Achahan

<imgur thumb="yes" w="300" comment="Map of the Achahan civilization at its greatest extent, with the ruins of major settlements marked.">9z5FMtL.png</imgur> Achahan (Tyrannian proninciation: /ˈɑːtʃəhɑːn/), transliterated into Menghean as 아차한 (Achahan) and sometimes written Astrakhan, is an ancient civilization that existed in east-central Hemithea from the 15th century BCE to the 9th century BCE. It succeeded the proto-Chikai civilization, which was arguably the first civilization in Septentrion. Though based in northwest Menghe, at its height it stretched far north into what are now Maverica and Dzhungestan.

An Achahan culture first developed along the Sŭllŭnge river, in what is today Menghe's Baeksan province, in the 16th century BCE. In 1554 BCE, King Akan of Achahan conquered the declining proto-Chikai civilization to the northeast and proclaimed himself ruler of the Achahan Empire. The early Achahans adopted many customs and traditions of the conquered land, blending them with their own, and for this reason most historians consider them successors to the proto-Chikai civilizational legacy. They are best known for their monumental tombs, temples, and palaces, which display a remarkable degree of skill with stoneworking and construction. Achahan writing, inscribed extensively on surviving monuments and in clay tablets, is also a subject of great historical and popular interest, as it adapted proto-Chikai cuneiform into a phonetic abugida.

From the 11th century BCE onward, the Achahan kingdom entered into a period of decline, its area of control and activity receding back to the White River valley. It disappeared altogether in the 9th century, with the latest surviving tablets dating to 853 BCE. The causes of its decline and collapse are not well-known, as it was not replaced by another sedentary or writing-based civilization; the leading theories hold that it was strangled by changing climate patterns, overrun by nomadic warriors from the steppe, or possibly both. Its ruins and writing remained a source of curiosity in Menghe, and there is solid evidence that dynastic Menghean historians were aware of the Achahan both during and after their existence.

Foreign archaeologists only gained full access to the Achahan sites in the 1990s, and most detailed scholarship on Achahan is relatively recent, with many conflicting theories about their origins and language. As the Achahan left behind many inscriptions and used a phonetic alphabet, however, more is known about them than about their proto-Chikai precursors.

Names

According to deciphered portions of palace inscriptions, the people of Achahan referred to their state as 'a-cha-han or ha-ta-gan, depending on which transliteration theory one uses. Its etymology is unclear, and the word only appears after King Akan's conquest of the proto-Chikai. Prior to that time, it appears that they called themselves "people of the west river."

The name Achahan reached Casaterran scholars via Menghe. There was some long-distance interaction between the Achahan kingdom and Menghe's Gojun dynasty, and inscriptions found in both locations appear to make references to the other. Jun records state that in the 12th century BCE, a tablet bearing a message from an Achahan king was delivered to Menghe, where it was enshrined in a temple for study. The original tablet, if it existed, has been lost, but Menghean historical texts written in the Meng dynasty contain crude illustrations of the Achahan words for "king," "kingdom," and "Achahan" with Menghean translations and pronunciations, apparently as a guide to scholars studying the ruins. Most Menghean accounts, however, referred to Achahan as the State of Yŏn (燕).

Jean-Henri Batiste, the first Casaterran explorer to visit the ruins in an 1882 expedition, was aware of later versions of these Menghean texts, which had progressed to using the Sinmun characters 아차한 (Achahan, then romanized A Tsa Han). Dramatizing these characters with a reference to Heliochoran, Batiste named the new site Astrakhan, from Astra ("star" in Heliochoran) and Khan ("king" in Dzungar). The name persisted in Western literature until 1998, when a Tyrannian archaeological team published its revised transliteration rules for the "square script" inscriptions and its conclusion that the native name for the kingdom should in fact be read "Achahan." Both names remain in widespread use today, though Achahan is considered to have more historical legitimacy.

In 2017, a group of Columbian scholars challenged the "Achahan" reading, alleging that it relied too much on dynastic-era Menghean records and did not account for changes in the pronunciation of Menghean characters over time. Their proposed reading, based on Dzhungestani linguistics, is Hatagan, and comes with a wider set of revisions to the romanization of the Achahan language. The academic verdict on the proper pronunciation of Achahan remains unclear.

History

Sŭllŭnge river kingdom

Not much is known about Achahan prior to its conquest of the proto-Chikai. Records from the transitional period state that they came "from the raging waters of the west," an apparent reference to the Sŭllŭnge river. Where the settlers of this river area came from remains a mystery, with some speculating that they are descended from central Hemithean nomads while others suggest that they migrated through Sŏnmun pass from an origin point somewhere in southern Menghe.

Archaeological excavations along the Sŭllŭnge have uncovered cities, pottery, and bronze tools consistent with a substantial civilization in the area in the 18th century BCE, but on a smaller scale than the White River civilizations that were still dominant at the time. The Sŭllŭnge river kingdom used the same cuneiform script as the proto-Chikai, probably after encountering it in the course of trade and diplomacy, but adjusted it to suit local grammar and phonetics.

In the early 16th century BCE, armies from the Sŭllŭnge river began making progressively deeper incursions into proto-Chikai lands, not only raiding but also administering territory. Proto-Chikai inscriptions from this period may refer to Achahan warriors on horseback, the first historical evidence of horseback riding in Hemithea; the proto-Chikai themselves used chariots.

King Akan

The first tablet in Achahan knife script (see below) was unearthed in the former capital of proto-Chikai, and announces the victory of "Akan, king of kings" over the proto-Chikai state. It dates to 1553 BCE. King Akan, according to this tablet and other partially translated ones, led Achahan forces in the final conquest of proto-Chikai and subsequently ruled over a united empire northwest of the Chŏnsan mountains. Inscriptions from throughout the Achahan period treat him as a godlike figure, the founding father of the Achahan kingdom.

Rather than pillaging captured territory and carrying important statues and treasures back to his old capital at Badu, King Akan moved his court to the proto-Chikai capital of Shurupan. Under the dates associated with his reign, Achahan incorporated many aspects of proto-Chikai culture and administration into its own domain, including the tradition of building enormous tombs in the desert for deceased rulers.

Apex

The Achahan Empire reached its height under King Adaran, who reigned during the 13th century BCE and was the second-most-significant ruler of Achahan. Steles associated with King Adaran have been found deep in Maverican territory, suggesting that Achahan lands reached a broad extent during his lifetime.

Beginning in the 12th century BCE, merchants within the Achahan Empire began journeying to the northwest to purchase lapis lazuli, turquoise, and other semi-precious stones from nomads in what is now Themiclesia. Some of these stones found their way to the Meng river valley, which at this time was still divided into minor kingdoms. This marked the beginning of the "lapis road" running between Menghe and Northwest Hemithea, an important trade route which would eventually lead to the settlement of Themiclesia itself. As the middleman on this trade route, Achahan emerged as a significant mercantile power, and inscriptions in both countries attest to regular if long-distance interaction between Menghean and Achahan merchants and diplomats.

Decline and disappearance

Around the turn of the first millennium BCE, Achahan entered into a period of military and economic decline, for reasons that are still not entirely clear. A number of outlying cities and settlements in the Central Hemithean Steppe were abandoned during this period, with some sites showing evidence of fire. By the 10th century, Achahan activity was mostly confined to the upper White River basin, and in 953 the regular clay records diligently maintained by court scribes stopped appearing.

One theory of Achahan's decline holds that it was related to changes in Septentrion's climate. The angle of the planet's rotation is believed to have wobbled several degrees around 3,000 years ago, a change which in combination with shifting wind patterns and ocean currents may have disrupted rainfall patterns in inland Menghe. Analysis of earlier soil and sediment layers suggests that the upper White and Sŭllŭge river basins were lush grasslands at the time of the Achahan and proto-Chikai civilizations, while today they are semi-arid scrublands with mildly cold winters. Desertification and inconsistent rainfall may have led to poor harvests and famine, reducing the region's ability to sustain a high population density based on sedentary agriculture.

An alternative theory posits that nomadic tribes in Central Hemithea were the direct cause of Achahan's decline and fall. Nomadic incursions are known to have become more common in this period, as horseback riding techniques proliferated more widely through the Central Hemithean Basin, and surviving tablets from the late Achahan period do report a sharp uptick in bandit raids. Nomadic tribes, including the Chikai, also dominated this area for some two millennia after Achahan's fall. It is also possible that nomadic incursions in combination with climate change led to the collapse of the Achahan kingdom and its failure to re-emerge.

Architecture

The Temple Gate at Azadur, a typical illustration of Achahan religious architecture.

Achahan's greatest impression on subsequent historians came from its monumental architecture. The Achahans were skilled at stoneworking, more skilled than the contemporary Jun dynasty in Menghe. Like the proto-Chikai before them, they built colossal tombs for deceased rulers, as well as large temples and a towering palace complex on the outskirts of Shurupan. Achahan architectural designs differed somewhat in form, with both tombs and temples taking the form of halls rather than pyramids, and tended to be more carefully finished.

A characteristic trait of Achahan monuments was the prolific inscription of "square script" writing on pillars, lintels, steles, and polished wall space. Temples, for example, might be inscribed with the full text of myths and legends relating to the gods housed inside, while tomb inscriptions describe the deeds of the deceased and the events that took place during his lifetime. These inscriptions provide the richest repository of information on Achahan history, yet many have only been partially translated.

Outside of monuments, Achahan cities also displayed a relatively high degree of order and organization for the time. Most houses were built of compacted mud-bricks, which were readily available next to major rivers, and covered with plaster to protect them from the elements. Because rainfall was relatively scarce even then, many were built with flat roofs, which allowed additional workspace in the sun. At most urban finds dating to this period, bricks were cut in a regular 1:2:4 dimensional ratio, and in a few sites the city was built on a very rough grid pattern. Notable in inland sites especially is the presence of rectangular reservoirs with descending steps, which in addition to allowing easy access at any water level also allowed administrators to gauge the amount of rainfall.

After the civilization's decline and collapse, these stone monuments remained standing, where they became a source of curiosity for subsequent peoples. The Chikai and other nomads used them as landmarks on their travels, as did caravans following the lapis road out of Menghe. Dynastic Menghean scholars expressed a particularly strong interest in these ruins, making expeditions into the desert to see them and trace their writing, but they did not make any serious inroads at translating Achahan writing or excavating archaeological sites.

Culture

The culture of Achahan is still an area of active research, and much progress remains to be made in deciphering inscriptions on temple walls and clay tablets.

It is known from surviving frescoes that Achahan "adopted" most proto-Chikai deities into its own pantheon, including Ishtar, goddess of war and beauty. Yet Achahan religion was ultimately rooted in beliefs that emerged independently in the Sŭllŭge river valley, and King Akan went to great efforts to preserve this religious core as the faith of his Sŭllŭge-born ruling class. The design of temples underwent the greatest change; while every proto-Chikai city had a pyramid-shaped "sky altar" designed to bring priests closer to heaven, Achahan temples resembled long, enclosed stone halls, each of which sheltered a holy fire which was fed sandalwood as fuel.

Writing

One of the most intriguing features of the Achahan kingdom is its system of writing. Originally, city-states in the Sŭllŭnge river adopted the proto-Chikai cuneiform script for record-keeping, as they lacked a writing system of their own and contact with the proto-Chikai was already widespread. Yet proto-Chikai cuneiform was ideographic in nature, with long, complex symbols derived from pictograms. It could not easily accommodate the numerous affixes present in Achahan script, or the language's widespread use of inflection and conjugation. For an interim period, Achahan kingdoms used certain cuneiform logograms for their phonetic value to sound out a word, but this could be a long and laborious process, and it is likely that it only approximately reflected each final word's pronunciation.

Shortly after Achahan's conquest of the White River valley in 1553, an entirely new script appeared on Achahan clay tablets. The new script greatly simplified phonetic cuneiform units into single consonant letters, and added diacritics above, below, or around them to indicate vowel sounds. This makes it the earliest documented abugida writing system in Septentrion. Early steles and inscriptions describe it as the personal invention of King Akan, who had recently conquered the proto-Chikai and desired a new language for administration, but it was most likely the work of captured scribes.

Achahan writing comes in two distinct fonts or variants. The first is "knife script" (from Menghean Dosŏ), a cuneiform script pressed in clay with a reed stylus in much the same manner as Chikai script. Achahan cuneiform can be identified from its simpler composition and the absence of diagonal wedge lines. It was mainly used on clay tablets for record-keeping, and to inscribe long works of fiction or history.

The second form, "square script" (from Menghean Bangsŏ), uses the same basic shape to denote each letter, but is composed of rectangular forms rather than the wedge-shaped cuneiform. It is used extensively on the walls and columns of temples, palaces, tombs, and other monuments, where it is painstakingly chiseled into the rock rather than being pressed into soft clay with a stylus. It is almost exclusively inscribed by cutting the "negative" spaces out from around a line of text, leaving the letters themselves raised rather than recessed. In some surviving tombs, the faces of the protruding letters were covered in gold paint or gold leaf, and the same treatment may have been applied to external areas and lost to weathering.

Having broken the ancient seal at the gates, a cord undisturbed by time, we gazed through the doorway into the main hall of the tomb. The chamber itself was dark, and vast, so vast that we could not see its walls from where we stood. Cautiously, I took a few steps across the threshold, leaving the rest of the party at the door. I raised my candle in the pitch-black darkness, and as my eyes adjusted to the low light, I froze, astonished. Lines of a mysterious text, glyphs lost to our time, shimmered as though suspended in midair. As I looked closer, I saw that they were characters etched in gold on the stone walls and pillars, square-edged letters that hooked around each other and snaked about the room, reflecting the light from our torches just as they must have done millennia ago. I had long wondered how I would react on entering the oldest undisturbed tomb in the world, what I would say, but at that moment, I was utterly without words. This was the "magic script" my guides had spoken of, the "magic script" which the ancient Oriental classics describe with the same awe I felt on that day.

William LeRoy, Record of the Discovery of King Arkad's Tomb in Astrakhan.

Because it is made up of distinct consonant and vowel units which are consistent between the two scripts, and because there is an enormous body of written text on tablets and ruins, modern scholars have had greater success in deciphering Achahadian than they have had with the proto-Chikai script. Nevertheless, as the Achahadian language has not been spoken since the 10th century BCE, there is still disagreement on the exact pronunciation of certain consonants and on the meanings of many words. There is also a broader debate on whether Achahadian was an ancestor of today's Dzungic languages, or an entirely different language family which has died out entirely. As the proto-Dzungic languages had no written alphabet until the Jin dynasty, which merely adopted Menghean characters, it is difficult to reach a clear verdict on the language's status.

See also

• Sindo creation myth