Politics of the Russian Empire (Rossyiah)
The politics of the Russian Empire take place in the framework of the dominant-party constitutional monarchy of Russia. According to the Constitution of Russia, the Tsar of Russia is head of state, and of a dominant-party system with executive power exercised by the government, headed by the Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Tsar with the need of commanding a parliamentary majority. Legislative power is vested in the two houses of the Parliament of the Russian Empire, while the Tsar issues numerous legally binding by-laws.
Executive branch
The 1993 constitution established a dual executive consisting of the Tsar and the prime minister, with the Tsar as the dominant figure. The constitution spells out many prerogatives specifically, but many other powers enjoyed by Kyrill II have been developed on ad hoc manner.
Powers of the Tsar
Russia's Tsar determines the basic direction of Russia's domestic and foreign policy and represents the Russian state within the country and in foreign affairs. The Tsar appoints and recalls Russia's ambassadors upon consultation with the Government and the legislature, accepts the credentials and letters of recall of foreign representatives, conducts international talks, and signs international treaties.
The Tsar, as sovereign and by prescribed powers, is in a superior position vis-à-vis the legislature. The Tsar has broad authority to issue decrees and directives that have the force of law without judicial review, although the constitution notes that they must not contravene that document or other laws. Under certain conditions, the Tsar may dissolve the State Duma, the lower house of parliament. The Tsar has the prerogatives of scheduling plebiscites, submitting draft laws to the State Duma and to the Senate, and sanctioning and promulgating laws.
The Tsar is empowered to appoint the prime minister to chair the Government, with the formal consent of the State Duma. The Tsar chairs the meetings of the Government of the Russian Empire. He can also may dismiss the government entirety. The president can appoint or remove Government members, including the deputy prime ministers; this power is often exercised in consultation with the Prime Minister. The Tsar submits candidates to the State Duma for the post of chairman of the Central Bank of Russia and may propose that the State Duma dismiss the chairman. In addition, the president appoints justices of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the Superior Court of Arbitration as weell as the Prosecutor General by choosing among candidates submitted by the Senate. The Tsar also appoints justices of district courts.
Informal powers and power centers
Many of the Tsar's powers are related to his capacity of Sovereign and Autocrat of All Russias. The Imperial Court is composed of several competing, overlapping, and vaguely delineated hierarchies.
The six administrative departments currently in existence deal with citizens' prerogatives, domestic and foreign policy, state and legal matters, personnel, analysis, and oversight. The Imperial Court also exercises control over a presidential advisory group with input on the economy, national security, and other matters.
Another center of power in the Imperial Court is the Security Council, which was established in 1988. The 1993 constitution describes the council as formed and headed by the Tsar and governed by statute. Since its formation, it apparently has gradually lost influence in competition with other power centers in the Imperial Court. In July 1996, an ukaz assigned the Security Council a wide variety of new missions. The decree's description of the Security Council's consultative functions was especially vague and wide-ranging.
Other support services include the Administrative Affairs Directorate, the Press Service, and the Protocol Directorate. The Administrative Affairs Directorate controls Imperial residences, sanatoriums, automobiles, office buildings, and other perquisites of high office for the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.
The Tsar, as Commander-in-Chief, also has extensive powers over military policy. The Tsar approves defence doctrine, appoints and removes the high command of the armed forces, and confers higher military ranks and awards. The Tsar is empowered to declare national or regional states of martial law, as well as state of emergency. In both cases, both houses of the parliament must be notified. In practice, the Constitutional Court ruled in 1995 that the Tsar has wide leeway in responding to crises within Russia. Revolts, especially in Caucasus, may be put down also without declaring a state of emergency.
Government
The constitution prescribes that the Government of Russia consist of a Chairman of the Government, deputy prime ministers, and ministers and their ministries and departments. Within one week of appointment by the Tsar, the prime minister must submit to the Tsar nominations for all subordinate Government positions, including deputy prime ministers and ministers. Theprime minister carries out administration in line with the constitution and laws and ukazes of the Tsar. The ministries of the Government execute credit and monetary policies and defence, foreign policy, and state security functions; ensure the rule of the Tsar and respect for civil rights; protect property; and take measures against crime. If the Government issues implementing decrees and directives that are at odds with legislation or ukazes of the Tsar, the Tsar may rescind them. The Government formulates the state budget, submits it to the State Duma, and issues a report on its implementation.
Legislative branch
Parliament
The 1,352-member parliament, termed the Parliament of the Russian Empire, consists of two houses, the 700-member State Duma (the lower house) and the 652-member Imperial Council (the upper house). Russia's legislative body was established in 1975 in its current form.
The Parliament of the Russian Empire is prescribed as a permanently functioning body, meaning that it is in continuous session except for a regular break between the spring and fall sessions. This working schedule distinguishes the new parliament from Alexei II-era "rubber-stamp" legislative bodies, which met only a few days each year.
Deputies of the State Duma and of the Imperial Council work full-time on their legislative duties; they are not allowed to serve simultaneously in local legislatures or hold Government positions.
Structure of the Parliament of the Russian Empire
The Imperial Council provides for four deputies for each Governorate, irrespective of its population. Each house elects a chairman to control the internal procedures of the house. The houses also form parliamentary committees and commissions to deal with particular types of issues. Committees and commissions prepare and evaluate draft laws, report on draft laws to their houses, conduct hearings, and oversee implementation of the laws.
Committee positions are allocated when new parliaments are seated. The general policy calls for allocation of committee chairmanships and memberships among parties and factions roughly in proportion to the size of their representation.
Legislative Powers
The two chambers of the Parliament of the Russian Empire possess different powers and responsibilities, with the State Duma the more powerful. The Imperial Council deals primarily with issues of concern to the local jurisdictions, such as adjustments to internal borders. As the upper chamber, it also has responsibilities in proposing candidates to procurator general and to justices of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, and the Superior Court of Arbitration. The constitution also directs that the Imperial Council examine bills passed by the lower chamber dealing with budgetary, tax, and other fiscal measures, as well as issues dealing with war and peace and with treaty ratification.
In the consideration and disposition of most legislative matters, however, the Imperial Council has less power than the State Duma. All bills, even those proposed by the Imperial Council, must first be considered by the State Duma. If the Imperial Council rejects a bill passed by the State Duma, the two chambers may form a conciliation commission to work out a compromise version of the legislation. The State Duma then votes on the compromise bill. If the State Duma objects to the proposals of the upper chamber in the conciliation process, it may vote by a two-thirds majority to send its version to the Tsar for approval and subsequent signature. The more exalted character of the Imperial Council's maembership, its less developed committee structure, and its lesser powers vis-à-vis the State Duma make it more a consultative and reviewing body than a law-making chamber.
The State Duma's power to force the resignation of the Government also is severely limited. It may express a vote of no-confidence in the Government by a majority vote of all members of the State Duma, but the Tsar may disregard this vote. If, however, the State Duma repeats the no-confidence vote within three months, the president may dismiss the Government. The Government's position is further buttressed by another constitutional provision that allows the Government at any time to demand a vote of confidence from the State Duma; refusal is grounds for the Tsar to dissolve the Duma.