}} to the west. As a Tibetan client state, the Loulan Kingdom began to expand under the reign of [[Gunachandra the Great]], who rose to power with the support of the Tibetan emperor {{wpl|Trisong Detsen}} in 769. During Gunachandra's reign, which lasted until 817, the Loulan Kingdom united all of the former Tocharian petty kingdoms under a single authority, catapulting from the status of a city-state of negligible relevance to that of an expansive and influenctial merchant kingdom occupying several important routes of the Silk Road. | ||
After the assassination of the Tibetan emperor {{wpl|Langdarma}} in 842, civil war broke out in the Tibetan Empire, leading to its fragmentation and a brief period of independence for the Loulan Kingdom from 842 to 845, when [[Roce of Loulan|Queen Roce]] appealed to the {{wpl|Emperor Wuzong of Tang}} to annex the kingdom as a protectorate after seizing power with the assistance of a Tang general, Rèn Zhuāngsūn (任莊孫). Loulan remained a Tang protectorate until the fall of the | After the assassination of the Tibetan emperor {{wpl|Langdarma}} in 842, civil war broke out in the Tibetan Empire, leading to its fragmentation and a brief period of independence for the Loulan Kingdom from 842 to 845, when [[Roce of Loulan|Queen Roce]] appealed to the {{wpl|Emperor Wuzong of Tang}} to annex the kingdom as a protectorate after seizing power with the assistance of a Tang general, Rèn Zhuāngsūn (任莊孫). Loulan remained a Tang protectorate until the fall of the dynasty in 907. | ||
The character of the kingdom shifted somewhat during the 10th century: first, when King [[Priyadeva II]] (r. 902–909 CE) attempted to shift trade relations from sole dependence on China to a more balanced connection with Persia in the wake of the {{wpl|Tang dynasty#End of the dynasty|collapse of the Tang dynasty}}, in the process inviting thousands of {{wpl|Tajiks|Dehqâns}} fleeing the {{wpl|Islamization of Iran|Islamization of Persia}} (a trend continued by his successor [[Priyadeva III]] (r. 909–929 CE)); second, when a merchant uprising in | The character of the kingdom shifted somewhat during the 10th century: first, when King [[Priyadeva II]] (r. 902–909 CE) attempted to shift trade relations from sole dependence on China to a more balanced connection with Persia in the wake of the {{wpl|Tang dynasty#End of the dynasty|collapse of the Tang dynasty}}, in the process inviting thousands of {{wpl|Tajiks|Dehqâns}} fleeing the {{wpl|Islamization of Iran|Islamization of Persia}} (a trend continued by his successor [[Priyadeva III]] (r. 909–929 CE)); second, when a merchant uprising in Gaochang placed [[Indra of Loulan|Indra]], an {{wpl|Pashtuns|Afghan}} merchant, on the throne of Loulan in 929 CE. This event, along with the extensive settlement by Persian-speaking Dehqâns and Persified Afghans, who quickly found their niche in the merchant classes throughout the Kingdom, established {{wpl|Persian language#Classical Persian|Persian}} as the lingua franca and administrative language of Loulan for several generations. The resulting influence has left a large number of Western Iranian loanwords in modern [[Loulanese language|Loulanese]] vocabulary. It is believed that Afghan settlers were responsible for introducing the {{wpl|Hinduism|Hindu}} festival of {{wpl|Diwali}} ([[Loulanese language|Loulanese]]: ''Dipāvali'', <big>དི་པཱ་ཝ་ལི་</big>) among other cultural contributions. | ||
Another great change occurred when | Another great change occurred when an {{wpl|Uyghurs|Uyghur}} clan from the north, the [[Loulan Kingdom#Idiquit dynasty|Idiqut]], invaded and overtook the kingdom. Many of the previously established political structures remained in place after the Uyghur conquest, including the use of the Persian language as the administrative language of the Kingdom. A major change was the introduction of {{wpl|Church of the East in China|Nestorian Christianity}} as a major religion in Loulan, as it was practised by the members of the Idiqut clan and many of their close companions and followers. The Kingdom was a sovereign and independent entity under the Idiqut dynasty for more than a century until its subjugation by the {{wpl|Western Liao}} in 1132. | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
=== | ===Pre-dynastic period (before 769)=== | ||
Some of the monarchs in the pre-dynastic period are considered to be semi-legendary, as primary sources do not exist and the only source for their existence is the epic poem, the ''[[Gunacaṃdregāthā]]''. Of the pre-dynastic monarchs, the greatest evidence exists for the veracity of [[Ptoṃpile|'''Ptoṃpile''']] and of [[Siddhartha I of Loulan|'''Siddhartha I''']], the latter of whom is well documented in both Chinese and Tibetan sources. | |||
====List of monarchs==== | |||
{{Nobility table header|extra column=Notes}} | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Sanlyudo|'''Sanlyudo''']]</big><br/>{{circa}} 630<br />{{ndash}}<br />{{circa}} 673<br />''({{age in years and days|1 January 630|1 January 673}})'' | |||
| [[File:BactrianZoroastrian.jpg|100px]] | |||
| {{circa}} 600-610? | |||
| {{CNone}} '''unknown''' | |||
| {{circa}} 673 | |||
| First named King of Kroraina named in ''[[The Hidden Flower of Loulan (poem)|The Hidden Flower of Loulan]]''; allied with {{wpl|Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Tang Taizong}} against the Western Turks. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Saṃghatrāte|'''Saṃghatrāte''']]</big><br/>{{circa}} 673<br />{{ndash}}<br />{{circa}} 698<br />''({{age in years and days|1 January 673|1 January 698}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| {{CNone}} '''unknown''' | |||
| {{CNone}} '''unknown''' | |||
| {{CNone}} '''unknown''' | |||
| Relatively nothing is known about Saṃghatrāte other than his name, which is referenced in ''The Hidden Flower''. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Ptoṃpile|'''Ptoṃpile''']]</big><br/>{{circa}} 698<br />{{ndash}}<br />{{circa}} 728<br />''({{age in years and days|1 January 698|1 January 728}})'' | |||
| [[File:Battriana, monete d'oro del IV secolo 14.JPG|100px]] | |||
| {{CNone}} '''unknown''' | |||
| ''unnamed '''{{wpl|Tang dynasty|Tang princess}}'''''<br /><small>3 children</small> | |||
| {{circa}} 728 | |||
| Ally of {{wpl|Emperor Xuanzong of Tang}}. First Kroraini king for which evidence is not dubious. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Cakravār|'''Cakravār''']]</big><br/>{{circa}} 728<br />{{ndash}}<br />{{circa}} 765<br />''({{age in years and days|1 January 728|1 January 765}})'' | |||
| [[File:Battriana, monete d'oro del IV secolo 16.JPG|100px]] | |||
| {{CNone}} '''unknown''' | |||
| {{CNone}} '''unknown''' | |||
| {{circa}} 765 | |||
| Submitted to the rule of {{wpl|Me Agtsom}}, bringing Loulan under the rule of the {{wpl|Tibetan Empire}}. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Siddhartha I of Loulan|'''Siddhartha I''']]</big><br/>{{circa}} 767<br />{{ndash}}<br />12 February 769<br />''({{age in years and days|1 January 767|1 January 769}})'' | |||
| [[File:Siddhartha I.jpg|100px]] | |||
| {{circa}} 742 | |||
| '''Argiyotisāe'''<br /><small>3 children</small><hr />''unnamed '''Tangut woman'''''<br /><small>2 children</small> | |||
| 13 November 785<br><small>Aged about 43</small> | |||
| May have been a relative of [[Cakravār]]. Led a minor uprising against {{wpl|Trisong Detsen}} of Tibet and was deposed and replaced with [[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra]]. | |||
|} | |||
===Gunachandra Dynasty=== | ===Gunachandra Dynasty=== | ||
The Gunachandra dynasty was the longest-ruling dynasty of the Loulan Kingdom, beginning with the appointment of [[Gunachandra the Great]] by the {{wpl|Tibetan Empire|Tibetan}} emperor {{wpl|Trisong Detsen}}. It is sometimes known as the ''Deyue'' dynasty after Gunachandra's Chinese name, ''Déyuè'' (德月). | |||
Although [[Sanlyudo]] is the earliest known ruler of Loulan, Gunachandra is considered by most to be the founder of the Loulan Kingdom, uniting most of the northern and western Tarim Basin. | |||
Despite the dynasty's auspicious beginnings with Gunachandra, the middle and later periods of the dynasty were marked by rampant dynastic infighting, intrigue, and civil wars. | |||
====List of monarchs==== | |||
{{Nobility table header|arms=no|extra column=Claim !! Notes}} | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra<br>"the Great"]]</big><br />12 February 769<br />{{ndash}}<br />26 February 817<br />''({{age in years and days|12 February 769|26 February 817|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| [[File:Pipa player from Kizil.jpg|100px]] | |||
| {{circa}} 744 | |||
| '''Tsame'''<br><small>6 children</small><hr />'''Maya'''<br><small>2 children</small><hr />'''Bum'''<br><small>1 son</small> | |||
| 26 February 817<br><small>Aged 73</small> | |||
| Appointed by {{wpl|Trisong Detsen}} of Tibet | |||
| Appointed to pacify the Tocharian dependencies of the {{wpl|Tibetan Empire}}. Famously united the northern and western Tarim Basin and made peace with the Uyghur Khanate. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Kshmavarma of Loulan|Kshmavarma]]</big><br />26 February 817<br />{{ndash}}<br />29 December 823<br />''({{age in years and days|26 February 817|29 December 823|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 22 March 774<hr />Son of [[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra]] and Bum | |||
| '''Purgyal Lha'''<br><small>4 children</small><hr />'''Shang Drablai'''<br><small>1 daughter</small> | |||
| 29 December 823<br><small>Committed suicide aged 49</small> | |||
| Third son of [[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra]]<hr />Inheritance | |||
| Third and favoured son of Gunachandra. Secured the Turpan Depression. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Siddhartha II of Loulan|Siddhartha II]]</big><br />29 December 823<br />{{ndash}}<br />8 December 829<br />''({{age in years and days|29 December 823|8 December 829|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 20 December 805<hr />Son of [[Kshmavarma of Loulan|Kshmavarma]] and Purgyal Lha | |||
| '''Ayardhyame'''<br><small>1 daughter</small><hr />'''Gülçiçek'''<br><small>2 daughters</small> | |||
| 8 December 829<br><small>Aged 24</small> | |||
| Third son of [[Kshmavarma of Loulan|Kshmavarma]]<hr />Inheritance | |||
| Youngest son of [[Kshmavarma of Loulan|Kshmavarma]]. Killed in battle against Uyghur raiders. | |||
|- | |||
| ''(1st reign)''<br><big>[[Roce of Loulan|Roce]]</big><br />8 December 829<br />{{ndash}}<br />14 July 831<br />''({{age in years and days|8 December 829|14 July 831|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| [[File:Queen tati.jpg|100px]] | |||
| 21 February 824<hr />Daughter of [[Siddhartha II of Loulan|Siddhartha II]] and Ayardhyame | |||
| '''Ye Hong'''<br><small>4 children</small><hr />'''Poyul Lhawang'''<br><small>1 daughter</small><hr />'''Kausal'''<br><small>1 daughter</small> | |||
| 9 May 862<br><small>Allegedly murdered aged 38</small> | |||
| Daughter of [[Siddhartha II of Loulan|Siddhartha II]]<hr />Primogeniture | |||
| Child queen. Deposed in favour of her great uncle, [[Wrauske I of Loulan|Wrauske I]]. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Wrauske I of Loulan|Wrauske I]]</big><br />14 July 831<br />{{ndash}}<br />16 January 841<br />''({{age in years and days|14 July 831|16 January 841|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 18 February 770<hr />Son of [[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra]] and Tsame | |||
| '''Khon Purbulcam'''<br><small>4 children</small><hr />'''Qaraqaz'''<br><small>1 son</small><hr />'''Baninera'''<br><small>2 daughters</small> | |||
| 16 January 841<br><small>Aged 71</small> | |||
| First son of [[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra]]<hr />Installed by noble demand | |||
| Eldest son of Gunachandra. Killed in a duel with a rival. Controversial for the murder of his second wife, the Uyghur princess Qaraqaz. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Siddhartha III of Loulan|Siddhartha III]]</big><br />14 July 831<br />{{ndash}}<br />12 August 845<br />''({{age in years and days|16 January 841|12 August 845|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 1 December 789<hr />Son of [[Wrauske I of Loulan|Wrauske I]] and Khon Purbulcam | |||
| '''Zhongyang'''<br><small>1 son</small> | |||
| 25 May 847<br><small>Aged 58</small> | |||
| First son of [[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra]]<hr />Installed by noble demand | |||
| Broke ties with Tibetan Empire. Deposed by claimant [[Roce of Loulan|Roce]] with the support of the {{wpl|Tang Empire}}. | |||
|- | |||
| ''(2nd reign)''<br><big>[[Roce of Loulan|Roce]]</big><br />12 August 845<br />{{ndash}}<br />11 March 857<br />''({{age in years and days|12 August 845|11 March 857|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| [[File:Queen tati.jpg|100px]] | |||
| 21 February 824<hr />Daughter of [[Siddhartha II of Loulan|Siddhartha II]] and Ayardhyame | |||
| '''Ye Hong'''<br><small>4 children</small><hr />'''Poyul Lhawang'''<br><small>1 daughter</small><hr />'''Kausal'''<br><small>1 daughter</small> | |||
| 9 May 862<br><small>Allegedly murdered aged 38</small> | |||
| Daughter of [[Siddhartha II of Loulan|Siddhartha II]]<hr />Conquered as claimant. | |||
| Ousted [[Siddhartha III of Loulan|Siddhartha III]] with the help of the Tang general Rèn Zhuāngsūn (任莊孫). From 845 to 850 disputed rule with [[Wrauske II of Loulan|Wrauske II]]. | |||
|- | |||
| ''(disputed)''<br><big>[[Wrauske II of Loulan|Wrauske II]]</big><br />December 17 845<br />{{ndash}}<br />5 May 850<br />''({{age in years and days|December 17 845|5 May 850|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 11 September 798<hr />Son of [[Kshmavarma of Loulan|Kshmavarma]] and Purgyal Lha | |||
| '''Özlem'''<br><small>1 daughter</small> | |||
| 14 February 867<br><small>Aged 69</small> | |||
| First son of [[Kshmavarma of Loulan|Kshmavarma]]<hr />Conquered as claimant | |||
| Took control of the Turpan Basin. Forced to relinquish claim in 850. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Priyadeva I of Loulan|Priyadeva]]</big><br />11 March 857<br />{{ndash}}<br />1 August 861<br />''({{age in years and days|11 March 857|1 August 861|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 9 October 797<hr />Son of Kentarske and Ibilgä | |||
| '''Örün'''<br><small>6 children</small><hr />'''Purnaya'''<br><small>2 children</small> | |||
| 20 February 873<br><small>Aged 76</small> | |||
| Grandson of [[Gunachandra the Great|Gunachandra]]<hr />Conquered as claimant | |||
| Grandson of Gunachandra and Maya via their son Kentarske. | |||
|- | |||
| ''(3rd reign)''<br><big>[[Roce of Loulan|Roce]]</big><br />1 August 861<br />{{ndash}}<br />9 May 862<br />''({{age in years and days|1 August 861|9 May 862|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| [[File:Queen tati.jpg|100px]] | |||
| 21 February 824<hr />Daughter of [[Siddhartha II of Loulan|Siddhartha II]] and Ayardhyame | |||
| '''Ye Hong'''<br><small>4 children</small><hr />'''Poyul Lhawang'''<br><small>1 daughter</small><hr />'''Kausal'''<br><small>1 daughter</small> | |||
| 9 May 862<br><small>Allegedly murdered aged 38</small> | |||
| Daughter of [[Siddhartha II of Loulan|Siddhartha II]]<hr />Conquered as claimant. | |||
| Final reign. Allegedly murdered in 862. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Siddhartha IV of Loulan|Siddhartha IV]]</big><br />9 May 862<br />{{ndash}}<br />23 August 888<br />''({{age in years and days|9 May 862|23 August 888|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 16 January 848<hr />Son of [[Roce of Loulan|Roce]] and Ye Hong | |||
| '''Li Diaochan'''<br><small>2 daughters</small><hr />'''Liang Zhong'''<br><small>2 children</small> | |||
| 23 August 888<br><small>Aged 40</small> | |||
| Son of [[Roce of Loulan|Roce]]<hr />Inheritance | |||
| First Loulanese monarch to practice {{wpl|Taoism|Daoism}} rather than {{wpl|Buddhism}}. Slain in battle against Uyghur raiders. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Nanda of Loulan|Nanda]]</big><br />23 August 888<br />{{ndash}}<br />2 August 890<br />''({{age in years and days|23 August 888|2 August 890|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 21 August 884<hr />Son of {{nowrap|[[Siddhartha IV of Loulan|Siddhartha IV]]}} and Liang Zhong | |||
| {{CNone}} ''unmarried'' | |||
| 2 August 890<br><small>Aged 6</small> | |||
| Son of [[Siddhartha IV of Loulan|Siddhartha IV]]<hr />Inheritance | |||
| Child king. Murdered in cold blood by live burial by [[Siddhartha V of Loulan|Siddhartha V]] after a palace coup. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Siddhartha V of Loulan|Siddhartha V<br>"the Cruel"]]</big><br />2 August 890<br />{{ndash}}<br />31 July 893<br />''({{age in years and days|2 August 890|31 July 893|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 1 October 844<hr />Son of Siddhartha and Zhongyang | |||
| {{CNone}} ''unmarried'' | |||
| 31 July 893<br><small>Allegedly murdered aged 58</small> | |||
| Grandson of [[Wrauske I of Loulan|Wrauske I]]<hr />Usurpation | |||
| Grandson of Wrauske I and Khon Purbulcam via their son Siddhartha. {{wpl|Taoism|Daoist}}. Allegedly murdered in 893. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Tati of Loulan|Tati]]</big><br />31 July 893<br />{{ndash}}<br />15 September 902<br />''({{age in years and days|31 July 893|15 September 902|duration=yes}})'' | |||
| [[File:Tati gunachandra.jpg|100px]] | |||
| 16 February 843<hr />Daughter of [[Roce of Loulan|Roce]] and Ye Hong | |||
| '''Khan Erin'''<br><small>4 daughters</small><hr />'''Bökiye'''<br><small>1 daughter</small><hr />'''Wisikke Kausali'''<br><small>2 children</small> | |||
| 15 September 902<br><small>Aged 59</small> | |||
| Daughter of [[Roce of Loulan|Roce]]<hr />Installed by noble demand | |||
| Last ruler of the Gunachandra dynasty. {{wpl|Taoism|Daoist}}. | |||
|} | |||
===Kausali Dynasty=== | ===Kausali Dynasty=== | ||
====List of monarchs==== | |||
{{Nobility table header|extra column=Claim !! Notes}} | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Priyadeva II of Loulan|Priyadeva II]]</big><br/>15 September 902<br />{{ndash}}<br />9 October 909<br />''({{age in years and days|15 September 902|9 October 909}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 1 September 865 | |||
<hr />Son of [[Tati of Loulan|Tati]] and Wisikke Kausali<br /> | |||
| '''Arjune'''<br /><small>4 children</small> | |||
| 9 October 909<br><small>Aged 40</small> | |||
| Son of [[Tati of Loulan|Tati]]<hr />Inheritance | |||
| Restored {{wpl|Buddhism}} to the palace. Died of poor health. | |||
|- | |||
| <big>[[Priyadeva III of Loulan|Priyadeva III<br>"the Mutilator"]]</big><br/>9 October 909<br />{{ndash}}<br />31 July 929<br />''({{age in years and days|9 October 909|31 July 929}})'' | |||
| {{CNone}} [[File:No image.svg|100px]] | |||
| 13 February 903 | |||
<hr />Son of<br>[[Priyadeva II of Loulan|Priyadeva II]]<br />and Arjune | |||
| '''Güneş'''<br /><small>3 sons</small><hr />'''Kosthile'''<br /><small>2 children</small><hr /><small>2 other children by concubines</small> | |||
| 16 May 973<br><small>Aged 70</small> | |||
| Son of [[Priyadeva II of Loulan|Priyadeva II]]<hr />Inheritance | |||
| Known for his excessive cruelty. Deposed by an uprising of {{wpl|Tajiks|Tajik}} and {{wpl|Pashtuns|Pathani}} merchants. | |||
|} | |||
===Zalmaizai dynasty=== | ===Zalmaizai dynasty=== | ||
[[file:Idiqut era fashion.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Cultural syncretism between Chinese and Persianate influences was particularly strong during the Zalmaizai period.]] | |||
The ''Zalmaizai dynasty'', also known as the ''Afghani'' or ''Pathani dynasty'' for their {{wpl|Pashtuns|Pashtun}} origins, rose to power during a merchant uprising in Gaochang which overthrew the previous reigning monarch, Priyadeva III, in 929 CE. The head of one of the merchant guilds, a Pathani man named [[Indra of Loulan|Patwal]], was installed by the rebelling merchants. Patwal, a {{wpl|Hinduism|Hindu}}, took the regnal name ''Indra'' after the {{wpl|Hindu guardian deity}}. | |||
The Persianisation of Loulan accelerated during the Zalmaizai period, as the Pathan king Indra spoke no {{wpl|Tocharian languages#Tocharian C|Kroraini}} — but he did speak {{wpl|Persian language#Classical Persian|Persian}} fluently, and made it the language of his administration. A further influx of Dehqân settlement from the 960s to 1000 CE, coinciding with the wars between the {{wpl|Samanid Empire|Samanids}} and the {{wpl|Ghaznavids}}, caused a great deal of Persian vocabulary to enter the [[Loulanese language|Loulanese vernacular]]. | |||
The Persianisation of Loulan accelerated during the Zalmaizai period, as the Pathan king Indra spoke no {{wpl|Tocharian languages#Tocharian C|Kroraini}} — but he did speak {{wpl|Persian language#Classical Persian|Persian}} fluently, and made it the language of his administration. | |||
During the Zalmaizai period, syncretic elements of Hinduism seeped into the local Buddhist sect — most notably the celebration of {{wpl|Diwali}} and reverence for the goddess {{wpl|Lakshmi|Padme}}. | During the Zalmaizai period, syncretic elements of Hinduism seeped into the local Buddhist sect — most notably the celebration of {{wpl|Diwali}} and reverence for the goddess {{wpl|Lakshmi|Padme}}. | ||
====List of monarchs==== | |||
{{Nobility table header|extra column=Claim}} | {{Nobility table header|extra column=Claim}} | ||
Line 99: | Line 311: | ||
| '''Sumagati'''<br /><small>1 daughter</small><hr />'''Ötüken'''<br /><small>(no children)</small><hr /><small>4 other children by concubines</small> | | '''Sumagati'''<br /><small>1 daughter</small><hr />'''Ötüken'''<br /><small>(no children)</small><hr /><small>4 other children by concubines</small> | ||
| 26 October 987<br><small>Aged 59</small> | | 26 October 987<br><small>Aged 59</small> | ||
| Inheritance | | Son of [[Indra of Loulan|'''Indra''']]<hr />Inheritance | ||
|- | |- | ||
| <big>[[Trinayani of Loulan|'''Trinayani''']]</big><br/>26 October 987<br />{{ndash}}<br />1 January 1001<br />''({{age in years and days|26 October 987|1 January 1001}})'' | | <big>[[Trinayani of Loulan|'''Trinayani''']]</big><br/>26 October 987<br />{{ndash}}<br />1 January 1001<br />''({{age in years and days|26 October 987|1 January 1001}})'' | ||
| [[File: | | [[File:Asoka's Queen.jpg|100px]] | ||
| 8 September 945 | | 8 September 945 | ||
<hr />Daughter of [[Chandra of Loulan|'''Chandra''']]<br />and Sumagati | <hr />Daughter of [[Chandra of Loulan|'''Chandra''']]<br />and Sumagati | ||
| '''Yudisthira'''<br /><small>4 children</small> | | '''Yudisthira'''<br /><small>4 children</small> | ||
| 1 January 1001<br><small>Aged 55</small> | | 1 January 1001<br><small>Aged 55</small> | ||
| Inheritance | | Daughter of [[Chandra of Loulan|'''Chandra''']]<hr />Inheritance | ||
|} | |} |
Latest revision as of 02:10, 7 October 2019
Loulan Kingdom 𐨐𐨿𐨪𐨆𐨪𐨍𐨙𐨿𐨙𐨅𐨣𐨿𐨟𐨿𐨯𐨅 𐨩𐨤𐨆𐨩 樓蘭國 𐰚𐰺𐰆𐰺𐰃𐰣𐰃𐰣⸰𐰴𐰀𐰍𐰀𐰣𐰞𐰃𐰍𐰃 | |||||||||||||
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630–1132 | |||||||||||||
Capital |
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Common languages |
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Religion | |||||||||||||
Government | Buddhist Despotic Monarchy | ||||||||||||
• King |
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History | |||||||||||||
• Established | 630 | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1132 | ||||||||||||
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Today part of | Loulan, China |
The Loulan Kingdom (Kroraini: 𐨐𐨿𐨪𐨆𐨪𐨍𐨙𐨿𐨙𐨅𐨣𐨿𐨟𐨿𐨯𐨅 𐨩𐨤𐨆𐨩 kroräññentse yapoy; Middle Chinese: 樓蘭國 ləulɑnkwək̚; Old Uyghur: 𐰚𐰺𐰆𐰺𐰃𐰣𐰃𐰣⸰𐰴𐰀𐰍𐰀𐰣𐰞𐰃𐰍𐰃 krorɯːn'ɯn kaɣaːnlɯ̀ɣɯ) was a medieval kingdom originally based around Kroraina, an important oasis city along the silk road. The term Loulan is a Chinese transcription of the Tocharian name for the city on the northeastern edge of the Lop desert, Kroraina, and is used to refer to both the city itself and to the kingdom as a whole. It existed from 630–1006 CE variously as a client state of the Tibetan Empire and the Tang and Liao dynasties, and from 1006–1132 as an independent Uyghur ruled state.
Prior to the incorporation of the city-state of Kroraina into the Tibetan Empire in 763 CE, it was one of the numerous quasi-independent oasis states in the Tang dynasty's Protectorate General to Pacify the West, overshadowed by the more populous and influential Tocharian kingdoms of Ārśi, Kucina, Turpan, and Qocho to the north, and the Saka kingdoms of Xotan and Shule to the west. As a Tibetan client state, the Loulan Kingdom began to expand under the reign of Gunachandra the Great, who rose to power with the support of the Tibetan emperor Trisong Detsen in 769. During Gunachandra's reign, which lasted until 817, the Loulan Kingdom united all of the former Tocharian petty kingdoms under a single authority, catapulting from the status of a city-state of negligible relevance to that of an expansive and influenctial merchant kingdom occupying several important routes of the Silk Road.
After the assassination of the Tibetan emperor Langdarma in 842, civil war broke out in the Tibetan Empire, leading to its fragmentation and a brief period of independence for the Loulan Kingdom from 842 to 845, when Queen Roce appealed to the Emperor Wuzong of Tang to annex the kingdom as a protectorate after seizing power with the assistance of a Tang general, Rèn Zhuāngsūn (任莊孫). Loulan remained a Tang protectorate until the fall of the dynasty in 907.
The character of the kingdom shifted somewhat during the 10th century: first, when King Priyadeva II (r. 902–909 CE) attempted to shift trade relations from sole dependence on China to a more balanced connection with Persia in the wake of the collapse of the Tang dynasty, in the process inviting thousands of Dehqâns fleeing the Islamization of Persia (a trend continued by his successor Priyadeva III (r. 909–929 CE)); second, when a merchant uprising in Gaochang placed Indra, an Afghan merchant, on the throne of Loulan in 929 CE. This event, along with the extensive settlement by Persian-speaking Dehqâns and Persified Afghans, who quickly found their niche in the merchant classes throughout the Kingdom, established Persian as the lingua franca and administrative language of Loulan for several generations. The resulting influence has left a large number of Western Iranian loanwords in modern Loulanese vocabulary. It is believed that Afghan settlers were responsible for introducing the Hindu festival of Diwali (Loulanese: Dipāvali, དི་པཱ་ཝ་ལི་) among other cultural contributions.
Another great change occurred when an Uyghur clan from the north, the Idiqut, invaded and overtook the kingdom. Many of the previously established political structures remained in place after the Uyghur conquest, including the use of the Persian language as the administrative language of the Kingdom. A major change was the introduction of Nestorian Christianity as a major religion in Loulan, as it was practised by the members of the Idiqut clan and many of their close companions and followers. The Kingdom was a sovereign and independent entity under the Idiqut dynasty for more than a century until its subjugation by the Western Liao in 1132.
History
Pre-dynastic period (before 769)
Some of the monarchs in the pre-dynastic period are considered to be semi-legendary, as primary sources do not exist and the only source for their existence is the epic poem, the Gunacaṃdregāthā. Of the pre-dynastic monarchs, the greatest evidence exists for the veracity of Ptoṃpile and of Siddhartha I, the latter of whom is well documented in both Chinese and Tibetan sources.
List of monarchs
Name | Portrait | Birth | Marriages | Death | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sanlyudo c. 630 – c. 673 (43 years, 0 days) |
c. 600-610? | unknown | c. 673 | First named King of Kroraina named in The Hidden Flower of Loulan; allied with Emperor Tang Taizong against the Western Turks. | |
Saṃghatrāte c. 673 – c. 698 (25 years, 0 days) |
unknown | unknown | unknown | Relatively nothing is known about Saṃghatrāte other than his name, which is referenced in The Hidden Flower. | |
Ptoṃpile c. 698 – c. 728 (30 years, 0 days) |
unknown | unnamed Tang princess 3 children |
c. 728 | Ally of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang. First Kroraini king for which evidence is not dubious. | |
Cakravār c. 728 – c. 765 (37 years, 0 days) |
unknown | unknown | c. 765 | Submitted to the rule of Me Agtsom, bringing Loulan under the rule of the Tibetan Empire. | |
Siddhartha I c. 767 – 12 February 769 (2 years, 0 days) |
c. 742 | Argiyotisāe 3 children unnamed Tangut woman 2 children |
13 November 785 Aged about 43 |
May have been a relative of Cakravār. Led a minor uprising against Trisong Detsen of Tibet and was deposed and replaced with Gunachandra. |
Gunachandra Dynasty
The Gunachandra dynasty was the longest-ruling dynasty of the Loulan Kingdom, beginning with the appointment of Gunachandra the Great by the Tibetan emperor Trisong Detsen. It is sometimes known as the Deyue dynasty after Gunachandra's Chinese name, Déyuè (德月).
Although Sanlyudo is the earliest known ruler of Loulan, Gunachandra is considered by most to be the founder of the Loulan Kingdom, uniting most of the northern and western Tarim Basin.
Despite the dynasty's auspicious beginnings with Gunachandra, the middle and later periods of the dynasty were marked by rampant dynastic infighting, intrigue, and civil wars.
List of monarchs
Name | Portrait | Birth | Marriages | Death | Claim | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gunachandra "the Great" 12 February 769 – 26 February 817 (48 years, 15 days) |
c. 744 | Tsame 6 children Maya 2 children Bum 1 son |
26 February 817 Aged 73 |
Appointed by Trisong Detsen of Tibet | Appointed to pacify the Tocharian dependencies of the Tibetan Empire. Famously united the northern and western Tarim Basin and made peace with the Uyghur Khanate. | |
Kshmavarma 26 February 817 – 29 December 823 (6 years, 307 days) |
22 March 774 Son of Gunachandra and Bum |
Purgyal Lha 4 children Shang Drablai 1 daughter |
29 December 823 Committed suicide aged 49 |
Third son of Gunachandra Inheritance |
Third and favoured son of Gunachandra. Secured the Turpan Depression. | |
Siddhartha II 29 December 823 – 8 December 829 (5 years, 345 days) |
20 December 805 Son of Kshmavarma and Purgyal Lha |
Ayardhyame 1 daughter Gülçiçek 2 daughters |
8 December 829 Aged 24 |
Third son of Kshmavarma Inheritance |
Youngest son of Kshmavarma. Killed in battle against Uyghur raiders. | |
(1st reign) Roce 8 December 829 – 14 July 831 (1 year, 219 days) |
21 February 824 Daughter of Siddhartha II and Ayardhyame |
Ye Hong 4 children Poyul Lhawang 1 daughter Kausal 1 daughter |
9 May 862 Allegedly murdered aged 38 |
Daughter of Siddhartha II Primogeniture |
Child queen. Deposed in favour of her great uncle, Wrauske I. | |
Wrauske I 14 July 831 – 16 January 841 (9 years, 187 days) |
18 February 770 Son of Gunachandra and Tsame |
Khon Purbulcam 4 children Qaraqaz 1 son Baninera 2 daughters |
16 January 841 Aged 71 |
First son of Gunachandra Installed by noble demand |
Eldest son of Gunachandra. Killed in a duel with a rival. Controversial for the murder of his second wife, the Uyghur princess Qaraqaz. | |
Siddhartha III 14 July 831 – 12 August 845 (4 years, 209 days) |
1 December 789 Son of Wrauske I and Khon Purbulcam |
Zhongyang 1 son |
25 May 847 Aged 58 |
First son of Gunachandra Installed by noble demand |
Broke ties with Tibetan Empire. Deposed by claimant Roce with the support of the Tang Empire. | |
(2nd reign) Roce 12 August 845 – 11 March 857 (11 years, 212 days) |
21 February 824 Daughter of Siddhartha II and Ayardhyame |
Ye Hong 4 children Poyul Lhawang 1 daughter Kausal 1 daughter |
9 May 862 Allegedly murdered aged 38 |
Daughter of Siddhartha II Conquered as claimant. |
Ousted Siddhartha III with the help of the Tang general Rèn Zhuāngsūn (任莊孫). From 845 to 850 disputed rule with Wrauske II. | |
(disputed) Wrauske II December 17 845 – 5 May 850 (4 years, 140 days) |
11 September 798 Son of Kshmavarma and Purgyal Lha |
Özlem 1 daughter |
14 February 867 Aged 69 |
First son of Kshmavarma Conquered as claimant |
Took control of the Turpan Basin. Forced to relinquish claim in 850. | |
Priyadeva 11 March 857 – 1 August 861 (4 years, 144 days) |
9 October 797 Son of Kentarske and Ibilgä |
Örün 6 children Purnaya 2 children |
20 February 873 Aged 76 |
Grandson of Gunachandra Conquered as claimant |
Grandson of Gunachandra and Maya via their son Kentarske.
| |
(3rd reign) Roce 1 August 861 – 9 May 862 (282 days) |
21 February 824 Daughter of Siddhartha II and Ayardhyame |
Ye Hong 4 children Poyul Lhawang 1 daughter Kausal 1 daughter |
9 May 862 Allegedly murdered aged 38 |
Daughter of Siddhartha II Conquered as claimant. |
Final reign. Allegedly murdered in 862. | |
Siddhartha IV 9 May 862 – 23 August 888 (26 years, 107 days) |
16 January 848 Son of Roce and Ye Hong |
Li Diaochan 2 daughters Liang Zhong 2 children |
23 August 888 Aged 40 |
Son of Roce Inheritance |
First Loulanese monarch to practice Daoism rather than Buddhism. Slain in battle against Uyghur raiders. | |
Nanda 23 August 888 – 2 August 890 (1 year, 345 days) |
21 August 884 Son of Siddhartha IV and Liang Zhong |
unmarried | 2 August 890 Aged 6 |
Son of Siddhartha IV Inheritance |
Child king. Murdered in cold blood by live burial by Siddhartha V after a palace coup. | |
Siddhartha V "the Cruel" 2 August 890 – 31 July 893 (2 years, 364 days) |
1 October 844 Son of Siddhartha and Zhongyang |
unmarried | 31 July 893 Allegedly murdered aged 58 |
Grandson of Wrauske I Usurpation |
Grandson of Wrauske I and Khon Purbulcam via their son Siddhartha. Daoist. Allegedly murdered in 893.
| |
Tati 31 July 893 – 15 September 902 (9 years, 47 days) |
16 February 843 Daughter of Roce and Ye Hong |
Khan Erin 4 daughters Bökiye 1 daughter Wisikke Kausali 2 children |
15 September 902 Aged 59 |
Daughter of Roce Installed by noble demand |
Last ruler of the Gunachandra dynasty. Daoist. |
Kausali Dynasty
List of monarchs
Name | Portrait | Birth | Marriages | Death | Claim | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Priyadeva II 15 September 902 – 9 October 909 (7 years, 24 days) |
1 September 865
Son of Tati and Wisikke Kausali |
Arjune 4 children |
9 October 909 Aged 40 |
Son of Tati Inheritance |
Restored Buddhism to the palace. Died of poor health. | |
Priyadeva III "the Mutilator" 9 October 909 – 31 July 929 (19 years, 295 days) |
13 February 903
Son of Priyadeva II and Arjune |
Güneş 3 sons Kosthile 2 children 2 other children by concubines |
16 May 973 Aged 70 |
Son of Priyadeva II Inheritance |
Known for his excessive cruelty. Deposed by an uprising of Tajik and Pathani merchants. |
Zalmaizai dynasty
The Zalmaizai dynasty, also known as the Afghani or Pathani dynasty for their Pashtun origins, rose to power during a merchant uprising in Gaochang which overthrew the previous reigning monarch, Priyadeva III, in 929 CE. The head of one of the merchant guilds, a Pathani man named Patwal, was installed by the rebelling merchants. Patwal, a Hindu, took the regnal name Indra after the Hindu guardian deity.
The Persianisation of Loulan accelerated during the Zalmaizai period, as the Pathan king Indra spoke no Kroraini — but he did speak Persian fluently, and made it the language of his administration. A further influx of Dehqân settlement from the 960s to 1000 CE, coinciding with the wars between the Samanids and the Ghaznavids, caused a great deal of Persian vocabulary to enter the Loulanese vernacular.
During the Zalmaizai period, syncretic elements of Hinduism seeped into the local Buddhist sect — most notably the celebration of Diwali and reverence for the goddess Padme.
List of monarchs
Name | Portrait | Birth | Marriages | Death | Claim |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indra 31 July 929 – 4 April 939 (9 years, 247 days) |
c. 893
Son of Zalmai |
Kashmala 3 children Purike (no children) 2 other children by concubines |
4 April 939 Aged about 46 |
Usurpation | |
Chandra 4 April 939 – 26 October 987 (48 years, 205 days) |
12 March 928
Son of Indra and Roce Nyantsentkacer |
Sumagati 1 daughter Ötüken (no children) 4 other children by concubines |
26 October 987 Aged 59 |
Son of Indra Inheritance | |
Trinayani 26 October 987 – 1 January 1001 (13 years, 67 days) |
8 September 945
Daughter of Chandra and Sumagati |
Yudisthira 4 children |
1 January 1001 Aged 55 |
Daughter of Chandra Inheritance |