Politics of Byzatium

The politics of the Byzantine Empire take place in the framework of the Constitutional-Monarchic Roman State of the East. According to the Constitution of the Byzantine Empire, the Emperor of the Romans is head of state, and of a multi-party system with executive power exercised by the government, headed by the Prime Minister of the Empire, who is appointed and revoked by the Emperor. Although in theory a vote of confidence from the Parliament is not required, in practice the Prime Minister must command a majority in both the House of Representatives and in the Senate. Legislative power is vested in the two houses of the Parliament of the Byzantine Empire, while the Emperor and the government issue numerous legally binding by-laws.

The current constitution was approved on 29 October 1923.

Constitution and government structure

The 1923 constitution declares the Empire a democratic, law-based state with a monarchical form of government. State power is divided among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Diversity of ideologies is guaranteed, and a tolerance of religions is foreseen. Progressively, however, human rights violations in connection with religious groups labeled "extremist" by the government have been increasingly frequent. The right to a multiparty political system is upheld. The content of laws must be approved by the due procedure before they take effect, and they must be formulated in accordance with sacred legal principles. Greek is proclaimed the state working language, although other languages are protected.

Executive branch

The 1923 constitution created a dual executive consisting of an Emperor and prime minister, with the Emperor as the focal figure.

Presidential powers

The Emperor determines the basic direction of and foreign policy and represents the Roman State within the country and in foreign affairs. The Emperor appoints and recalls ambassadors upon consultation with the Senate, accepts the credentials and letters of recall of foreign representatives, conducts international talks, and signs international treaties.

Several prescribed powers put the Emperor in a superior position vis-à-vis the legislature. The president has broad authority to issue decrees and directives that have the force of law without judicial review, although the constitution notes that they must not contravene that document or other laws. Under certain exceptional conditions, the Emperor may House of Representatives. The Emperor has the prerogatives of scheduling referendums, and sign into law laws.

If the Emperor is unable to exercise power because of serious illness, the Co-Emperor assumes full duties. If there is no Co-Emperor, the Prime Minister is to temporarily assume the imperial duties; a choice of the new Emperor must be held within three months.

The Emperor appoints and revokes the Prime Minister to chair the Council of Ministers. Although in theory a vote of confidence from the Parliament is not required, in practice the Prime Minister must command a majority in both the House of Representatives and in the Senate. The Emperor may chair the meetings of the Council of Ministers. He may also dismiss the government entirely. Upon the advice of the Senate, the president can appoint or remove Council of Ministers members.

The Emperor submits candidates to the Houses of the Parliament for the post of chairman of the Central Bank of the Riman State and may propose that the Senate dismiss the chairman. In addition, the Emperor submits candidates to the Senate for appointment as justices of the senior courts, as well as candidates for the office of procurator general. The Emperor also appoints justices of district courts.

Imperial Curia

The Imperial Administration (Αυτοκρατορική Κουρία, Autokratorikí Kouría) is composed of several competing, overlapping, and vaguely delineated hierarchies that historically have resisted efforts at consolidation.

As of 2022, the Imperial Curia consists of:

• Six administrative departments (citizens' rights, domestic and foreign policy, state and legal matters, personnel, analysis, and oversight);
• Sacred Consistorium;
• State Security Council;
• Control Directorate (in charge of investigating official corruption);
• Administrative Affairs Directorate (in charge of perquisites of high office for the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government);
• Imperial Press Service;
• Protocol Directorate;
• Committee on Operational Questions.

Also attached to the Imperial Curia are more than two dozen consultative commissions and extrabudgetary "funds".

The Emperor also has extensive powers over military policy. As the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, the Emperor approves defence doctrine, appoints and removes the high command of the armed forces (with the consent of the Senate), and confers higher military ranks and awards, some of which must be approved by the Senate. The Emperor is empowered to declare national or regional states of martial law, as well as state of emergency. In both cases, both houses of the parliament must be notified immediately. The Roman Senate, the upper house, has the power to confirm or reject such a decree.

Order of succession

The succession to the imperial throne of the Roman State in the East is the result of a centuries-old evolution. In theory, the principle of selecting the individual most suitable to lead the State applies: the reigning Emperor selects his heir and he is confirmed by the Roman Senate and the Armed Forces.

In practice, the principle of male preference primogeniture applies: the reigning Emperor systematically indicates his first-born male child as Heir and the confirmation of the Senate and the Armed Forces is taken for granted if a formal opposition does not arise within a short time from the official proclamation. This form of succeession accords succession to the throne to a female member of a dynasty if and only if she has no living brothers and no deceased brothers who left surviving legitimate descendants.

When an Emperor dies without a designated heir, the Roman Senate and the Armed Forces elect a new Emperor who is judged to be a valid and capable leader. On such occasions, the Armed Forces are represented by the National Security Council, while the Senate is integrated into its composition by the leadership of the House of Representatives and by those leading politicians who are not already members of the Senate itself.

Council of Ministers

The constitution prescribes that the Council of Ministers consists of a Prime Minister, deputy prime ministers, and ministers and their ministries and departments. The Prime Minister carries out administration in line with the constitution and laws and decrees. The Ministries, which numbered 12 since 1941, execute state policies. If the Council of Ministers issues implementing decrees and directives that are at odds with legislation or decrees, the Emperor may rescind them.

The Council of Ministers formulates the state budget, submits it to the House of Representatives, and issues quarterly reports on its implementation.

Besides the Ministries, the executive branch includes several executive agencies, variously styled.

Legislative branch

The Parliament of the Empire consists of two houses, the 468-member House of Representatives of the Roman State in the Eas (the lower house) and the 300-member Roman Senate (the upper house).

The legislature has powers of exclusive jurisdiction and concurrent jurisdiction with the Provinces in areas specified in the constitution.

Roman Senate

The Roman Senate is the upper chamber of the parliament. The Roman Senate and the lower chamber of Congress, the House of Representatives, comprise the bicameral legislature of the Byzantine Empire. Together, the Senate and the House maintain authority to propose imperial legislation to the Emperor. The Senate has exclusive power to confirm imperial appointments and approve or reject treaties. The most important function of the Roman Senate is to advise and assist the Roman Emperor. The Senate has several functions of advice and consent. These include the approval of treaties, as well as the confidence to the members of Council of Ministers of the Empire, confirmation of senior judges, senior officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, and other senior officials.

In total, the Senate consists of 300 members. Each senator is selected by reason of his career at the service of the State, or is appointed by the Emperor.

The Senate has typically been considered both a more advisory and prestigious body than the House of Representatives.

House of Representatives of the Roman State in the East

The House of Representatives of the Roman State in the East is the lower chamber of the parliament of the Byzantine Empire, with the Roman Senate being the upper chamber. Together, they comprise the national bicameral legislature of the Byzantine Empire. The fixed-term for House members is five years.

The House is composed of representatives who sit in single member congressional districts allocated to each Province on the basis of population as measured by the most recent census, with each district having one representative, provided that each Province is entitled to at least one. Since its inception in 1889, all Representatives have been directly elected, although suffrage was initially limited and gradually widened. Since 1913, the number of voting representatives has been at 468 members.

The House is charged with the passage of legislation, known as bills; those that are also passed by the Senate are sent to the Emperor for consideration. The House also has exclusive powers: it initiates all revenue bills.

List of political parties

Setting up and organising political associations is free. In order to contest elections without the need to collect signatures for each election they wish to contest, a political organisation must be registered in the relevant electoral registers.

Central Registration

All parties registered with the Ministry of Interior have the right to participate in any elections across the country without the need to collect signatures for each election they wish to contest. A list of registered parties is placed on the Ministry website. In December 2022, there were 52 registered parties in Russia.

Party				Date of establishment	Leader	Ideology	House of Representatives	Roman Senate	Political position	Alliances
		RPP ΠΡΚ	Republican Progressive Party Προοδευτικό Ρεπουμπλικανικό Κόμμα	1904 current form	Aniketos Rondiades	Statism Conservatism	212 / 468	136 / 300	Centre right to right wing	National Coalition for Progress
		PASEK ΠαΣΕΚ	All-Roman Socialist and Labour Party Πανρωμαϊκό Σοσιαλιστικό και Εργατικό Κόμμα	1899 current form	Gennadios Bakal	Social democracy Socialism Labourism Democratic socialism	115 / 468	40 / 300	Centre-left to left wing	A Just Rome

Provincial Registration

All centrally registred parties have the right to contest elections in all Provinces. Parties which are registered only in Provincial Registers have the right to contest elections without the need to collect signatures for each election they wish to contest in the Provinces where are registered.

Unregistered parties

All unregistered political associations and organisations may field electoral candidates by collecting signatures for each election they wish to contest.