Three States Period

The Three States as they appeared around 1870. Contested areas between Namyang and Sinyi territory are left blank.

The Three States Period was a period in Menghean history between 1865 and 1901, when the country was divided into three political units. These were the State of Sinyi in the northeast, the Namyang Government in the center-south, and the Uzeri Sultanate in the southwest, though the latter had seceded earlier, in 1824. It was marked by on-and-off fighting between the three states, particularly Namyang and Sinyi, which both claimed to be Menghe's sole legitimate government. Namyang and Sinyi agreed to a truce in 1899, and in 1901 they signed a formal peace treaty merging both states into the Federative Republic of Menghe. The newly founded Republic invaded the Uzeri Sultanate in 1903, bringing Menghe close to its present-day borders.

Background

Decline of the Myŏn dynasty

Because they came to power in the wake of the Menghean Black Plague, the Myŏn dynasty's leaders enforced a strict ban on Casaterran foreigners entering the country.

This prohibition helped maintain internal stability in Myŏn Menghe, and it prevented the country from falling prey to colonial encroachment in the 17th and 18th centuries. By the early 19th century, however, external pressure was again on the rise. With most available land in Meridia and West Hemithea already colonized, Casaterran leaders were again turning their attention to Menghe, with its prized tea and porcelain and its large domestic market. Restricted by centuries of isolation, Menghe had fallen behind the rest of the world technologically. Its soldiers still relied on matchlock muskets and wall guns at a time when most leading powers had already adopted flintlock rifles, and even then, only about one-quarter of Menghe's infantry were armed with gunpowder weapons. The Menghean navy, once the largest in the eastern hemisphere, had also atrophied under the ban on foreign travel, consisting mainly of small two- and three-mast war junks.

The late Myŏn dynasty was also a time of severe internal weakening. Despite falling by as much as two-thirds during the plague, Menghe's population had rebounded between 1650 and 1800, and the country was once again facing a Malthusian trap. As the population rose, individual land plots were divided between more male heirs, and by the early 19th century many family plots were barely large enough to support their workers. Deforestation, whether to secure building materials, firewood, or new farmland, led to severe erosion of newly-cleared land, and rising lumber prices. Rampant corruption also drained the imperial treasury, and funds allocated for infrastructure work were often siphoned away for other purposes, leading to further harvest shortfalls as irrigation and transportation canals fell into a state of disrepair.

Uzeri Rebellion

Main article: Uzeri Rebellion

Internal weakness soon gave way to political fragmentation. In 1822, Bakirsoy Uzer, a prominent religious figure in Southwest Menghe's ethnic Taleyan minority, launched an uprising against Myŏn control, declaring the foundation of an Uzeri Sultanate. As with past rebellions, the Myŏn government responded by sending troops to quell the unrest, but Bakirsoy requested help from the United Kingdom of Anglia and Lechernt, offering open trade in return.

Anglia and Lechernt responded by shipping modern flintlock rifles and artillery to Uzeri ports, followed by a detachment of Royal Marines. Not content to secure Uzeri independence, Anglian forces then attacked the Menghean ports of Giju, Sunju, and Dongchŏn, overpowering the numerically superior but technologically inferior defenders. After facing a series of humiliating defeats on land and at sea, the Myŏn emperor called an end to the rebel-suppression campaign in 1824, and signed an unequal treaty opening the three southern ports to trade. A string of similar unequal treaties followed in 1826 through 1830, granting trade access and judicial extraterritoriality to other Casaterran countries. These treaties provoked deep resentment in Menghe, which had long been the paramount power in Hemithea, and fed a perception at the fringes of the empire that the Myŏn throne was weak.

Brothel War

Another war with the Western powers broke out in 1851, after a heavily intoxicated Sylvan sailor in the city of Sunju killed a prostitute who refused to accept him as a client. City authorities charged him with murder, theft, and leaving the Casaterran merchant district of the city without a permit, and sentenced him to skinning by a thousand cuts.

Seeing an opportunity to extract more concessions from Menghe, the Sylvan government demanded that the prisoner be turned over to Sylvan control, accusing Menghe of breaching the extraterritoriality agreement. At the same time, Sylvan newspapers rallied domestic public opinion around the incident, leaving out the more unflattering details and focusing on the cruel method of execution. When the Myŏn emperor refused to turn over the captive, Sylvan forces stationed in Sunju left the merchant district to take him back by force. Their initial expedition into the city failed, and Menghean troops responded by besieging the merchant district. This provided Sylva with the necessary justification to dispatch a larger naval force from Innominada to reinforce the garrison and raid other Menghean ports. The attack on the garrison also provoked a number of other Casaterran powers into intervening on Sylva's side, though domestic criticism of this opportunistic campaign earned it the international label of "Brothel War."

At the war's end in 1853, Menghe was forced to sign another humiliating round of concessions, in the Treaty of Soon Chu (today Sunju). The Go-ŭn peninsula was transferred to Sylva on a 99-year lease, becoming the city of Altagracia. This was a dramatically larger territory than the merchant districts leased to Casaterran powers in the 1820s. Menghe also opened up a string of other ports along the east coast, and granted additional extraterritoriality rights to foreigners, including a prohibition on Menghean soldiers or police entering the merchant districts.

Kim Ryung-sŏng's rebellion

The humiliating end of the Brothel War brought another wave of anti-Western resentment. This sentiment ran particularly high along the mountainous east coast, known as the Donghae region after the East Menghe Sea. Though it had several important trading centers during the Yi dynasty, the Donghae region had declined into a marginal hinterland during the Myŏn dynasty, as it was cut off from trade with Polvokian and Dayashinese ports and far from the country's core agricultural heartland. Deforestation and overfarming were particularly acute there, but insulation from Casaterran traders had also appeased radical voices there. With Gyŏngsan, Anchŏn, and Kimsŏng (today Donggyŏng) now opened to Casaterran merchant ships, that isolation was lifted.

Anti-Western tensions reached the breaking point in 1865. Kim Ryung-sŏng, the leading military commander of the Donghae region, declared that the Myŏn dynasty had lost the Mandate of Heaven due to its inability to keep out the Western barbarians. Backed up by a loyal network of subordinate lower commanders, he quickly seized the cities of Hyangchun, Ranju, and Yŏngjŏng, and consolidated control over the territories between them. Peasants rallied to his support, eager for any opportunity to topple Myŏn-aligned landlords and officials. As General Kim's forces fanned up and down the coastline, Casaterran merchants were forced to evacuate Anchŏn and Kimsŏng, which fell in 1866.

Several Casaterran countries offered to intervene, but the Myŏn emperor refused their help, fearful that inviting Casaterran troops onto Menghean soil would only inflame local tensions further while deepening perceptions of the throne's weakness. By this point, however, it was already too late. Buoyed by mass peasant support, General Kim's forces broke into the Meng River Basin in 1867, and quickly swept inland across the plains, capturing the Myŏn capital at Junggyŏng before the end of the year. The last Myŏn emperor refused to flee, instead taking poison as the palace grounds were overrun. With the traditional imperial capital at Junggyŏng under his control, General Kim proclaimed the formation of a new dynasty, named Sinyi (New Yi) in reference to the pre-Myŏn Yi dynasty. He installed himself as Emperor, taking on the reign name Gwangmu.

The northern territories soon fell into line between the new dynasty, but the south did not. Fearing that the Sinyi radicals' rejection of Western technology would lead Menghe to ruin, a group of intellectuals from southern cities founded the National Protection Society, with the goal of saving Menghe by adopting modern reforms. They secured the support of provincial leaders from Chŏllo, Ryangnam, and Hwangjŏn, who feared execution or exile if overthrown by the northern rebels. Delegates of the new government convened at the Namyang Palace in Sunju on April 9th, 1868 to announce their loyalty to the reformist leadership, earning this faction the title of "Namyang Government."

The Three States

State of Sinyi

The State of Sinyi, formally known as the Empire of Sinyi (신의 제국 / 新義帝國, Sinyi Jeguk) was the government formed by General Kim Ryung-sŏng's rebels. In 1868, it controlled a broad swath of territory in the northeast of the country, including the entire upper half of the Meng River Basin and the eastern coastline north of Gyŏngsan. Its capital city was initially located at Junggyŏng, reflecting General Kim's aspiration to revive the old imperial order.

At the beginning of the Three States Period, Sinyi's leaders were fiercely conservative, and aimed to expel all Western influences from the country. After the war turned against them, however, they pivoted to a more pragmatic approach, promoting industrial growth, military modernization, and an overhaul of the government structure in order to better mobilize for war. General Kim's son Hyŏn-sik, who ascended to the throne in 1882 as the Sunchi Emperor, exemplified this change in tone, to the point of having his official photograph taken in a Western military uniform. As part of an effort to open the government's attitude, he moved the capital to the coastal city of Kimsŏng, which was renamed Donggyŏng (or "Eastern Capital").

Sinyi modernization was highly militarized and highly state-centric, with the goal of marshalling a large standing army to conquer Namyang territory and repel Western invasions. The Sunchi Emperor invited teams of advisors from Dayashina and Ostland, hoping to use their late-developing authoritarian systems as a model for his own. The Sinyi state went particularly far in cultivating mass nationalism among the public, and in using police surveillance and censorship to quell opposition. Its economic reforms also gave high importance to state control, with the military running its own network of steel mills and railroads. The civilian economy, however, suffered from neglect, as the government in Donggyŏng charged burdensome taxes and forbade private entrepreneurs from competing with state-owned industries. Neglect of the civilian sector eventually proved to be Sinyi's downfall, as peasant uprisings forced Sinyi leaders to divert troops and resources away from the front lines.

Namyang Government

The Namyang Government (남양 정부 / 南陽政府, Namyang Jŏngbu), officially known as the Emergency Provisional Government of Menghe (1868-1873) and later as the Republic of Menghe (1873-1901), was a rival faction formed by a group of intellectuals and provincial leaders who refused to acknowledge Emperor Gwangmu as Menghe's new sovereign. It was named for the Namyang Palace in Sunju, where the leaders of the provisional government first met, and like Sinyi it claimed to be the sole legitimate government of all Menghe.

In its emergency provisional state, the Namyang Government's central leadership consisted of the leading council of the National Protection Society, an association of intellectuals which formed in the late 1850s to advocate for reform and modernization. Without formal government experience, the National Protection Society relied on its local branches across the country to transmit orders and manage policy, making it an early, if rudimentary, form of single-party system. Rather than choose a rival Emperor, the leaders of the National Protection Society decided to send high-ranking envoys on a tour of Casaterra to gather input on how to best structure a modern government. Based on their advice, the provisional leaders drafted the Namyang Constitution, which set up Menghe's first large-scale representative system of government.

Under the laws of the First Republic, suffrage was restricted to adult males who had passed the Civil Service Examination, including those who had passed but did not have government jobs. Adult male civil service graduates were also the only people who could stand in elections. Each prefecture was given one representative in the lower house, and each municipality was given two. When the first election took place in 1874, there was only 1 scholar-official per 150 people in the southern region, such that suffrage reached less than 1% of the population; but because the number of exam graduates was not capped, this soon gave rise to a spoils system in which candidates helped train scholars for the examination in return for their support at the ballot box. Over 2% of the population voted in the election of 1898, a tripling in the number of voting scholar-officials. The upper house was comprised of the highest-ranking officials, akin to a House of Lords in other systems. The lower house elected a Prime Minister, with the upper house's approval, and the Prime Minister could then assemble a cabinet. At the outset, all representatives joined the National Protection Society as a mark of loyalty, but over time rival cliques and factions formed early political parties, most of which were fluid and short-lived.

While Sinyi modeled its modernization after Dayashina, Ostland, and to some extent Sieuxerr, the Namyang Government looked to Themiclesia as its main model for late development, and sought assistance from Hallia and Anglia and Lechernt. Because of the constant rivalry with Sinyi, military strength was never far off in the minds of Namyang officials, but the National Protection Society was also interested in comprehensively transforming society at the ground level to make modernization sustainable. It relied to a greater extent on private enterprise, and continued to experiment with democracy and political freedom, though because scholar-officials usually came from the most affluent ranks of society, commoners were largely excluded from the political system.

Uzeri Sultanate

The Uzeri Sultanate, sometimes inaccurately labeled Uzeristan in foreign literature, was named for the Uzeri family line which ruled it. Unlike the other two factions, which emerged as a result of the Myŏn dynasty's collapse, the Uzeri Sultanate was founded in 1822, as part of the Uzeri Rebellion. Its leaders also had no claims to additional Menghean territory, and were content to rule over their own independent land. Even so, Menghean historians regularly group the Uzeri Sultanate with the other two states, resulting in the term "Three States Period."

Under the reign of Mahir I, the Uzeri Sultanate was relatively open to foreign powers, and imported arms represented a key contribution to its victory over Myŏn forces. Openness to trade, however, did not translate over into societal modernization. Instead, the Sultanate's economy grew increasingly reliant on the export of sugarcane and other cash crops, which were farmed in the interior and shipped south to the coast. Mahir I also continued the Myŏn policy of outlawing Christianity and other overseas religions.

Politically, the Uzeri Sultanate was organized as a conventional hereditary monarchy, with few democratic or bureaucratic changes introduced from overseas. It also had a tense relationship between different social strata. The small Taleyan minority, descended from Meridian sailors who had settled in Menghean cities during the Yi dynasty, held most positions of power, including the throne, even though the Lac, Daryz, Argentans, and Kungnai made up most of the population.

Warlord factions

While the states above were most important to the Three States Period, they did not cover all of Menghe's territory. Especially at the outset of the period, many frontier areas were loyal to neither the Sinyi nor Namyang governments. Warlords and bandits were able to carve out a major presence in mountainous areas, flourishing in the power vacuum created by a dynastic collapse. The strongest of the bandit warlords, Gang Gŭru, carved out a sizeable domain around the southeastern cities of Musan and Budŏn, importing Casaterran rifles and building a relatively professional military force.

West of the Chŏnsan mountains, nomadic tribes from Dzhungestan moved into former Myŏn lands, and local Dzhungar and Ketchvan tribes broke away from the central government's control. The Ketchvans began paying regular tribute to Sinyi in the 1870s, sending horses and mercenaries in return for an acknowledgement of their autonomy. Dzhungar tribes, both inside and outside Menghe's nominal borders, were effectively disconnected from all three governments until the 1900s.

History

Rebel Suppression War (1865-1871)

After pausing to proclaim the Sinyi dynasty and consolidate control over the central region, the Gwangmu Emperor ordered a new offensive down the Meng river, hoping to capture the Chŏllo plains as well. Concerned about the danger from this attack, the Provisional Emergency Government raised a new military force, the Rebel Suppressing Army. The core of this force was armed with modern equipment purchased from Casaterran surplus stockpiles, including flintlock rifles and 12-pounder field guns. The government even hired Tyrannian advisors to assist in drilling the troops, though the commanders of the force were all Menghean.

The two forces clashed on September 1868, while Sinyi forces were besieging Hwasŏng. In a prolonged land and rivercraft battle on the 6th and 7th, Namyang forces triumphed over the numerically larger Sinyi force, and managed to break the siege. As the Sinyi force retreated, General Ri Sŏng-su led the Rebel Suppressing Army in pursuit, capturing the city of Sunchang and preparing an offensive to take Sapo. When news of Ri's offensive reached Sunju, however, the Provisional Emergency Government ordered the Rebel Suppression Army to halt its advance, as the new government's treasury could not sustain a major offensive campaign. General Ri reluctantly agreed, halting his advance at South Lake beside the Meng River as the winter of 1869 began.

As winter gave way to spring, Sinyi forces launched a renewed campaign to retake lost territory, but they suffered defeat after defeat against Ri Sŏng-su's army. As Sinyi lacked a foreign supplier of modern equipment, and had inherited the smallest share of the Myŏn dynasty's matchlocks, its forces relied almost entirely on pikes, swords, and bows. This led to appallingly heavy losses against the modern equipment of the Rebel Suppressing Army.

Once the new government stabilized and more reinforcements arrived, Ri Sŏng-su divided his force and sent a detachment of troops to Yŏng'an, another strategic city in the Sinyi-Namyang frontier area. The siege lasted through the winter of 1869-1870, as the Provisional Emergency Government again suspended operations, but resulted in a Namyang victory. Later in the same spring, Ri's own force took the city of Chŏnju, and the northern detachment took Wŏnsan, which Sinyi forces had largely abandoned. Once again, General Ri requested permission to exploit this good position with a decisive drive toward Sapo, Hamun, and Junggyŏng, but the government in Sunju again refused. As the Rebel Suppressing Army settled down along its new defensive line between the Chŏnsan range and the southeastern highlands, Sinyi forces also lightened their own offensives, as their commanders grew increasingly aware that head-on attacks against rifle-armed forces were futile. This led to the first prolonged lull in the fighting, as both sides consolidated their positions.

Consolidation (1871-1884)

While no formal ceasefire was ever signed, and regular skirmishes continued around key waterways, the 1870s marked a time when both sides paused to consolidate their positions. The Namyang Government promulgated its new Constitution in 1873, and held a limited-suffrage election the following year. The Gwangmu Emperor began appointing new officials, and removing those suspected of disloyalty.

One of the first challenges faced by Sinyi and Namyang leaders was transportation. The Namyang Government was quick to embrace the building of railways, completing a direct route from Sunju to Yŏng'an (with one train ferry at Insŏng) in 1875. This main line, later supplemented with a railway from Chŏnjin to Chanam, greatly improved the flow of supplies to the front line, and facilitated the extraction of coal from Menghe's first modern coal mine at Wŏnsan.

Sinyi faced an even more dire transport situation at the start of the 1870s. In its northward offensive, the Namyang Rebel Suppressing Army had seized control of several strategic waterways, including the lower half of the Anchun river which joins with the Meng near Hwasŏng. This meant that not only was the Meng River's natural route to the sea under enemy control, the alternative route through the Grand Gangwŏn Canal was also unsafe. In effect, the entire heartland of the country was cut off from its once-vital river transport. Sinyi forces initially attempted to reopen the Anchun route with attacks near Chŏnju in 1872 and 1873, but failed to take the city. With no other alternatives, the Sinyi court finally authorized the building of a railroad alternative in 1875, despite decades of opposing Western technology. A rail link from Kimsŏng (Donggyŏng) to Taekchŏn was completed in 1880, followed by a number of other railroads.

When the Sunchi Emperor ascended to the Sinyi throne in 1882, he brought with him a more pragmatic attitude toward Western technology - an attitude which he demonstrated in 1884 by moving the capital from Junggyŏng to Kimsŏng, which was renamed Donggyŏng. Rifle imports, which had already started in the mid-1870s, surged in the 1880s, as Sinyi modernized its forces. Government loans financed the construction of railroads, steel mills, and coal mines, as well as modern arms factories. Songrimsŏng, initially a minor frontier town, grew into a major industrial hub due to the abundant and easily accessible coal deposits surrounding it. At a social level, the State of Sinyi instituted universal primary education in 1886, though take-up was slow for the first few years, especially in rural areas and in the interior. In addition to raising literacy rates and mathematical knowledge, the Sinyi public education program also sought to instill mass nationalism in the general public. A two-year universal conscription requirement, added in 1885, also sought to instill military values in the adult male population.

Minor conflicts (1883-1895)

The Namyang Government began 1883 with a new campaign in the southwest, this time using a new regional military force, the Ryŏngsan Army. While the original objective was to pacify bandits who had been raiding coal trains near Changban, the force's commander exploited the opportunity to push further east and take Daegok. Impressed with the success of the offensive, the Namyang Government approved a second Bandit Suppression Campaign in 1884-1885, and succeeded in defeating Gang Gŭru, the most powerful warlord in the area.

Namyang activity in the southeast attracted the attention of Sinyi leaders, who launched their own southeast offensive in 1885. The two sides clashed regularly in the mountainous terrain, and one Sinyi detachment nearly succeeded in taking Daegok unopposed. Naval battles between the two opposing fleets took place in 1886 and 1887, leading both sides to invest in modernizing their navies even further. A separate Sinyi offensive in 1887 succeeded in taking Chŏnju, though Namyang forces managed to turn it back short of Sunchang.

Dissatisfied with their success in the south, where their troops had fallen short of expectations, Sinyi leaders turned their attention to the north. Accusing Polvokian militia of crossing into Menghean territory to sabotage coal mining operations, the State of Sinyi went to war with Polvokia in 1890-1892, easily defeating the poorly equipped Polvokian Army and even marching troops to the capital. In the Treaty of Ryŏngdo that followed, Sinyi annexed a strip of land south of the White River, gaining control over significant coal deposits there.

Third Sinyi Campaign (1895-1899)

Confident from his recent victory in the war with Polvokia, the Sunchi Emperor turned his attention south, hoping to defeat the Namyang government with a decisive offensive from the land and sea. Sinyi forces launched the renewed campaign with a focused attack on Sunchang, intended to draw away Namyang troops; this was followed by an attack on Yŏng'an, which resulted in the fall of the city in October 1895. This victory cut off a strategic source of coal, forcing Namyang to reinforce the front with coal shipped up from the southeast.

Hoping to capitalize on this situation, the Sinyi navy sailed along the southeastern coast with the aim of setting up a blockade around Musan and Pungsu, the area's two major coal-shipping ports. Patrols from two sides clashed at the Naval Battle of Pungsu on January 19th, 1896, resulting in a Namyang victory. A later clash, at Baksallam Bay on March 12th, ended in a severe Namyang defeat, leaving Musan under blockade. With cover from the sea, Sinyi ground troops moved along the rugged coast, taking Wihae in April and Budon in June. Raiding attacks from the inland valleys, however, prevented them from continuing the offensive to Musan.

Further north, Sinyi forces mounted a joint attack near the center of the front. In this operation, they had support from a small fleet of riverine ironclads built in Junggyŏng and Sapo. The two armies clashed at the join of the Meng and Anchun rivers on September 9th; after three days of intense fighting, Sinyi forces emerged victorious, and Namyang troops withdrew to Hwasŏng. The first Sinyi attempt to storm the city was pushed back. In the course of the 1870s and 1880s, the Namyang Government had heavily improved Hwasŏng's existing defenses, extending the city walls outward with sloped embankments and adding bastions in front of the existing square towers with polygonal forts on two key approaches. As the unusually harsh winter of 1896-1897 rolled in, Sinyi forces settled into an encampment north of the city, though they were unsuccessful at cutting off its supply route to the south.

Sinyi attacks at Hwasŏng resumed in the spring of 1897, but continued to meet staunch resistance. The stone and concrete embankments surrounding the city proved surprisingly resilient against even explosive shellfire, and a battery of mitrailleuse guns imported from Sieuxerr inflicted heavy losses against attacking infantry. Artillery on the eastern polygon fort also prevented Sinyi river ships from moving in to bombard the city or land troops. The city eventually fell in July, but only after five months of fighting and bombardment, and severe Sinyi casualties.

Sinyi success was not matched on the southern front. Using supplies hauled over land, Namyang forces in Musan managed to assemble four shallow-depth submarine torpedo boats, which they deloyed against the blockading Sinyi fleet in coordination with an offensive from the main Namyang fleet. The Second Battle of Baksallam Bay, on August 22nd, 1897, ended in a costly Sinyi defeat, and restored sea access to the Namyang Government's second largest coal mine. Not long afterward, an operation to take Sangha failed badly on October 19th, as Namyang river ironclads broke through the Sinyi riverine fleet and sunk transports carrying troops across the Meng River. A third, unrelated disaster struck on October 28th: the Sunchi Emperor, already suffering from illness, passed away, leaving the throne to his inexperienced son.

Encouraged by recent victories, the Northeastern Army - successor to the Rebel Suppressing Army - made its own attack on Hwasŏng in the spring of 1898. The fortifications on the southwest side of the city were weaker, and those on the north were already badly damaged. Even so, the spring siege of Hwasŏng was mainly a diversionary operation. The Northern Army, under General Im Dong-yŏn, made a separate attack on Yŏng'an, while a detachment of Im's troops occupied the south bank of the Anchun river. Once again unable to bring in supplies via the Grand Gangwŏn Canal, the Sinyi army in Hwasŏng began running short of food, which it had not stockpiled in adequate quantities at the beginning of the siege. The final straw came in July, when Im Dong-yŏn's main force circled clockwise around Hwasŏng and cut off its overland supply routes. Desperate to relieve the siege, the Sinyi leadership called up a force of reservists and attacked down the Meng River. At the Second Battle of Hwasŏng, fought on October 4th-5th, the two forces clashed north of the city. With veteran troops, slightly newer equipment, and a better commander, General Im won a decisive victory. Four days later, realizing that reinforcements would not come again before the year's end, the Sinyi army in Hwasŏng surrendered.

Reunification (1899-1901)

This humiliating string of defeats caused serious unrest in the Sinyi government. Many high-ranking ministers, accustomed to serving under the Sunchi Emperor, blamed his successor's indecisiveness. Infighting between ministers and generals was also a serious problem. Morale in the armed forces was at an all-time low, especially after the swift fall of Hwasŏng erased years of costly attacks on the city's defenses. Most dangerous, however, was the situation on the home front. Sinyi taxes, already high in peacetime to pay for modernization, had risen even higher during the war, pushing farmers to the brink of starvation. The mass call-up of reservists in 1898 also pulled many men away from their farms ahead of the harvest season, and fed wild rumors that the entire standing army had been killed in battle. Peasant revolts broke out in the winter, and soon spread across the East Meng River region. Sinyi leaders responded by diverting large numbers of ground troops away from the front lines to put down the uprisings, which had already damaged railroad infrastructure. As the forces in front of him weakened, General Im responded by seizing Sapo in a surprise offensive, and then driving rapidly north to Junggyŏng. While the Sinyi government had long since moved to Donggyŏng, Junggyŏng's symbolic status as the old imperial capital still held great value, and unlike Hwasŏng, its defenses had not been properly modernized. The final straw, by some accounts, was an intercepted telegram which indicated that Dayashina was preparing to exploit the instability by landing troops around Baekjin and setting up a colonial enclave there. This telegram was later found to be a forgery, but it set off widespread panic in Donggyŏng: a Namyang victory would bring about a fall of the Sinyi leadership, but a Dayashinese invasion could open the way to the colonial carving-up of Menghe.

After securing - or possibly coercing - the Emperor's permission, the Sinyi court sent an envoy to Junggyŏng, which was surrounded but not yet under attack. The delegation arrived at Donggyŏng's passenger station on May 8th, 1899, on a train whose locomotive flew two white flags. In the passenger station's waiting room, representatives of the two sides signed an armistice ending the war. As part of the armistice agreement, the State of Sinyi agreed to accept its annexation by the Namyang Government, provided that the latter respected a series of conditions. These included regional autonomy for Donghae and amnesty for Sinyi's civilian and military leaders, who would normally be tried for treason and executed. Namyang forces assisted in the suppression of northeastern peasant uprisings, against General Im Dong-yŏn's wishes, and the two governments appointed delegations to meet in Junggyŏng and discuss the procedure for unification.

The Treaty of Junggyŏng, signed on August 2nd, 1901 in the main hall of the Imperial Palace, formally ended the power struggle between the Sinyi and Namyang regimes. In their place, it established a modern, republican system of government with jurisdiction over the entire country. In order to satisfy Sinyi officials' demands for regional autonomy, the new government would follow a federal system; as such, it was to be known as the Federative Republic of Menghe.

List of important figures

Sinyi imperial line

Gwangmu Emperor (Kim Ryung-sŏng)

Kim Ryungsŏng (킴륭성 / 金隆成) (born 1811, reigned 1867-1882) was a military commander in the late years of the Myŏn dynasty, tasked with maintaining control over the Donghae region. He led the insurrection that toppled the Myŏn dynasty, and installed himself as the first Emperor of the State of Sinyi, under the reign name Gwangmu (광무 / 光武). A staunch traditionalist, he opposed any reforms which could westernize the country, but loosened this stance later in life.

Sunchi Emperor (Kim Hyŏn-sik)

Kim Hyŏn-sik (킴형식 / 金賢植) (born 1841, reigned 1882-1897) was the second son of Kim Ryung-sŏng, chosen as Crown Prince in 1869. He adopted the reign name Sunchi (순치 / 順治) after becoming Emperor in 1882. Even as Crown Prince, he had pushed for industrialization and modernization, and after coming to power he promoted modernization as a national policy. From the late 1880s onward, he conducted most regular court business in a Western-style military uniform, though he still wore traditional robes for important ceremonies.

Yŏngtong Emperor (Kim Dae-wŏn)

Kim Dae-wŏn (킴대원 / 金大源) (born 1863, reigned 1897-1933) was the last emperor to rule over Sinyi. Upon coming to power, he adopted the reign name Hongchang (홍창 / 洪昌), but changed this to Yŏngtong (영통 / 永統) in 1901, to commemorate Menghe's unification. Unlike his father or grandfather, he was a relatively reluctant leader, content to delegate power to his advisors. With the founding of the Federative Republic of Menghe, he readily accepted his greatly weakened figurehead status.

Donghyi Emperor (Kim Myŏng-hwan)

Kim Myŏng-hwan (킴명환 / 金明桓) (born 1889, reigned 1933-1945) was the last emperor in the Kim lineage. He took on the reign name Donghyi (동희 / 東熙). Compared with his father, he was less willing to behave as a puppet, and in 1937 he wrested control from the late Kwon Chong Hoon's generals and centralized the throne's authority. He led Menghe during the height of the Pan-Septentrion War, and committed suicide after approving Menghe's surrender at the war's end.

See also

• Five States and Seven Fiefdoms