Principality of Eritrea (Kingdom of Italy)

Principality of Eritrea Principato di Eritrea إمارة إريتريا al'Imarat al'Iiritria ናይ ኤርትራ ዋና ኣካል
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Eritrea Primigenia
Principality of Eritrea within the Italian Empire
Capital and largest city	Asmara
Official languages	Italian
Recognised national languages	Italian Tigrinya Arabic Tigre Ahmaric Kunama Saho Bilen Nara Afar
Demonym(s)	Eritrean
Government	Fascist Monarchy
• Lieutenant General of the Principality of Eritrea	Joachim Asewerki
Legislature	General Corporative Assembly
Establishment
• Italian Eritrea	1890
Area
• Total	117,600 km2 (45,400 sq mi) (101st)
• Water (%)	0.14%
Population
• 2016 estimate	6,759,800
Currency	Italian East Africa Lira (IEAL)
Time zone	UTC+3 (East Africa Time)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (not observed)
Driving side	right
Internet TLD	.er

Eritrea, officially the Principality of Eritrea, is a Realm within the Italian Empire. With its capital at Asmara, it has both external and internal border: it is bordered by Sudan in the west, by the Empire of Ethiopia in the south, and Somalia in the southeast; both Ethiopia and Somalia are also part of the Italian Empire. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea. The nation has a total area of approximately 117,600 km2 (45,406 sq mi), and includes the Daalac Archipelago and the Hanish Islands. Its toponym Eritrea is based on the Greek name for the Red Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa), which was first adopted for Italian Eritrea in 1890.

Eritrea is a country with a dozen recognised ethnic groups in its population of around six million people. Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family. Among these communities, the Tigrinya make up the majority of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are a number of Nilo-Saharan-speaking Nilotic ethnic minorities, as well as a significant Italian minority (around 10%). Most people in the territory adhere to Christianity.

The creation of modern-day Eritrea is a result of the incorporation of independent, distinct kingdoms and sultanates eventually resulting in the formation of Italian Eritrea.

Eritrea is a one-party state, in which national legislative elections are contested by the Eritrean Fascist Coalition, an alliance between the Arab Lictor Association and the Eritrean Fascist Party. The compulsory military service requires lengthy conscription and service periods.

Name

During the Middle Ages, the Eritrea region was known as Medri Bahri ("sea-land"). The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient Greek name for the Red Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa, based on the adjective ἐρυθρός erythros "red"). It was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea (Colonia Eritrea).

Geography

Eritrea is located in the north parts of the Horn of Africa. It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea, Sudan to the west, the Empire of Ethiopia to the south, and to the Somali Social Republic to the southeast.

The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift. It has fertile lands to the west, descending to desert in the east. Eritrea, at the southern end of the Red Sea, is also the home of the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing fields are situated off the sandy and arid coastline.

Continental Eritrea can be split into three ecological regions. To the east of the highlands are the arid coastal plains, which run to the southeast. Highlands are cooler and more fertile. Habitats may vary from the sub-tropical rainforest at Filfil to the precipitous cliffs and canyons. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira, is located in the centre of Eritrea, at 3,018 meters above sea level.

The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and the port town of Assab in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massaua to the east, the northern town of Cheren, and the central town Adi Ugri.

Climate

The climate of Eritrea is shaped by its diverse topographical features and its location within the tropics. The diversity in landscape and topography in the highlands and lowlands of Eritrea result in the diversity of climate across the country. The highlands have temperate climate throughout out the year. The climate of most lowland zones is arid and semiarid.

Government and politics

Eritran students lined along the street to greet Italian Chief of Government. Despite Eritrea's autonomy within the Italian Empire, Italy maintains a privileged status.

Eritrea is a Fascist monarchy in the Italian Empire. The Prince of Eritrea is the same person who is King and Duce of Italy, but also Prince of Montenegro, King of Albania, King of Libya, Emperor of Ethiopia and overlord of Somalia, thus creating a personal union between Eritrea and Italy and between Eritrea and the other realms of the Italian Empire. The Eritrean Fascist Coalition is the ruling party in Eritrea. Political groups outside the Eritrean Fascist Coalition are not allowed to be set up. The current Lieutenant General of the Principality of Eritrea, Joachim Asewerki, has been in office since 1993.

The administration, the educational system and the military are dominated by Italians and by the Tigrinya ethnic group, which comprises around 43% of the population.

In the political context, Eritrean diversity is in a direct causal relationship to the foundations of the Fascist rule and provides ample room for political manoeuvring.

Lieutenant General of the Prince of Eritrea

The Lieutenant General of the Prince of Eritrea (Italian: Luogotenente Generale del Prince di Eritrea) is de facto the head of the Eritrean State and (both de jure and de facto) represents His Moste Serene Highness the Prince of Eritrea, Italo Debalti. In absence of the Prince of Eritrea, the Lieutenant General is invested with all his legislative and executive powers; he also is assisted by a Deputy Lieutenant General of the Prince of Eritrea, who in his absence replaces him. The Lieutenant General assumes direct management of all colonial income and expenses, with the power to dispose of his her talent as needed.

Law

The Lieutenant General of the Principality of Eritrea or the Ministers may issue legislative regulations by decree and these enter into force without need of parliamentary consent. These regulations take the form of proclamations and legal notices published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale Eritrea. Further sources of law include administrative acts, directives and orders published by ministries, other administrative bodies and the military, as well as personal interventions by the president. Written laws thus hold a reduced meaning in practice.

Government

The Prince of Eritrea, and in his name the Lieutenant General of the Prince, appoints and dismisses individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices. The cabinet is the country's executive branch. It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is, in theory, partially accountable to the National Assembly.
Government offices include:

• State Court of Audit;
• Directorate of Political Affairs;
• Central Office for Administrative Affairs: in charge of compiling the budgets, to override the cash services, and all other administrative measures;
• Legal Adviser Office.

The Ministries are:

• Ministry of Agriculture
• Ministry of Interior and Security:
  • Directorate of Local Government: in charge for being a repository and source for technical information and training for local governments.
    • Division of Town Planning and Development: undertakes topographical surveying, mapping and master planning for localities.
    • Division of Provincial Supervision: in charge of steering ando coordinating the local goverments' policies;
    • Division of Research and Planning;
  • Agency for tribes;
  • State Archives
• Ministry of Education
• Ministry of Energy & Mines
• Directorate of Alternative Fuels: responsible for the development of alternative fuels and advanced transportation.
• Ministry of Finance
  • Central Demanial Office: responsible for management of the state-owned territories;
• Ministry of Fisheries & Maritime Resources
• Ministry of Cooperation Agreements
• Ministry of Health
• Ministry of Information
• Ministry of Grace and Justice
• Ministry of Labour & Human Welfare
• Ministry of Agriculture and Environment
• Ministry of Public Works
• Ministry of Tourism
• Ministry of Trade & Industry
• Ministry of Transportation

With rank equal to those of Ministers, the Secretary-General of the Eritrean Fascist Coalition is also part of the Government.

Directorate of Political Affairs

Palace of the Lieutenant Gneral of the Duce, Asmara

The Directorate of Political Affairs is the administrative structure established in order to assist the Prince of Eritrea and his Lieutenant General in Asmara. The Directorate is the direct successor to the Governor's office of the colonial era, and it is subdivided into five Offices and one Committee:

• Office of Press and Propaganda: serves as the central address for foreign press contact with the Eritrean government.
• Office of the Development of Dancalia;
• Office of General Affairs: in charge for relations with the Ministry of Imperial Affairs and the Ministry's bodies for Eritrea-specific needs;
• Office of Political-Military Affairs: responsible for all the political and military services;
• Government Naming Committee: determines the Italian names for the Eritrean geographical places, and its decisions are binding for all state institutions.
• Office of Press and Propaganda: responsible for the provision of press cards for mass media workers and giving journalist visa to foreign journalists staying in Eritrea. In addition, it is in charge of coordinating between the Goverment and the foreign journalist community staying in Eritrea on media activities matters.

Parliament

The National Assembly (Hagerawi Baito), established in 1983, has 150 seats, of which 75 are occupied by the Eritrean Fascist Party and 75 by its Islamic counterpart. The National Assembly has consultative powers and limited legislative functions.

Judiciary

The Judiciary is modelled on Italian lines. The Criminal Code of Eritrea was last modified in 2003, and its origins track back to the colonial period. Although customary law is not officially recognised as a source of law, it is applied at the lowest level of administration by the community courts.

The justice system is organically subordinate to the Government: it is overseen by the Ministry of Grace and Justice, and secondly because of the role played by the Special Court for State Security.

The judiciary is divided into military courts (two instances: Ordinary Courts and the Court of Appeal), civilian courts (Community Courts, Court of Appeal, Courts of Assize and the Court of Appeal of Assize) and a Special Court for State Security with the same functions of the Italian Special Court for State Security. All courts are overseen by the Supreme Court of Cassation of Eritrea, established under the purview of the Italian Court of Cassation. All officially report to the Ministry of Grace and Justice.

The Special Court for State Security is directly operated by the Lieutenant General’s Office with the help of the secret service, the Princely Guard and the Gendarmerie. It has been set up in 1986 as a measure to circumvent the formal justice system in political criminal cases. Judges of the Special Court for State Security — mostly high-ranking members of the military — are appointed directly by the Lieutenant General.

While being theoretically bound to pursue the judicial action whenever a crime or an offence takes place, Community Courts frequently encourage litigants to settle out of court whenever possible. In such cases mediators and elders are asked to arbitrate on the basis of customary law. Their agreements are subsequently checked by the court’s Judge in order to make them feasible under the Eritrean Law. Mediators play an important role in village life and are regarded as moral authorities. Most mediators are Eritrean Fascist Coalition local leaders, ans often have only limited knowledge of customary law.

In 1952 the Lawyers Association of Eritrea was established in Asmara.

National service

The National Service (Tigrinya: Hagerawi Agelglot; Italian: Servizio Nazionale) is a national project aimed to provide both military manpower and workforce: in accordance to the Fascist ideology, it also has a view to achieving the material and spiritual development of the Eritrean people. National service is mandatory for men and women. The National Service Law of 1995 outlines 18 months of compulsory service in a military branch or in a civilian branch.

Those assigned to the military branch perform their service within the Eritrean military (Gendarmerie or Princely Guard). They are also sometimes deployed for specific civilian projects. They live on military bases and are divided into units. Administration of the military branch is a matter for the Ministry of Interior and Security.

Those assigned to the civilian branch perform their service by participating in civilian projects. For that purpose, the government assigns individuals to different ministries. Those individuals are usually well-educated people or have specialist skills. They are typically deployed in schools and courts or provide medical care. Individuals performing national service undertake the duties assigned to them as they would in a normal job. They live with their parents, families or in private accommodation at their workplace.

Military

In the Principality of Eritrea there are three Eritrean-based armed services: the Eritrean Fascist Militia, the Eritrean National Princely Guard and the Eritrean Gendarmerie. Compulsory military service was instituted in 1995. Officially, conscripts must serve for 24 months; after regular service, reservists with valued skills may be forced to work as professionals anywhere. National Service enlistment times may be extended during times of "national crisis".

The Eritrean Militia for Internal Security (Italian: Milizia Eritrea per la Sicurezza Interna, M.E.S.I.) organises the local home guard units, tasked with local security and defence duties. The bulk of M.E.S.I. units are Italian Eritrean garrisons, but Tigrigna, Tigré, Afar units also exist.

The Eritrean National Princely Guard is the standing armed force of the Principality. Alongside the Italian National Royal Army, it is responsible for the defence of mainland Eritrea. The Principality of Eritrea faces, within the Italian Empire, significant threats.

The Eritrean Gendarmerie (Italian: Gendarmeria Eritrea) is the militarised police force of Eritrea. Its duties include crime fighting, traffic control, maintaining public safety, and counter-terrorism. It is under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Interior of the Principality of Eritrea. A Corps of Prison Guard, composed of 442 members, also serves. There is a Judicial Prison in Asmara and another in Addi Quala, with functions of penitentiary for prisoners under penalty.

In Eritrea, it is always stationed at least a Mechanised Infantry Brigade of the Italian National Royal Army.

Eritrean Fascist Coalition

The Eritrean Fascist Coalition (Italian: Coalizione Fascista Eritrea, C.F.E.; Tigrinya: ውትህድርና ፋሺስት ኤርትሩ) is the sole legal political party of the Principality of Eritrea under the umbrella of the Italian National Fascist Party. The C.F.E. holds itself open to nationalists of any political affiliation. The Secretary of the C.F.E. party is Ketema Girum Abey.

Organization

The Eritrean Fascist Coalition is the formal union of the Eritrean Fascist Party and the Islamic Association of Eritrean Fascists.

In terms of concrete organizational structure the C.F.E. introduces a highly centralized structure with presence in the majority of rural communities as well as within major urban centers.

Ideological foundations

Eritrean identitarianism within the framework of the Italian Fascist Empire constitutes the core of C.F.E.'s ideology, because it is perceived as a necessary process within the overall nation-building effort. The Eritrean state is defined as an institution super partes, which, allegedly, brings and ensures cohesion to the different components of Eritrean society. Conversely, religious or ethnic identities, though acknowledged and formally protected by the law, tend to be restricted to the sphere of local or private matters. To that end the C.F.E. advocates unity and participation of all sections of the Eritrean society led by the Italian element as the bases of all of its programs. Engagement as well as active contribution to the political, economic, social and cultural life of Eritrea is therefore perceived as a necessary precondition for social cohesion, stability and development of the country. To do so the C.F.E. rejects all attitudes contrary to the unity of Eritrea and to the leading role of the Italian people, places national interest above individual ones, and encourages participation of all sectors of Eritrean society in the C.F.E. itself. Moreover, all political establishments must be built on a national basis, and all sectarian political tendencies must be categorically rejected. The diverse cultures of Eritrea should be a source of power and rich. The national system should be secular. In short, nationhood is the basis of all political institutions and policies. The C.F.E. ideology prioritizes “martyrdom for the nation” and demands that citizens act accordingly. Official objectives include:

• Loyalty to the Italian Fascist Empire;
• National cohesion;
• Political participation;
• Economic participation according to Corporatist principles;
• Cultural Revival;
• Economic progress.

Although the C.F.E. is organized as a broad-based and participatory entity, it does not attempt to be the only form of political organization. On the contrary, it encourages and assists the establishment of public associations with objectives similar to its programs.

Administrative divisions

The Italian administration of Eritrea divided the territory into seven Commissariats. After the break-up of the A.O.I. as an unitary territory, the Governorate of Eritrea reformed eight Provinces (Awraja), later confirmed by the Autonomous Social Republic of Eritrea and, since 2002, by the Principality of Eritrea. These Provinces heavily rely upon the historical political boundaries in the region. The Awrajas are sub-divided into 60 Nus-Awrajas (Districts), 194 Woredas (Subdistricts) and 2,580 Adi (Villages).

Towns of some significance are often framed as Urban Subdistricts (not subdivided into Adi), while larger cities are considered Urban Districts with unitary administrations. All Eritrean cities and towns are twinned with a comparable urban settlement in Italy. Department heads in Eritrean local governments benefit from cooperation and study tours with their twinned municipality.

Administrations at all levels are referred to as Mmhidar in Tigrinya. The Adi administrations hold most significance to the population on a day-to-day basis since they keep written population registers and function as the first point of contact with the authorities. The Awraja administrations keep electronic population registers.

The central government departments the authority to "give services" locally and to provide technical directives to local government departments. This assures an appropriate level of coordination and control.

Provinces

Provincial subdivision of the Principality of Eritrea. New Colonie Littorie (see below) are shown in red.

In Eritrea, the first-level administrative subdivision is the Province (Italian: Provincia; Tigrinya: Awraja). Tasks and functions entrusted to Eritrean Province mirror those entailed to Italian ones.

No.	Province name	Capital	Area	Coat of arms	Notes
1	Barca	Agordat	46,400 km²		Until 1991 a military territory
2	Sael	Nacfa	16,400 km²
3	Senit	Cheren	5,900 km²
4	Semhar	Massaua	6,300 km²
5	Serae	Adi Ugri	6,800 km²		Tigrigna/Tigre/Ge’ez: ሰራየ
6	Amasien	Asmara	2,900 km²		Ge’ez: ሐማሴን; Tigrinya: ሓማሴን. Political and economic centre of Eritrea
7	Acchelè-Guzai	Addì Caieh	8,400 km²
8	Dancalia	Assab	24,300 km²		Portioned between Afar nomadic communities and military training areas.

Governor

Each Province is ruled by a Governor (Tygrinya: ገዛኢ, Geza'i; Italian: Governatore) appointed and dismissed by the Minister of Interior and Security. The Governors are mainly tasked with the implementation of government legislation and decisions. Prefects are also tasked with the implementation of any demands of government ministries. In the event that legislation cannot be directly or practically implemented, the Governor is responsible for bringing about the conditions in which new legislation is compatible with their province.
During Cabinet meetings, the Lieutenant-General of the Prince of Eritrea also meets with the Governors who report on the activities of their Provinces. As Provincial Authority of Public Security, the Governor is responsible for public order and security in the province, and directs the implementation of directives.

Provincial Administrative Board

The Provincial Administrative Board is a collegial government authority with advisory functions to the Governor. The Board consists of:

• The Governor, who presides;
• Two representatives of the local nobility or of the local tribes and clans, appointed by the Governor;
• The President of the Council of the Corporations of the Province;
• The Intendant of Finance;
• The Chief Accountant of the Prefecture.
• Four full members and two reserve members appointed by the local Secretary of the Eritrean Fascist Party or by the Islamic Association of the Lictor; of these, usually two are members known to have knowledge of the Province's general condition. In mixed Provinces, half of the members are appointed by the minority Fascist Party.

Governor's Office

The Governor's Office is a peripheral organ of the Ministry of the Interior, but performs general functions through six Divisions and some other offices and bodies, in a way modelled on the Italian one. Each Governor's Office is assigned Deputy-Governors and Additional Deputy-Governors, in charge of the organisational units (Cabinet Office, Divisions, etc.), as well as several officials of lower rank. The Deputy-Governor Vicar is assigned the vicar functions to the Governor: he ensures the coordinated operation of the administrative offices of the State and guarantees the sincere cooperation of local authorities. The Governor may order the adoption of measures to prevent serious harm to the citizens. In addition, if they are not taken within the time specified, the Governor, with the approval of the Minister responsible for the matter, can provide directly, having notified the Lieutenant General.

Cabinet and Divisions

The bulk of the Governor's Office consists of the seven hearth offices: the Cabinet and the Divisions (1st to 6th). They deal with the vast majority of the affairs the Governor's Office has to deal with and provide support to the other main offices, such as the Provincial Administrative Board.
The Cabinet of the Governor is the Governor's staff, coordinated by a Chief of Cabinet; it is in direct collaboration with the Governor and assists him in the exercise of his own functions, too detailed and complex to be carried out without high level assistance. The Cabinet is responsible for handling confidential affairs, secretarial issues, economic affairs, labour disputes and control of local authorities. The Chief of Cabinet is generally a Deputy-Governor; sometimes is a Deputy-Governor Inspector or, in very small Governor's Offices, an Additional Deputy-Governor Inspector.
The first division, as well as dealing with affairs not allocated to other divisions, is responsible for administrative matters (such as acts of citizenship and personal), order services (related, usually, to the Archive, the library and to the Copy Office), consumption tax of the municipalities and religious affairs. The First Division also has a dedicated Statistics and data collection office.
The second division has jurisdiction in matters of local government (protection and supervision) and control of the affairs of charities and assistance institutions. These duties involve the responsibility of overseeing the work of the local Party leaders and local administrators, who are often Party's emanations. Therefore, the Second Division is entrusted to officials often more determined and less prone to having fear of political backlash. On the other hand, the Party constantly exercises its influence in order to influence the appointment of the Chief of the Second Division or, at least, of the officials assigned.
The third division is responsible for hygiene and health, while the fourth division collects and deals with all matters relating to public works, the roads, the railways, the post office, the telegraphs and telephones, as well as agriculture and land reclamation affairs. Money flows that are affected by the fourth division make this Division the second most important one, after the second division.
The fifth division is dedicated to organically manage peripheral services in the field of both health care and social assistance.
The 6th Division deals with public security affairs which are not carried out by the relevant Gendarmerie Provincial Command. This Division is subdivided into ten offices: private investigators; private security guards (licenses and authorisations) and Fascist Militiamen (licenses and authorisations); firearms licenses (other than those issued by the Gendarmerie) and appeals against police decisions; other authorisations and ship traffic management; fires and explosives; bouncers (authorisations); elevator operators (authorisations); counsel support.

District

District subdivision of the Principality of Eritrea. New Colonie Littorie (see below) are shown in red.

Below the Provincial level, the State administration has two intermediate bodies, which act as mere organizational tools: the District and the Sub-district. The District (Italian: Circondario; Tigrinya:Nus-Awraja) is an intermediate body between the Province and Sub-district. The district capital city is home to Deputy Governor, to the Praetor Court, to Land Registry and financial offices. The District is in turn divided into Subdistricts.

Deputy Governor's Office

The Deputy Governor's Office (It: Ufficio del Vicegovernatore) is the decentralization management body of the Provinces. They are located in every District capital, with the exception of provincial capitals, where their specific tasks are carried out directly by the Provinces; as decentralised bodies of Provinces, also Deputy Governors are subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior and Security. The Deputy Governor's Offices are located in major towns far from the provincial capital.
The Deputy Governor's Office is the district government body executing of the Prefect's orders, and its main task is to monitor the political, economic and social environment and transmit information to the Prefect. The Subprefecture has the delegated task of supervision and protection of the local authorities of the district outside of the acts of the Provincial Administrative Board. The Deputy Governor's Office presides, in the district, all procedures relating to conscription and directs, where necessary, the intervention of the armed forces for the service of public security, upon order or authorization of the Governor. Finally, it supports the Province in the surveillance of public institutions and charities and carries out the functions that may be delegated by the prefect, except those which require the intervention of the Provincial Administrative Board.
The Deputy Governor's Office also takes care of the preparatory phase of acts that would then be submitted to the decision of the prefect or of the Provincial Administrative Board.
From an organizational point of view, the Deputy Governor's Offices are poorly articulated and are composed of the Deputy Governor and some secretarial employees belonging to the roles of the Ministry of the Interior and Security.
The Deputy Governor is chosen from among the Government officials with adequate knowledge of the territory and is appointed by Government decree on the proposal of the Ministry of Interior and Security. In addition to the normal fees, the Subprefect is entitled to free accommodation and a modest representation allowance. In addition, he may not be prosecuted for acts performed in the exercise of his functions except by authorization of the Duce in his capacity of Prince of Eritrea.
The Deputy Governor is also, in the District, a political and public security authorities, supervising District Commands of the Eritrean Gendarmerie.

Subdistrict

The Subdistrict (It: Mandamento) is an administrative boundary, intermediate body between the District and the Municipality. It is home of the Praetor (It: Pretore), which is a multi-purpose official whose duties range from limited value civil litigations, to labour litigations and some minor administrative trials, all of them only in first instance.

Law

Due to the complex ethnic and cultural structure of Eritrea, the adjudication of controversies is often difficult. Inter-communal affairs, trade, corporatist and labour law are governed by the Eritrean Civil and Corporatist Codes, which automatically implements the same provisions of the Italian Civil Code and Italian Corporatist Code unless othewise specified. Differently from civil law, the Eritrean Criminal Code is unified.

Customary Law Codes

Given the complex ethnic and cultural structure, more than 130 years of Italian domination have seen the codification of several customary laws in order to enable the judiciary to hear cases. The push for codification of indigenous customary law codes is given both by the Italian colonialist tradition and by the official imperial ideology of the Italian Fascist Empire. Both tendencies are more interested into unifying different peoples and traditions under the Italian flag than spreading Europe-specific values to peoples accpeting the Italian guidance. The principle of the Italian and Fascist Empire guarantees the simultaneous recognition and overcoming of any particular religious faith of nations to organize in the name of the supreme Imperial Idea (Italian: Idea Imperiale). The Empire is based on a conception of Unity which should prevent any form of absolute elevation of the individual element; the Unity must then be essentially spiritual (but also political): a central guiding influence, an impulse that assumes the most varied forms of expression according to the individual realm.
The codification of a Customary Law Code is carried out by the Ministry of Justice, with support from specialist scholars, not only in order to determine the authentic and common content of the relevant legal tradition, but also in order to identify areas where an authentic progress may be me done without putting at risk foundation of the identity involved. This latter aspect of legislative progress and innovation is carried out in a Roman sense. As of 2020, there are eighteen recognised Customary Law Codes:

• The customary code Enda Fgray Waela Seleste Tsimaro was allegedly written in 1221 and applies to the Timiza Seraye community who lives between Acchelè-Guzai and Serae.
• The customary law of the Logo Chiwa was initially codified in 1492 and revised several times since then, including in 1910 to be translated in Italian and Tigrinya. It was also revised in 1918 and in 1946. It governs both the Loggo Chiwa and the Kebesa Chiwa communities who are living in certain parts of Amasien and Serae provinces (south and south east of Asmara), both Christians and Muslims.
• The customary code of Habsulus Nay Gebrekristos Nay Deqqiteshim was proclaimed in 1909. It applies to the descendants of Atoshim, who are mostly living in Asmara.
• The customary code of Dembezan was written in 1918 and governs the Dembezan communities who live in 16 villages north of Asmara. It was revised several times until 1977.
• The customary code of the Mense’a tribes from the Tigre ethnic group and is called Fithi Mehari of Mensa’e. It was codified in 1913 in Italian and Tigre, after ten years of meticulous research. It governs both Christians and Muslims groups.
• The customary law of the Sehartn Lamzan Weqertn Damban was codified in 1918. It applies to the Seharti, Lamza, Weqerti and Damba communities living in the same region south of Asmara.
• The customary law of the Karneshm was codified in 1918 in Italian and Tigrinya. It applies to the Karneshm community that lives north of Asmara.
• The customary law of the Shewate Anseba Zemat Tahtay codified in 1918 in Italian and Tigrinya applies to the people living in the Anseba river basin at the north and northwest of Asmara.
• The customary law of the Adkeme Melgae, codified in 1936 in Italian and in Tigrinya, applies to the residents of the province of Serae who are the descendant of the twins Adkeme and Melgae.
• The customary law of the Adgna Tegeleba was codified in 1937 in Italian and Tigrinya and applies to the residents of Acchelè-Guzai, both Christians and Muslims.
• The customary code of the Saho ethnic group is called lqanun Alauruf LilMuslumin Akkel Guzai Leliqebae AlSaho. It was codified in Italian and Arabic in 1943 and applies to the Muslims inhabitants of the Acchelè-Guzai province.
• The customary code of the Ben-Amir tribes is called Alqanun Alauruf Liqebael AlBeniAmir. It was codified in 1958 and applies to the Amir Tribes from the Tigre ethnic group in the Barca province.
• The customary law of the Sahel Tribes was codified in 1958 in Italian and Arabic in the Alqanun Alauruf Liqebael AlSahel Al’am. It applies to the 24 tribes from the Tigre ethnic group who live in the former Sael province.
• The customary code of the Eritrean Afar ethnic group is called Bur Eli Med’a, and its current version was codified in 1973.
• The customary code of Enga’na, S’rat Atsmi Harmaz, which governs the Enga’na community living the Acchelè-Guzai province, was codified in 1973.
• The customary code of the Maria Tribes is called Alqanun Alauruf Liqebael AlMariatain and applies to the two tribes of the Black and Red Maria tribes, which are both from the Tigre ethnic group. It was first codified in 1977 and published in 1980.
• The customary law of the Bilen was codified in 1978 and governs the three Bilen kinfolks and both Christians and Muslims communities.
• The customary law of the Kunama, Nara, Reshaida and Hidareb was codified in 1979.

The government also accepts the application of customary and religious law (Shariah and Orthodox Church-related customary laws) in civil jurisdiction, given consent of all parts involved. Otherwise, the Eritrean Civil Code is applied. The main principle guiding colonial and Eritrean legislators is that customary laws needed to be compatible with the principles of order and Italian civilisation. To accommodate these requirements, legal scholars have engaged in a form of ‘sterilisation’ of customary laws in order to erase from customary law violent practices associated with the prosecution of homicides, inter-community violence, and initiation rituals, which all implied a community-controlled exercise of violence. Howver, controlled exercise of violence is nowadays delegated to State institutions, which also fulfill the role previously carried out by now-illegal inter-communal raids.

Gun control in Eritrea

The law regulating the issue of obtaining a private firearms license is the Eritrean Public Security Code, 1989. Most of the requirements for obtaining firearms are contained in the procedures of the firearms licensing division, a section of the Ministry of Interior and Security operated by, but not part of, the Eritrean Gendarmerie. There are a number of requirements and criteria for issuing a weapons license.
Requirements measure the applicants eligibility to obtain a weapons permit. On the other hand, listed criteria are the valid and recognised reasons for applying for a firearms license in Eritrea. Every requirement must be met to receive the permit. Any applicant for the license is required to meet at least one of the criteria. An applicant who does not comply with the requirement or fails to meet the criteria will not receive the license. Someone who underwent combat training will have an advantage when applying.
Each applicant’s specific circumstances are examined, in order to ensure that they do not pose a danger to public safety and security if they receive a weapon permit. Any recorded history of criminal convictions, drug consumption, and violent incidents may result in rejection of the application. So can certain types of mental illness, especially involving hallucinations or suicidal tendencies.
Most private weapons holders are entitled to carry a pistol and 50 bullets. Hunters, rodent exterminators, athletes in the field of shooting and veterinarians working in the field are entitled to receive a type of rifle appropriate to their profession, subject to the recommendation of the relevant authority. Once a license is obtained, there is a continuous training requirement and there are stringent rules regarding weapons storage.

Requirements

The applicant for a firearms license must be:

• A Italian Metropolitan Citizen legally residing in Eritrea;
• A Italian Colonial Citizen of Eritrea;
• An Eritrean Colonial Citizen of Eritrea who has completed his military service;
• A Foreigner legally residing in Eritrea.

A person who has served in the Eritrean National Princely Guard, in the Eritrean Miltiia for Internal Security, in the Eritrean Gendarmerie, or in the Italian Armed Forces without being expelled can receive a firearms license in Eritrea as of the age of 18. Anyone who has served in the National Service outside the military or security tasks may receive a license starting at the age of 21. Someone who has never served can only receive weapon license after reaching the age of 27. A permanent resident of Eritrea who does not have citizenship and has not completed military or national service can only receive weapon license after reaching the age of 45. The applicant must be fluent enough in Italian to understand instructions and pass an interview. The applicant's level of Italian is evaluated by a firearm clerk.
Anyone requesting a permit to carry a weapon must attach a health declaration from a physician to the application. Finally, the applicant must undergo the required weapons training, including theoretical exam and practical shooting requirements. The applicant undertakes to notify of any future change in the required conditions (for example, the state of their health) without delay.

Criteria

At least one criterion must be met in order to be granted a gun license. The criteria include:

• Residency in a "High Intensity Area", as designated by the Eritrean Gendarmerie;
• Occupation in a "High Intensity Area", as designated by the Eritrean Gendarmerie;
• A tour guide with a valid license
• An active farmer whose need for a firearm has been officially recognized
• A transporter of explosive material with a valid license
• Current or past service in the security forces:
  • Officers of the Eritrean National Princely Guard with the rank of Under-Lieutenant or above, subofficers with the rank of Brigadier/Bulucbasci or above and equivalent ranks in the other security forces.
  • Service in a special unit of the security forces
  • Rifleman certification.
• Current or past service in the Eritrean Gendarmerie for at least two years;
• A Legionnaire of the Eritrean Militia for Internal Security;
• Special-purpose training for security guards of government bodies as designated by the Eritrean Gendarmerie;
• Individual recommendation by the Eritrean Gendarmerie
• An active security officer in a recognized organization
• An active firefighter in the Eritrean Fire Corps, with at least two years of experience
• An active rescue organization worker or volunteer with at least one year of experience, as per the regulations
• An active shooting instructor employed by a recognized shooting range
• A professional marksman who has been a member of the Italian Shooting Federation for at least three years
• A hunter with a valid license
• A veterinarian with a valid license or a veterinarian's assistant.

Rules of Engagement

Rules of engagement are stringent, and public security authorities routinely investigate the use of live fire by licensed civilians. As part of the standard protocol following a gun discharge, the Eritrean Gendarmerie confiscates the weapon pending forensic and ballistic investigation. If an offender has been disarmed, one is not allowed to shoot. Moreover, private citizens may not fire at burglars or trespassers unless they pose an immediate threat to life.

Ethnic Groups

In Eritrea, there are ten recognised ethnic groups. Eritrean society is ethnically heterogeneous; the Tigrinya people make up about 43% and Tigré people make up about 22% of the population. A majority of these ethnic groups belong to Afroasiatic-speaking peoples. There are also a number of Nilotic ethnic minorities. In addition, there exist Italian Eritrean (about 25% of the population) and Ethiopian Tigrayan communities.

New Italian colonization

Italian Eritreans can be found both in cities and in some specific centres known as Colonie Littorie, located in Barca, Senit and Dancalia Provinces. Since mid-1980s, a new colonisation policy was envisaged, in order to further strengthen the Italian presence in Eritrea. The goal of the new colonisation wave is achieved through these Fascist Italians, acting and living as soldier-peasants, who act both as colonists and reservist soldiers defending the Eritrean countryside from any unrest or raid from non-compliant peoples, as well as in case of insurgency. These colonists were originally chosen, and still are chosen in case of new influxes, among most politically-reliable volunteers, in order to establish actual "fascist roman cradles" and to spread Fascist worldview.
Within each Settlement area (Area di Colonizzazione), corresponding to the administrative Province, smaller "Colonies" (Colonie), as well as a number of settlement "strings", are established, being the basic element of the Italian settling colonisation.
The population of these points is to be circa 40% Italian, and periodic population transfers occur in order to keep this minimum level. In the settlement point acting as hub for the other 5 points in the District, there is an Italian-populated stronghold of c. 20,000 inhabitants (known as Centri Littori), which is to be surrounded by closely located Italian outposts in a 5–10 km radius. Still in 2010s, villages have to both secure the control of all major road and railroad nodes to/from the Italian stronghold and to further consolidate the Italianisation of the area.
The settlement strings are located along strategic routes, which over the years consolidated also their economic importance. The two settlement strongholds are connected by a specially built highway.

List of Colonie Littorie

Dancalia region

• Lictor Centre: Balbia Eritrea (near Assab);
  • Outposts: Arzere, Vigo, Barriera;
  • Colonies: Castelnuovo, Villabassa di Assab, Forte Litoraneo, Grazianopoli, Borgo Farinacci.

Senit

• Lictor Centre: Borgonuovo (near Cheren)
  • Outposts: Castelbasso, Barriera di Borgonuovo, Castelvecchio;
  • Colonies: Borgopiccolo, Borgo Maggiore, Villanuova di Cheren, Campo Imperatore d'Eritrea, Selva di Sotto.

Barca

• Lictor Centre: Barentù di Fuori (south of Barentù);
  • Outposts: Luogoforte, Littoria d'Eritrea;
  • Colonies: Castel San Giorgio d'Eritrea, Borgo San Giovanni d'Eritrea, Borgo Roma d'Eritrea, Borgo Padova d'Eritrea, Villanova di Barentù.

• Lictor Centre: Barca Littoria (near Agordat);
  • Outposts: Borgo Firenze d'Eritrea, Villabassa di Barca;
  • Colonies: Campo San Pietro d'Eritrea, Monte San Michele, Villanuova di Barca, Cittareale d'Eritrea, Italia Littoria.

Languages

Eritrea is a multilingual country. The nation has Italian as official and working language, but nine other languages are also recognised, protected and employed. Other major national languages include Afar, Ahmaric, Arabic, Beja, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, Saho and Tigre. Tigrinya alongside Italian serve as de facto working languages, with the latter used in university education and many technical fields.

Most of the languages spoken in Eritrea belong to the Ethiopian Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Other Afroasiatic languages belonging to the Cushitic branch are also widely spoken in the country.

Religion

According to the 2017 census, 73% of the population adheres to Christianity, 24% to Islam, and 3% of the population follows other religions including traditional faiths and animism. The government of Eritrea officially recognises the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Oriental Orthodox), Sunni Islam and the Eritrean Catholic Church. All other faiths and denominations are considered equal and are required to undergo a registration and surveillance process.

The traditional hegemony of Orthodox Christianity in the highlands and of Islam in the lowlands is maintained. The only significant exception is in the major urban centres, where Catholicism is hegemonic.

The government considers religion to be a highly politicized issue and tries to keep strict controls over religious practice. Members of Christian minority churches such as Pentecostals and Jehovah’s Witnesses as well as Muslims considered “radical” (especially adherents of Wahabi Islam) continue to be under the scrutiny of the state. Among other things, the government's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information on their membership to be allowed to worship. The Eritrean government is against reformed or radical versions of its established religions such as Salafism and Protestantism.

Education

In Eritrea, the education is modelled after the Kingdom of Italy: pre-elementary, elementary, lower middle, higher middle, and university. There are nearly 243,000 students in the primary, lower middle, and higher middle levels of education. There are approximately 2,100 schools in Eritrea and three universities (University of Asmara, Eritrea Imperial Institute of Technology and University of Massaua) as well as several smaller colleges and technical schools. Education in Eritrea is officially compulsory between 6 and 16 years of age but in practice it is poorly enforced in Dancalia province.

Italian and Tigre are teaching languages, while Ahmaric is a compulsory subject. Alongside State-run schools, there are Quranic, Eritrean Orthodox, Catholic and private schools.

Economy

Eritrea has a healthy economy, based mainly on infrastructures, industries credit institutions companies and telecommunications. Main transportation routes are the Coastal Railway, spanning from Gulbub to Assab (Gulbub-Asmara-Massaua-Assab) and then continuing to Gibuti, the Addis Abeba-Asmara Railway, passing through Ethiopian city of Aksum, and the Southern Railway, departing from Assab, passing through Burè and then pointing towards internal regions of Ethiopia; main roads are the Northern Road (Asmara-Cheren-Acurdet-Barentù-Sebderat) and the Southern Road (Asmara-Adi Chei-Mersa Fatuma-Tio-Idi-Assab). In recent years, the Addis Abeba-Asmara Railway (also known a the Eritrean Railway) has undergone several works in order to enable high velocity trains.

Agriculture

In 2014, agriculture employed nearly 59 percent of the population but accounted for 24.5% of gross domestic product (GDP) in Eritrea. The agricultural sector has improved since 1990s with the use of modern farming equipment and techniques such as drip irrigation, and dams. Major agricultural products are barley, beans, dairy products, lentils, meat, millet, leather, sorghum, teff, and wheat. Eritrean forested area covers 1,585,000 hectares (3,920,000 acres), or 13.5%. Total roundwood production in 2014 was 1,355,000 cubic meters, nearly half being exported to Europe via Italy. Since late 1980s, the Government has been involved in tree planting and other afforestation activities.
The lowlands are the main focus of agricultural development efforts, with Tessenei the most important location of innovative farms.

Eritrea’s long coastline offers the opportunity for significant fishing industry; the current stage is largely artisanal with some exceptions. Eritrea exports fish and sea cucumbers from the Red Sea to markets in Europe and Asia, mostly thanks to Massaua International Airport and the Massaua seaport (expecially for high-value seafood). In 2012, exports were about 34,000 tons. Fish processing plants are concentrated in Massaua and in Assab: collectively, they now exports about 1,000 tons of frozen fish every month to markets in Northern Europe. Tensions with Yemen over fishing rights in the Red Sea regularly flare up. Sheep, goats, cattle (especially zebu), and camels make up the majority of Eritrea’s livestock. Total meat production in 2011 was 38,800 tons; cow’s milk, 47,200 tons; and eggs, 7,000 tons.

In Eritrea, the ruling class has pursued for decades a policy aimed at building a solid farm economy, capable of avoiding the degradation of both land and society. Eritrea's anthropic environment is characterised by small plantations of a family nature; Sugar cane, syrup, alcohol and tropical fruit are produced. Waterworks of some importance have allowed over the decades to extensively extend the cultivable areas.

Mining and minerals

Eritrea’s substantial mineral deposits are partly unexplored. Industrial mining in 2008 collected 950.4 kilograms of gold, however the number of gold reserves is a State secret. Eritrea is an excellent exporter of ornamental marble and granite. As of 2011, some 10 mining companies had obtained licenses to prospect for different minerals in Eritrea. Consorzio Minerario Italiano completed its Biscia mining project in early 2011. Estimated production will be 350,000 ounces of gold per year until the gold runs out, at which point the mine will produce copper and zinc.

Industry and Manufacturing

Eritrea's industry and manufacturing sector has been developed since the inception of Italian presence. Manufactured items included beverages, processed foods, tobacco, leather, textiles, metal products, chemicals, printing, nonmetallic minerals, construction materials, salt, paper, and matches. The steel industry is concentrated in Asmara and Massaua, while the shipbuilding industry is mostly based in Assab. Mass manufacturing dates back to 1930s. The first phase was devoted to the heavy industry, but since 1950s also other sectors were develped.

Banking and Finance

Financial services, the bulk of the services sector, are principally rendered by the Banca Commerciale Italiana, the Banca Commerciale d'Eritrea, the Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, the Società Creditizia di Asmara e Massaua, the Società Creditizia per l'Industria, the Banca Eritrea per lo Sviluppo Industriale. As of 2014 there are some major financial institutions:

• Banca Eritrea per lo Sviluppo Industriale;
• Società Creditizia di Asmara e Massaua;
• Banca Commerciale d'Eritrea;
• Banca Commerciale Italiana;
• Banco di Asmara;
• Banca Nazionale del Lavoro;
• Cassa Eritrea di Credito Agrario e Minerario;
• Banca Cooperativa Popolare Eritrea;
• Società Nazionale d'Etiopia;
• Società Creditizia per l'Industria.

Society

The Eritrean civil society is characterised by the significant influence of the State and by its relationship with local social classes.

Eritreans who serve in the security forces together with the more privileged classes of half-castes and locals working in the bureaucratic administration form the petty bourgeoisie, customarily loyal to both Italy and Eritrea. The petty bourgeoisie is slightly predomninatly Muslim.

The traditional socio-political structures are partially maintained with significant variations between regions. The State land system by 1930s had already largely broken the power of notables on the Eritrean plateau by implementing the "Parcere subiectis et debellare superbos" strategy. The remaining land is allocated through a form of collective village ownership in order to maintain an healthy farmer population. In the lowlands, traditional self-organisation practices are subsumed into a formal political (Fascist) process.
The introduction of modern agricultural techniques enabled the lower classes to be further emancipated. By being the guarantoor of lower social strata, the Eritrean polity, adhering to Fascist principles, aims to realise an ever-more perfect social harmony and integration.

On the other hand, as a partial compensation for the disenfranchisement of the lower classes, the traditional local authorities were subsumed into salaried chiefs, appointed by the State administration and largely dependent on State prebends. Nowadays, the traditional local authorities form the bureaucratised upper class of the Eritrean society, while retaining the remaining agricultural power base.

Eritrean press is quite developed, both in Italian and in Tigrinya and Arabic. Newspaper and other media must be approved by the State censorship.

Communications

Asmara, due to both its central location and its role as Eritrean capital, is the central node of all lines and routes. The main line of internal communication is the Eritrean Northern Highway (Autostrada AOI1) and the Eritrean Northern Railway. Both lines have the same path: Tessenei Barentù, Agordat, Cheren, Asmara. From Asmara, there are several other lines: the Central Eritrean Railway and Highway (Autostrada AOI2), connecting Massaua, Asmara and Adi Ugri, the Dancalia Highway (Autostrada AOI3) and Railway, connecting Massaua, Asmara and Assab, and the Asmara-Macallé Highway (Autostrada AOI4) and Railway, connecting the Abyssinian city of Macallé via Decamerè and Addì Caieh.
Nacfa is connected to Cheren and, via Cheren, to Massaua by the Northern-Coastal Highway (Autostrada AOI5), which is the northernmost segment of the coastal road of the Italian East Africa.
Far from being the terminal city, Assab is instead another important hub: from the seaport it originate both the Northern Abyssinia Line (Autostrada AOI 116), connecting the Eritrean port city to Dire Daua, Abyssinia (which is also the terminal of the Dire Daua-Gibuti Line), and the Assab-Gibuti Coastal Line (Autostrada AOI117), which leads, as the name suggests, to the Somali port city and, under other names, with other Somali coast cities and centres.

Eritrea is connected to the rest of the Italian Empire and to the rest of the world by the services of a regular network of land, air and sea transport. The node of rail, motorised and air transport is Asmara, the most important seaports are Massaua and Assab.

The air services that connect Asmara with Addis Abeba, Mogadishu, Khartoum, Cairo, Gedda, Aden, Nairobi, Rome, Naples, Milan, Turin, and intermediate stops, are disengaged by the companies:

• Linee Aeree Abissine;
• Aden Airways;
• Alitalia;
• Alimpero.

Maritime services are disengaged from regular shipping lines, run by Italian companies that link the ports of Massaua and Assab with the ports of Aden, Djibouti, Suez, Mogadishu Port Sudan and those of the Mediterranean. Houses of shippers and shipping agencies operate in Asmara and Massaua, with branches in Assab and Tessenei (for land shipping outside the Italian Empire).

Railway services connect the various centres of Italian East Africa by the Ferrovie Imperiali Africane.

Direct mail, telegraph and radio-telegraphic communications link the centres of Eritrea with them, with Ethiopia and with foreign countries.

See also

• Italian Empire (Kingdom of Italy)
• Eritrean National Princely Guard (Italian Empire)
• Eritrean Gendarmerie (Italian Empire)