Meng
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| approx. 536 million | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Menghe 462,200,473 (2017) | |
 Themiclesia | 36,220,800 |
 Hanhae | 15,188,570 |
 Polvokia | 9,807,937 |
| Template:Country data Altagracia | 6,736,960 |
| Template:Country data Sundan | 3,438,946 |
| Template:Country data Organized States | 1,987,482 |
| Template:Country data Tol Galen | 1,211,048 |
 Dayashina | 791,906 |
 Republic of Innominada | 624,775 |
| Template:Country data Rajamaa | 549,875 |
 Portcullia | 423,639 |
 New Tyran | 236,853 |
 Ostland | 209,719 |
 Sieuxerr | 195,582 |
| Template:Country data Khalistan | 179,980 |
| Template:Country data Federation of Socialist Republics | 161,018 |
| Template:Country data Leonesse | 154,432 |
 Sylva | 133,517 |
| Template:Country data Nukkumaa | 126,801 |
 Dzhungestan | 119,721 |
| Languages | |
| Menghean language | |
| Religion | |
| Sindoism, Chŏndoism, Buddhism, Shahidism, Christianity | |
The Meng (Menghean: 멩인 / 孟人 Mengin or 멩족 / 孟族 Mengjok) are an ethnic group and nation native to the southeastern areas of the continent of Hemithea. Beyond the borders of Menghe, Meng are also the majority population in Hanhae and Altagracia, and there are substantial Meng minorities in Polvokia, Dayashina, Themiclesia, and other countries which have drawn immigrants from Menghe. The total Meng population of Septentrion has been estimated at over 536 million, making it the largest ethnic group in the region.
Most ethnic Meng live within the borders of Menghe, where they make up 87.7% of the population in the country overall and 96.8% of the population when excluding the four southwestern Semi-Autonomous Provinces. Historically, the dynasties that ruled Imperial Menghe were dominated by ethnic Meng, and their centralized administration through scholar-officials had the effect of spreading Menghean practices around the country. Formally, the Menghean government maintains that all ethnic groups have equal rights and offers substantial cultural autonomy to minorities living in special administrative areas, but Menghean culture is dominant in the country.
Name
In the Menghean language, the term Mengjok (멩족 / 孟族, "Meng ethnicity") is the standard, official ethnonym for referring to the Meng as a collective people, and the term Mengin (멩인 / 孟人, "Meng person/people") is used to refer to one or several ethnic Meng. These are distinct from Menggugin (멩국인 / 孟國人, literally "Meng country people") which refers to citizens of Menghe and encompasses members of other ethnic groups, and Menghwa (멩화 / 孟華, "Meng civilization") and Junghwa (중화 / 中華, "middle civilization"), which refer to Meng or Menghean civilizational culture more broadly and can be interpreted as iincluding minorities. In everyday usage, many foreign languages, such as Tyrannian, tend to substitute "Menghean" as the common-use ethnonym for the Meng people, either alone or in combinations like "Menghetown" or "Menghean food." Technically speaking, this is not correct; even so, it is in widespread use, as Meng make up a large majority of Menghe's population and are internationally most closely identified with the country.
The ethnonym Meng can be traced back to the Meng river, which runs eastward from a mountain source in Gangwŏn province and empties into the East Menghe Sea at the city of Haeju. While not the longest river to cross Menghe's territory, it is the longest of the "central rivers" and the longest to lie entirely within Menghe. It is also one of the three cradles of neolithic civilization in Menghe, and the one whose culture forms the taproot for most Menghean culture today.
Etymologically, the ethnonym Meng is derived from the Meng dynasty, which ruled Menghe from 192 BCE to 278 CE and was the first culturally Meng kingdom to unite most of what is now considered Menghe. The Meng dynasty, in turn, took its name from the State of Meng, which in turn took its name from the Meng River that ran through its heart. Meng unification became a source of pride for scholars who had long lamented the country's division into warring states; the idea of a shared ethno-cultural identity among the core states stretched back to the early Warring States period, though at the time it was better known as Hwanghwa. Meng became a doubly significant term because it echoed not just the triumphs of the Meng dynasty in repelling Yang occupation and unifying the country, but also because it hearkened back to the Meng river valley, which according to legend was the location where the Jade Emperor led his people in their exodus from the Yellow Emperor's kingdom by the lakeside. By the time of the Five States and Seven Fiefdoms period, Meng (or Menghwa) had replaced Hwanghwa as the most popular term for the shared cultural identity tying together the peoples at Menghe's core.
Distribution
Menghe
Most ethnic Meng, 462 million in total, live within the borders of the Socialist Republic of Menghe, where they make up over 88 percent of the population. Within Menghe, they are most strongly concentrated in the "Meng circle" which covers 3/4 of the country around Lake Jijunghae; Meng only make up 6% of the population in the four southwestern Semi-Autonomous Provinces, where Argentans, Uzeris, Daryz, and Siyadagis form the majority, respectively. Menghean is the only nationwide official language, and Meng cultural practices are widespread throughout the country.
Since the early 20th century, successive Menghean governments have taken some steps to safeguard the cultural rights of non-Meng peoples, most notably through the creation of four Semi-Autonomous Provinces and a few Semi-Autonomous Counties along the border with Dzhungestan. Even so, Meng still play a dominant role in the country's government, if only because of their numerical advantage. Ethnic Meng are also wealthier on average than the country's non-immigrant minorities, with the exception of Uzeris, who are the wealthiest non-immigrant ethnic group on average due to their concentration along the more economically developed coast. Even here, though, the Semi-Autonomous Province of Uzeristan is less developed than Meng-majority coastal regions like Donghae and Chŏllo.
North Hemithea
A substantial Meng population extends north of the Menghean border, into what are now the countries of Polvokia and Hanhae. These states are home to 9.8 million and 15 million ethnic Meng, respectively. In Hanhae, Meng make up a majority of the population, which historically represented a source of tension between the native population and their Dayashinese rulers. Currently, Hanhae is on a transitional path to independence as the second majority-Meng sovereign state (third including Altagracia). In Polvokia, Meng make up only 18 percent of the population, but due to their concentration in the south they were awarded two Autonomous Oblasts under the 2000 administrative reforms. In these areas, Menghean is a recognized regional language, and Meng enjoy special cultural rights. There is also a substantial Meng minority dispersed throughout the Lower Zeya Consociational Oblast, though here they enjoy the same rights as other Oblast residents.
Historically, there was a large influx of Meng settlers to this region during Menghe's Yi dynasty, during which time Menghe controlled territory as far north as the current location of Sankt-Konstansburg. During the same period, many indigenous residents of the area were assimilated into the wider Meng identity. For this reason, and due to divergence on different sides of the border, Meng culture differs in Polvokia, Hanhae, and Menghe itself, with northern Meng speaking a "Hanhae dialect" nearly mutually unintelligible with Standard Menghean. Subsequent waves of immigration took place after the Pan-Septentrion War, but most Meng living in these areas settled there centuries ago.
Themiclesia
A 2018 government survey in Themiclesia identified 1.72 million permanent residents who "self-identify as Menghean in some sense," though it is unclear how many of these are ethnic Meng as opposed to members of Menghe's other ethnic groups. Independent estimates place the proportion of Meng at over 96% within this group. Either figures makes Meng the largest diaspora group within Themiclesia. By a broad definition, the majority population in Themiclesia could also be classified as Meng, as they migrated to the country during the 6th century CE after leaving Menghe's Chŏllo plain, but today most families who trace their ancestry back to that movement identify as a separate Themiclesian ethnic group.
Sundan
A considerable Menghean population migrated to Sundan during the Yi dynasty, when Menghe engaged in extensive trade with the Sundan Archipelago and set up permanent mercantile enclaves there. Given the scale of the spice trade, these grew into some of the largest overseas Menghean minorities. Batavian colonists in Sundan tolerated the presence of Meng trading enclaves, and even gave them preferential treatment as intermediaries between the colonial population and the various indigenous islander groups. During Sundan's period of civil war, ethnic Meng were relatively safe due to their concentration in the cities, but fear of ethnic violence and postwar mistreatment led to a net population flow back into Menghe.
Other diaspora states
Over the course of history, smaller Meng populations have emigrated to areas further beyond Menghe's borders, forming a large global diaspora. The earliest recorded diaspora settlement dates to the Kang dynasty, when Meng traders set up semi-permanent residence along the coast of what is now Innominada. Most migration, however, took place from the late 19th century onward, driven by an effort to escape conditions at home. For three periods - the 16th century to 1853, 1929 to 1945, and 1965 to 1988 - Menghean governments tightly controlled emigration, but even in these periods ethnic Meng continued to leave illegally.
Conventionally, modern emigration from Menghe is divided into three "waves." The first wave, running from the opening of the Myŏn dynasty in 1853 to the restoration of travel restrictions in 1929, consisted mainly of low-income workers seeking better employment overseas, many of them drawn in by misleading labor contracts offered by Western companies. The second wave, beginning in 1945 and ending in 1988, consisted mainly of refugees fleeing postwar devastation, civil war, and the Communist regime's hunt for political opponents. The "third wave" of migration under the current Socialist government is most often understood to consist of better-off entrepreneurs and skilled workers seeking more lucrative business opportunities overseas. This classification is something of a generalization, as there have also been economic emigrants under the DPRM and political exiles under the current regime, but it is often invoked to clarify differences between earlier and later generations of Meng living abroad.
Menghean nationality law is based on the principle of jus sanguinis rather than jus soli, and children born abroad to a parent with Menghean citizenship are automatically granted citizenship in Menghe. Additionally, an expedited procedure exists for members of the Menghean diaspora, defined as those who can identify one parent, two grandparents, or four great-grandparents who were Menghean citizens. Formally, this applies to all Menghean ethnic groups, but in practice it serves as part of a deliberate state effort to bring back members of the Meng ethnic diaspora.
Origins and classification
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence suggests that the first hominid populations migrated into Hemithea 2.2 million years ago, moving out of Meridia across a land bridge that spanned the now-submerged Strait of Portcullia. Part of the first wave of humans moved to the southwest, where the humid subtropical climate was most amenable to a hunter-gatherer existence. Little is known about the movement and mixing of populations until around 7,000 years ago, when the first Neolithic cultures emerged in the central areas of what is now Menghe.
Culturally, the Meng people claim descent from the neolithic Menggang culture, which was the first area of Menghe south of the Chŏnsan mountains to develop bronze working and a recorded writing system. As Imperial Menghe expanded, multiple other people were assimilated into the Meng category, including descendants of the Haedong and proto-Chikai cultures. The latter of these predated the Menggang culture, yet in conventional usage many ethnic Meng consider it a part of their people's historical legacy. The use of centralized scholar officials in the dynastic period and the pursuit of standardization and assimilation from the 20th century onward has also spread many aspects of Meng river culture, including language and customs, to other areas of the country.
According to the Sindo creation myth recorded in the Gosagi, all human beings were created at the shores of Lake Jijunghae, but many of them abandoned their posts in the early trials, forming the world's barbarian tribes. Those who remained behind through the Yellow Emperor's trials became the Meng people more broadly defined, and those who followed the Jade Emperor's exodus to the Meng river valley became the initial Meng civilization. While few Meng people today believe the young earth creationism of the Gosagi, the Yellow Emperor and Jade Emperor remain important as symbolic ancestors of the Meng race, and the Gosagi enjoys high status as a national epic describing their origin.
Hwanghwa
The first references to a common Menghean culture and people emerged in the writings of scholars and philosophers during the First Warring States Period (603-341 BCE), in the form of references to a common Hwanghwa (황화 / 黃華) identity spanning the area south of Lake Jijunghae. The term was used to encompass the civilization which had grown from the mythical Yellow Emperor's "kingdom by the lakeside," which was abandoned after his death when the Stone, Jade, and Metal Emperors led the surviving people on an exodus to new settlements.
As Sindo creation myth placed the kingdom by the lakeside right next to the center of the newly created world, and gave it a divinely descended ruler who introduced new technologies and customs to those who remained loyal, the term Hwanghwa carried a connotation of greater civilization and cultural advancement. It thus served to distinguish the early warring states from the surrounding barbarian tribes. By the opposite side of the same coin, it also promoted the idea of a shared cultural heritage among the core group of warring states themselves, justifying efforts at their (re)unification into a successor state to the Yellow Emperor's kingdom.
Meng dynasty
In 192 BCE, the State of Meng - a territory captured by the Yang dynasty during its southward expansion - broke away and initiated a war for what is now Central-Southern Menghe. Under Emperor Mu, who reigned from that point until 146 BCE, the State of Meng expanded far northward to the gates of Jang'an, though the then-Yang capital did not fall until 110. Subsequent emperors of the Meng dynasty also led expeditions against the southern nomads and minor states of the Rogang river, bringing much of the Southern Plain under their control.
This development led to the first real unification of what is now Menghe under an ethnically Meng ruling government. The State of Yang had controlled the Jijunghae Basin prior to that time, but linguistically and culturally they were a distinct offshoot, and at the time they had been vilified as an occupying power. Scholars in the central river valleys rejoiced at what they saw as the long-awaited realization of the dream of uniting Hwanghwa under one king.
Centralized rule also helped crystallize and broaden the Meng identity. Faced with the need to govern so many different conquered peoples, Emperor Mun of Meng (128-95 BCE) standardized the set of characters used in the Menghean language and required that high-level officials go through a period of service in the capital before being sent to posts elsewhere in the country. These policies had the effect of standardizing elite-level culture around that of the Meng river valley, where the Meng capital was situated, and spreading it around the country. By the time of the Meng dynasty's collapse in 278 CE, even the Haedong and Southern Plain peoples, who had been labeled as borderline barbarians at the dynasty's outset, viewed themselves as part of a broader Meng cultural identity.
Pre-modern migration
The first large-scale migration of ethnic Meng far beyond Menghe's borders took place in the 1st century CE, when Menghean traders on the Turquoise Road began settling down in what is now Themiclesia in larger numbers in order to expand their mining operations. Later, at the end of the Five States and Seven Dynasties period, many members of the Chŏllo court and army, including one line of the Meng Dynasty's ruling family, fled to the inland colony to escape the coming Jin armies. For this reason, some scholars in Menghe consider Themiclesians to be a branch of the Meng people, though a separate Themiclesian identity developed in the centuries that followed and Themiclesians are generally considered a separate ethnic group today.
Menghean dynastic trade also brought ethnic Meng along the coasts of Innominada and northern Meridia, especially during the Sŭng and Yi dynasties. After arriving in a Meridian port and selling their goods, Meng traders often stayed behind for the remainder of the year to let the heavy monsoon storms pass and wait for the prevailing winds to shift northward again. During this time, some set up families in their ports away from home, and some of the first "Menghetown" districts were born. Many of these overseas enclaves vanished after the Menghean Black Plague, but a few survived the period of Sylvan colonial rule, and genetic studies have found a higher percentage of Menghean tracer genes in certain areas of the Pillowlandian and Maracaiban north coasts.
Culture
Language
The language of the Meng people is the Menghean language, or more properly the Mengheic language family. The Menghean language is descended from the language spoken in the Meng river valley thousands of years ago, a legacy most clearly seen in its writing system and vocabulary. Gomun characters, which also spread to Themiclesia and Dayashina, originated there, and in light of this they are also known as Mengja (멩자 / 孟字) or "Meng letters." The standard form of Menghean, which is based on the Donggyŏng and Donghae dialects, also incorporates many influences from other linguistic families, most notably in its grammatical structure, Haedong vocabulary, and absence of vowel tones.
The form of Menghean language used in day-to-day interaction is divided into a wide variety of regional accents and dialects, which can be mutually unintelligible when spoken. Most of these dialects are marked by an increased use of words without Gomun equivalents, and a few in the south still incorporate vowel tones, a feature carried on from Classical Menghean. In an effort to improve governance, trade, and communication, successive Menghean governments have promoted the use of the standard Botong-ŏ (보통어 / 普通語, "standard language") form of the language, which is today the only form of Menghean taught in public schools in Meng-majority regions. The active promotion of Botong-ŏ has led some activists to express concern that over two-thirds of all regional Meng languages could die out before mid-century.
A few isolated regions of Menghe, most notably those in the western Chŏnsan mountains and near the Dzhungestan-Polvokia border, speak languages that have been identified more firmly with the Dzhungic category. Menghean scholars still consider these peoples part of the Meng ethnic category if they cannot clearly be classified as one of the major ethnic groups in Dzhungestan or Polvokia.
Religion
Most Meng practice some form of Sindoism or Chŏndoism, but these religions are not necessarily mutually exclusive in practice and it is common to see self-identifying Chŏndoists worshipping at Sindo shrines or vice versa. They are perhaps better understood under the catch-all header of "traditional Meng religion." Buddhism also enjoys a large following among ethnic Meng, but it is not always included in this category, as it originated in what is now northern Maverica and was introduced in the 7th century CE.
The Meng understanding of religion in general differs from understandings of religion in other cultures, in that most Chŏndoists and many Sindoists do not actually report believing in a god or gods; 20th century ethnographer Miles Finch called it a "religion of organized agnosticism." In place of belief in the divine, Meng culture emphasizes proper performance of rites and morally upright behavior in everyday life. This is more true of Chŏndoism than Sindoism and Buddhism, but it remains a distinctive feature of Meng cultural life, in that many people who otherwise identify as nonreligious still pray at temples or maintain shrines to their ancestors.
Shahidism was introduced to Kang-dynasty Menghe in the 8th century CE, and it gathered a small following of converts among ethnic Meng, especially in Hwangjŏn Province and in major trading centers. Ethnic Meng who practice Shahidism are known as Hoe (회 / 回), by some accounts due to their desire to conduct a pilgrimage and "return" to the holy city of Makkah. Accounts from the dynastic period generally refer to the Hoe as a non-Meng ethnic group on account of their different customs, most notably refusal to eat pork, yet from 1969 onward they have been classified as a subset of Meng people.
Other faiths, including Christianity, are more common among the Meng diaspora population, particularly in the older ex-colonial diasporas in Portcullia and Sundan. Orthodix Christianity also enjoys a small following among Meng in Polvokia. As the Greater Menghean Empire, Democratic People's Republic of Menghe, and current Socialist Republic of Menghe all instituted policies hostile to Christianity, many Christian Meng emigrated from the country to seek refuge in more developed Christian economies.
Dress
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The traditional dress of the Meng people is known as Mengbok (멩복 / 孟服), meaning "Meng clothing." In Western usage the term Mengbok is often understood to refer to the robe worn by men on formal occasions, but in Menghe it is used as a catch-all term for traditional clothing of all classes and both sexes. Formal or upper-class Mengbok in the east consists of a long-sleeved robe and loose trousers for men, and a blouse and long skirt for women, customarily made of silk but sometimes made from synthetic fabrics for lower-budget customers.
Traditional dress, like language, exhibits substantial regional variation in color, style, and material. Yet in contrast to its policies with regard to minority languages, the Menghean government has actively embraced and promoted diversity in traditional Meng dress from 1988 onward. Traditional dress on the Chŏllo plain, for example, is distinguished by its extensive use of white, blue, and black colors, while red hues are considered auspicious in the center-east regions. Certain mountainous areas, especially those in the southeast, are known for their colorful patterns and elaborately crafted headdresses, while in the northeastern region even the upper classes prefer elegantly plain clothing. The belts on women's skirts also vary from waist height in the south to chest height in the northeast, particularly in Polvokia and Hanhae.
As part of its modernization effort, the Democratic People's Republic of Menghe discouraged the wearing of traditional clothing, especially under General-Secretaries Sim Jin-hwan and Ryŏ Ho-jun. After the Decembrist Revolution, however, traditional clothing began to make a comeback, with the blessing of a more conservative government supportive of Meng cultural heritage. Apart from members of a few cultural revivalist movements, however, few ethnic Meng wear traditional clothing outside of festivals and special events, preferring Western attire for its practicality and its acceptance in the business world.
Whether through creativity or national pride, a growing number of Meng fashion designers have worked to integrate traditional motifs, styles, and materials into modern clothing, with the aim of popularizing such outfits at home and introducing them overseas. This has been most successful in reviving the Jangsam dress, which was first popularized in the 1920s. Similar developments include the Hwajang and the Sinmengsam, both early 20th century inventions which attempted to blend traditional fabrics or styles with a slimmer, more practical basic configuration. The current Menghean government has been particularly insistent on encouraging the Sinmengsam as a replacement for the Western business suit, with Choe Sŭng-min exclusively wearing a military uniform or Sinmengsam to formal events and many cadres wearing these outfits in daily work as part of an effort to show their nationalist credentials to superiors.
Cuisine
Food, like dress, is one of the few areas where ethnic Meng have been free to exhibit regional identities. Food in the southeast is famous for spicy flavors due to the introduction of chili peppers to the warm, humid climate, while cuisine on the southern plain is sweeter due to the introduction of sugarcane. Staple foods also vary with climate: in the monsoon-influenced zone southwest of the Ryongguk highland range, rice is the primary staple crop, while in the colder northeast wheat and millet are dominant. Staple foods like rice, noodles, and bread are served with a wide variety of local toppings and seasonings to produce an enormous variety of local Meng cuisine.
Also characteristic of Meng culinary culture is the drinking of tea. Historically, tea cultivation originated in Menghe and spread from there to Themiclesia, Hanhae, and Dayashina, and Menghe remains Septentrion's largest tea producer and exporter today. Tea drinking in Menghe has also spread to other ethnic groups, and is not unique to the Meng, but along with the Gongbu tea ceremony it is still considered a core thread of Meng cultural heritage.
Names
Most Meng have three-syllable names, consisting of a single-syllable surname and a two-syllable given name. Two-syllable surnames and one- and three-syllable given names exist, but are very uncommon. In nearly all situations, the surname is written or said before the given name, and the two are not separated by spaces; in transliterations to Casaterran languages, the syllables of the given name are usually hyphenated to distinguish them from the surname (e.g., Choe Sŭng-min, Sim Jin-hwan, Kim Myŏng-hwan). According to custom, a child inherits his or her father's surname, but a wife does not change her surname upon marrying into a new family.
Under Emperor Mun of Meng, the dynastic government required that all citizens of the Meng empire adopt Meng-style surnames, many of which remain common today. These surnames correspond to Gomun characters, and it is customary to choose given names with Gomun characters, though "native" or "local" names with no Gomun counterpart are also common in the northeast. In part because of the early assignment of names, the top 100 surnames account for 92% of the Meng population, and the top five surnames alone account for almost a third. Given names, especially two-syllable ones, are more diverse, in part due to an old taboo prohibiting the repetition of given names within a family or village.
Architecture
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The Meng pioneered the Hemithean style of clay-tiled roofs with upturned eaves, creating elegant buildings whose style survives to the present. From at least as far back as the Kang dynasty, standard architecture manuals like the Hyŏngjo Bŏbsi provided Meng architects with guidance on construction methods and layout, promoting a shared aesthetic between and within cities. This included an extremely detailed knowledge of interlocking wood joints, which allowed an entire palace or temple to be assembled without the use of nails or metal sockets, and underfloor heating or ventilation, which kept homes at a comfortable temperature.
Diverse climate conditions and differences in the local building materials have resulted in extensive variation in architecture around Menghe. Traditional buildings in the Donghae region make extensive use of red-painted wood for the aboveground structure, and tend to have more pronounced eaves, while on the Chŏllo plain residences are usually built with stone, mud, or brick walls coated in white plaster and topped with straight tiled roofs.
According to mainstream cultural conventions, Meng residences face southward, so that the forward-facing area receives more sunlight in winter and more shade in summer. Symmetry is highly valued, as is family hierarchy, with separate wings for grandparents, elder sons, and younger sons. Extended family residences also include a shrine for deceased ancestors and traditional deities. A large threshold beam under the main entrance, often as high as 30 centimeters, keeps out flood water during monsoon rains and reminds visitors that they are entering another family's realm. Historically the full array of features was reserved for those families who could afford it, and today it is giving way to more modern architectural styles, but new suburban residences are frequently built with central courtyards and southward-facing apartments are generally valued above northward-facing ones.
Literature
The Meng people historically viewed themselves as the most cultured civilization in the known world, and many still take pride in their history of great literature. The first Meng bronze inscriptions date back to 2,600 BCE, and Meng writing likely dates back even earlier, though it was written on bamboo scrolls which have since rotted away. The oldest classics, like The Art of War, Gongja's Analects, and the I Gyŏng, date to the Warring States Period (502-341 BCE). Another golden age of Meng poetry and writing took place in the Sŭng dynasty (905-1253), which produced both elegant prose and sharp critiques of the country's perceived decline. Du Bo and I Baek, the greatest Meng poets, lived during this period.
With a few exceptions, Meng literature from the dynastic period is written using Gomun characters and Classical Menghean grammar, which differ from the standard form of the language used today. During the early 20th century, a number of nationalist authors began producing poems and novels in vernacular script, embracing the popular form of the language and making their work available to a large audience. Today, nearly all recent Meng literature uses Standard Menghean, and it is possible to buy "translations" and annotated versions of classical works.
Debate over classification
There exists considerable public and scholarly disagreement over whether the Meng should be considered a single ethnic group or several. Documents spanning the dynastic period refer to a range of other peoples within what is now Menghe, but at the time Meng status was also understood as a cultural category rather than a genetic one, in that barbarian peoples could be assimilated into it if they adopted civilized practices. Casaterran ethnographers traveling around the country as early as the late 19th and early 20th centuries noted enormous variation in local dialects, customs, and practices, as well as many villages whose people identified themselves as something other than Meng when asked to name their people.
After the formation of the Federative Republic of Menghe in 1901, some nationalist scholars began to challenge this Western framework, promoting classifications which included progressively more people under the umbrella category of Meng. Su Yŏng-sik, the best-known historian and ethnographer in this field, proposed that all descendants of Menghean native people with the exception of foreign nomadic populations (Dzhung, Ketchvans, and Polin) and southwestern minorities (Uzeris, Argentans, Daryz, and Siyadagis) should be classified as Meng. This definition, though ambiguous, gained widespread acceptance, most notably with Kwon Chong-hoon, who made it official policy under the Greater Menghean Empire.
After the Pan-Septentrion War, the Allied Occupation Authority and the Republic of Menghe government tried to dispel Kwon's pan-Meng theory, but it had already gained traction among nationalist guerillas and resistance leaders. The first systematic Menghean census, carried out in 1972, brought the controversy to the fore again when 14% of respondents chose to list an ethnic group outside the standard list provided by census-takers. Sim Jin-hwan, a modernizer and a nationalist, ordered that the census totals be revised to transfer all of these people into the Meng category, where Su Yŏng-sik's research placed them. Propaganda and re-education teams were sent out into the countryside to inform self-identified minorities that they were in fact Meng, with mixed success.
From that point onward, it has been official government policy in Menghe to exclusively use Su Yŏng-sik's definition of Meng in domestic record-keeping and education. Scholars and activists who contest this definition can be charged with spreading misinformation or conspiring to undermine national unity, and even academic researchers are forbidden from distributing questionnaires asking people whether they identify with subgroups within Meng. From what limited research is available, it appears that the wider definition of Meng has gained traction among younger generations, though there are still rural pockets where locals contest their re-labeling.