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Chŏndoism (Menghean: 천도교 / 天道教, Chŏndo-gyo), sometimes translated as "Heaven Worship," is a prominent traditional faith in Menghe. It originated in the early 13th century through the teachings of Choe Je-u, and was recognized as the official religion of the Yi dynasty, as well as the Greater Menghean Empire of 1927-1944. Some consider it to be the de facto state religion of the Socialist Republic of Menghe, which officially cultivates all faiths equally.
Chŏndoism is based on the concept of "Heaven" (천 / 天, Chŏn). Sometimes represented as Hanŭllim (하늘림, "Source of all Being"), Heaven is not considered a deity per se, but an abstract cosmic force that dictates fate in the world. Central to this is the logic of Buŭng (報應 / 부응), or "moral reciprocity," the notion that good deeds are rewarded by good fortune. As such, Chŏndoism dictates that followers should exercise their faith through worldly good deeds rather than prayer or meditation.
Names
Translated literally, Chŏndo (천도 / 天道) means "the Path of Heaven" or "the Heavenly Way," though it has also been translated as "Heaven-Worship" and "Heaven-ism." Originally, it was known only as Chŏn-gyo (천교 / 天教). It acquired its present name in the 14th century, to distinguish it from Sindoism (신도 / 神道), "the Path of the Gods" or "the Divine Way." This nomenclature reflects the difference between these two major strands of Menghean folk religion, the former stressing Heaven as an abstract and all-encompassing concept, the latter focusing on the worship of personified deities.
History
Origins
Classical Menghean scholars have generally traced the origins of Chŏndoism to the writings of Gongja (Menghean: 공자 / 孔子), a writer and moralist active during the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE. Better considered a philosopher than a theologian or a prophet, Gongja lectured and wrote extensively on the proper ethical codes to guide human behavior. He treated these moral codes not as the means to gain divine reward, but as the behavior and mindset necessary to improve life on earth, with the ultimate goal of creating an ideal society. After his death, his teachings developed into a school of thought known as Yu Hak (유학 / 儒學), which became prominent among both court officials and private scholars in subsequent dynasties.
It was only much later, during the decline of the Sunghwa dynasty, that Yu Hak developed into an organized religion. In the year 1205, a prominent scholar by the name of Choe Je-u began to openly criticize Emperor Sung Gojong, whose administration was widely seen as corrupt and unresponsive. In a series of lectures given at the Dŏngrŭng temple complex, Choe argued that the recent series of earthquakes and landslides in Gangwŏn province and floods in Donghae were the result not of angry gods, but of improper ruling methods: Sung Gojong had made ample sacrifices and offerings to the leading traditional deities, but he had spent even more on lavish feasts and celebrations within the court, all while neglecting famine relief and border defenses. These offenses, Choe asserted, violated Gongja’s teachings on a ruler’s proper behavior, casting the natural balance of society into disarray.
As time passed, Choe’s teachings became more passionate and more open, with a greater emphasis on religious thought. It was during this period that he elaborated his concept of Heaven, supposedly reached through a series of revelations during meditation. Choe and his disciples referred to their school of thought as Chŏn-gyo (天教 / 천교), “Heaven Religion” or “Heaven Worship.” According to their teachings, harmony could only be restored not through worship, ritual, and sacrificial offerings, where the Sunghwa court consistently fulfilled its requirements, but through proper rule and ethical behavior in daily life. This teaching rapidly gained traction among the scholarly class, which had deep roots in Yu Hak philosophy and generally opposed Sunghwa corruption.
Angered by the renegade scholar’s teachings, Emperor Gojong ordered that Choe Je-u be arrested and executed. His sentence, public torture and beheading, was carried out in 1224. Rather than suppressing opposition, however, this strengthened the movement, as his successors elevated Choe to the status of a martyr. In the 1220s, proselytizing elites spread Choe’s teachings to the lower classes, emphasizing its doctrine of just government and promising that its spread would bring an end to rural hardships. Past scholars cited Chŏn-gyo as a prominent cause of the Donghae peasant uprisings of 1248, which eventually led to the overthrow of Emperor Chŏljong, though more recent historians have argued that the Donghae uprisings were motivated by local, material concerns and that early Chŏn-gyo was restricted to elites.
Yi Dynasty
Under the Yi dynasty, established in 1253, Chŏn-gyo gained official status. Ju Wŏnho, later remembered as Emperor Taejo, was strongly influenced by Chŏn-gyo while a regional official in the Sunghwa period, and soon after coming to power he issued a proclamation making it the official state religion. This marked a profound change in role; despite its origins in opposition to misrule, the Yi emperors turned Chŏn-gyo into a doctrine that legitimated authority. To succeed the previous informal association of scholars, Yi Sejong formed the Imperial Bureau of Rites, which had overseen traditional ceremonies under previous dynasties. Similar reversals happened throughout Menghe history as Chŏn-gyo passed in and out of favor, most recently when the nationalist faction came to power in the Decembrist Revolution. This flexibility stems in large part from the ambiguity in Choe’s principle of political reciprocity, which holds that rulers must follow the highest standard of ethical behavior, but also that the general population must give their full support to a just ruler.
Another major influence during this period was the gradual fusion of Chŏn-gyo with aspects of other Menghe religions. Emperor Yi Taejo initially supported a campaign to discourage other faiths, on the basis that worshiping minor gods and deities was a distraction from worldly good behavior. Due to the intense public opposition this provoked, the Taejo Emperor soon reversed course. Instead, he grouped traditional faiths under the label Sindo ("The Way of the Gods") and renamed the state faith Chŏndo ("The Way of Heaven"), suggesting that the latter be reserved for those who could properly comprehend the abstract concepts of Heaven and worldly fate. Under the reign of Yi Taejo's successor, the Chŏnsun Emperor, the scholar Hwang Yun-gil (黃允吉) further closed the divide in his "Three Ruminations in February:"
- It must be good to pay respects to heroes, for to scorn them is wrong;
- It must be good to make offerings to one’s ancestors, for to scorn them is wrong;
- It must be good to pay rites the Gods, for to scorn them is wrong.
This interpretation, approved and distributed by the Imperial Bureau of Rites, upheld three prominent rituals in Sindoism, treating them as a means not to win supernatural favor but as a means to cultivate humility and respect. Especially pronounced was the speed with which Chŏndo embraced the tradition of building shrines to military heroes, famous scholars, past rulers, and other prominent individuals, and honoring them as minor gods – a practice Hwang saw as a way to reward exceptional deeds and encourage others to follow in their footsteps.
The Yi dynasty also brought realignments in Chŏndoism’s stance economic life. During his lifetime, when the Sunghwa court was plagued by corruption and scandal, Choe Je-u had fiercely criticized any kind of selfish accumulation. This was consistent with Yu Hak philosophy, which had long ranked merchants as the lowest class on the social ladder. But under later Yi emperors, and especially from the middle of the 14th century onward, the Imperial Bureau of Rites began to revise this teaching, interpreting it to mean that "productive work" is honorable as long as one treats one’s subordinates fairly and uses the profits to better society.
During the Four Dark Centuries
Contact with Western traders in 1508, and the Menghean Black Plague that followed, upset the previous balance in the Menghean social order. Survivors in the State of Suk argued that the Black Plague was a punishment for the later Yi's overly materialistic focus, including its revision of purity teachings, its neglect of traditional worship, and its elevation of merchants and artisans. This led to the early spread of Sudŏk-do (수덕도 / 肅德道), the "Path of Purity and Virtue," a more radical sect of Chŏndoism which emphasized its individual moral teachings and stressed the divinity of Heaven. The Myŏn dynasty restored Sindoism as the official state religion, but Chŏndoism and its Sudŏk sect remained prominent minority faiths, especially among the urban and scholarly classes. Sudŏk radicals were particularly involved in the often-bloody campaigns to expel Christian missionaries and "reclaim" their converts.
After the Myŏn dynasty fragmented into the Three States during the mid-19th century, the northeastern Sinyi faction restored Chŏndoism to the level of state religion. To an even greater extent than the Yi dynasty, Sinyi rulers used Chŏndoism as a tool to promote nationalism, loyalty, and diligence. This particularly authoritarian sect, sometimes called State Chŏndoism, was instrumental in shaping Menghe nationalism, especially in rural areas.
Namyang, the main faction in the south, also promoted Chŏndoism, but exerted less control over it and was more willing to tolerate Sudŏk, Christian, and Hwae minorities.
In the 20th Century
After Menghe’s reunification in 1902, the new Federal Government agreed to continue Namyang’s multifaith policy, which it viewed as essential to opening the country and accelerating modernization. The promotion of State Chŏndoism lapsed, but its influence remained deeply entrenched in the Eastern areas, where it was strongly intertwined with emerging Menghe nationalism. From the mid-1910s onward, radical Chŏndoists effectively controlled the Bureau for Shrines and Temples, and many scholars and priests associated with the religion began calling for a “great Emperor” to replace the democratic government and restore Menghe to its proper place.
General Kwon Chong-hoon directly appealed to these calls when he seized power in 1927. One of his first acts in office was to restore State Chŏndoism as a tool of nationalist mass mobilization, assigning himself the historical title of Daeje (大帝,“Great Emperor”). His rule was marked by a surge in militarism and authoritarianism, motivated in particular by the claim that foreign powers had exploited Menghe and the country needed to regain its place as a Great Power. Kim Myŏng-hwan, who succeeded General Kwon, toned down this rhetoric in some areas, but retained the title of Daeje. After his death, he was elevated as a Sŏngin.
After Menghe’s defeat in 1944, the Allied Occupation forces heavily restricted Chŏndoism, closing many temples and shrines and demolishing several important sites. Lee Myohng-hoon, the Prime Minister, was a member of the long-persecuted Christian minority, and although he loosened the restrictions on religious practice, he also permitted Christian missionaries to work freely within the country.
The Menghe People’s Liberation Army, which took its cues from Communist Polvokia, was officially atheist and anti-religious, but owing to the legacy of two decades of State Chŏndoism most of its fighters practiced some form of traditional religion. Sudŏk fundamentalism was a particularly strong force in the guerilla opposition during its early years, as fighters drew comparisons to the State of Su in the 1510s. After coming to power in 1964, the Communists arranged public campaigns against Christians and Sindoist “shamans” but quietly tolerated moderate Chŏndoism. Consequently, Chŏndoism steadily grew in popularity during this period, eventually displacing Sindoism as the most common religion reported in censuses.
Choe Sŭng-min built on this reserve of popularity when he consolidated power after the Decembrist Revolution and built up his cult of personality. Since then, the Menghean government has generally promoted Chŏndo values to legitimate its authority, though its policies are only a faint shadow of the State Chŏndoism that prevailed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Beliefs
Worldly deeds
Chŏndoism does not preach the existence of a life after death, though in its current form it does not deny it either. Instead, it emphasizes that one’s motivation for good deeds should be worldly selflessness, a desire to take joy in doing what is right and focus on improving the present world. This principle is what connects Chŏndoism to earlier Yu Hak writings, and what leads some scholars to treat it as a philosophy rather than a religion.
Subsequent scholars, including Karl Wagner, interpreted this as an early form of ascetic work ethic, differing in that it also emphasized individual contributions to the state (in the form of tribute and taxation) and state contributions to society (in the form of infrastructure projects and law and order). Later scholars, especially those writing in the 1990s and after, argued that this ideology was critical in laying the groundwork for the Menghean economic miracle of today, though others have disputed this claim and suggested that the strength and legacy of Menghe's economic institutions was more important.
Chŏndoism also differs from other religions in that it is both pantheistic and nontheistic, and neither puts forth its own deities nor denies the existence of other deities. Many Chŏndoists today do not consider themselves religious, and treat temple visits as a tradition rather than a form of worship. For this reason, Menghean censuses after 1995 have included the outwardly perplexing category "Chŏndoism or no religion" when asking about respondents' faith.
Five Virtues
In place of prayer and spiritual improvement, followers of Chŏndoism are expected to live their worldly lives in accordance with proper virtues. This will not necessarily earn the practitioner a better afterlife, as Chŏndoism does not deal with the afterlife as such, but it may earn them worldly good fortune through the principle of moral reciprocity, as Heaven rewards those who behave well and brings misfortune on those who behave poorly. Virtuous behavior is also treated as an ends in itself, because it upholds order in the universe and improves the lives of others. Choe Je-u, the founding father of Chŏndoism, listed five virtues as the central pillars of Chŏndoism:
- In (仁/인), "Humanity," encompassing generosity, altruism, kindness, and benevolence;
- Rye (禮/례), "Propriety," encompassing respect, adherence to mores, customs, traditions, and general expectations around proper behavior;
- Gyŏm (謙/겸), "Modesty," encompassing humility, submissiveness, selflessness, and a recognition that the universe dwarfs the self;
- Su (肅/수), "Purity," encompassing reverence for Sŏngin and ancestors, self-discipline, and avoidance of unclean behavior;
- Yi (義/의), "Righteousness," encompassing a sense of justice and the will to uphold order in the universe.
Notably, these virtues overlap substantially, and each is open to interpretation. Subsequent figures in Chŏndoism have added a number of other principles, including Loyalty (忠/충 Chung), Knowledge (智/지 Ji), Forgiveness (恕/서 Sŏ), Filial piety (孝/효 Hyo), Honesty (誠/성 Sŏng), and Bravery (勇/용 Yong). These are often shoehorned into one of the existing categories, in order to maintain the total at five.
The relative importance of the five virtues has varied over time, as has the way in which the individual virtues are interpreted. Sects in Chŏndoism differ primarily in this regard, with Sudŏk Chŏndoism emphasizing purity and In-gyŏm Chŏndoism emphasizing modesty and benevolence.
Some Chŏndo writings have used the five virtues as the basis to develop the Five Vices (오죄 / 五罪, O-joe), usually listed as Selfishness, Boorishness, Egoism, Profanity, and Chaos, though the exact terms vary from writer to writer. These are not considered canonical elements of Chŏndoist teaching, like the seven deadly sins, but as a crutch for helping ordinary followers to understand the meaning of the five virtues and avoid violating them.
Religious Buildings
Because Chŏndoism focuses primarily on worldly deeds, there are no temples to Heaven per se, but houses of worship are still a prominent part of Chŏndo life. They are important sites to practice Propriety, following the correct customs for the respect of deities and ancestors, and Humility, recognizing one's own insignificance alongside folk gods, past heroes, and one's own ancestors. Chŏndo prayer centers on showing submission, displaying respect, and expressing thanks, and may involve offerings to an ancestor, Sindo god, or Sŏngin.
Sŏngindan
Sŏngindan (성인단 / 聖人壇), variously translated as "Saint Temples," "Saint Shrines," and "Hero Temples" but usually left as Sŏngindan, are a shared feature of Chŏndoism and Sindoism, though they serve different functions in each. In both cases, they are meant to honor particularly memorable people (or Sŏngin) by enshrining their image in a public temple dedicated to their memory. A typical Sŏngindan contains a statue or image of the Sŏngin, an altar for burning incense, and a bench for kneeling, as well as wall decorations illustrating the Sŏngin's good deeds. Visitors are expected to kneel before the Sŏngin and express their thanks, as when worshiping ancestors.
Sŏngin is sometimes translated as "saint," but the concepts are somewhat different. Broadly defined, a Sŏngin is any person whose worldly deeds or acts of sacrifice placed them exceptionally above the rest of the populace. Unlike a god, the Sŏngin is still considered human, but is worshipped to commemorate their good deeds and elevate them as an inspiring role model to others. In addition to religious figures, the list of Sŏngin includes poets, commanders, warriors, scholars, and all but a few Emperors, and includes individuals who did not practice Chŏndoism as their main religion. An individual can only be elevated to Sŏngin status after death, and this decision requires the approval of the High Council of Priests.
A similar practice exists in Sindoism, with the exception that the Sindo Sŏngin is treated as a god in human form and may be worshipped while they are still alive. There is extensive overlap between the two categories, and it is common for Sindo and Chŏndo followers to pray at each other's temples.
A Sŏngindan is not always the same as a funerary shrine, and it is not uncommon for past Emperors or Generals to have a Sŏngindan in a separate city from their tomb. Sindoist tradition requires that a true Sŏngindan contain some portion of the deceased person’s ashes, though this is less heavily emphasized in Chŏndoism. Particularly distinguished individuals may have more than one Sŏngindan in their name.
Jechŏndan
Jechŏndan (제천단 / 祭天壇), usually translated as "Heaven-Worship Temples" or "Temples of Heaven," are temples dedicated to the worship of heaven as an abstract and all-encompassing concept. They are considerably rarer than Sŏngindan, and most were built during the early Myŏn dynasty or under the Greater Menghean Empire.
Jechŏndan do not exist for the purpose of worshiping Heaven as a deity, but as sites for carrying out solemn rites and reminding oneself of one's own humility. For the latter purpose, they tend to be very imposing structures, with the grandest examples incorporating a large main hall designed to dwarf the entering observer. Jechŏndan are also general-purpose temples for paying respect to one's ancestors or to the deceased, much like minor temples in Sindoism.
Ancestral shrines
While Chŏndoism does not make any theological pronouncements on the existence of ancestral spirits, veneration of ancestors (제례/祭禮, Jerye) is a central aspect of Menghean tradition, and since the 14th century conventional interpretations of Chŏndoism have included it under the virtues of Propriety and Humility. Where material conditions allow it, each household is expected to maintain a shrine to its ancestors, usually containing tablets inscribed with their names and urns containing their ashes. Descendants make offerings during annual festivals and on the anniversary of an ancestor's death, and may present extra prayers during times of hardship.
Major sects
Over time, Chŏndoism has seen the emergence of several major sects, which differ mainly in the extent to which they emphasize different virtues.
Sudŏk Chŏndo
Often described as a radical or fundamentalist school, Sudŏk Chŏndoism emerged in the early 16th century, when the country was gripped by the Menghean Black Plague. It derives its name from the State of Su, an area which largely escaped the plague's effects, and from its focus on the fourth of the five virtues. Early Sudŏk Chŏndoists believed that the plague was spread by unclean conditions, and that they had survived due to their embrace of a pure lifestyle.
Sudŏk Chŏndo treats purity as the most important of the five virtues, both literally and figuratively. Sudŏk Chŏndoists are expected to bathe at least twice a day if it is within their means, and to maintain spartan and disciplined lifestyles in clean conditions. They are also instructed to refuse alcohol, a definition later expanded to encompass all mind-altering substances, and to abstain from sexual activity except for the purpose of procreation within a heterosexual marriage. The aim of these moral teachings is to defend the "state of moral innocence" found in children, which is regarded as the purest form of the human soul.
Rather than emphasizing Purity at a cost to other virtues, however, Sudŏk Chŏndo treats all of the five virtues as fundamentally important, if relatively less so. It places a particular secondary emphasis on Righteousness and Modesty, interpreting the latter primarily as self-sacrifice or selflessness. In Sudŏk Chŏndo, the highest honor is to die in service of a noble cause, especially if the specific act of giving one's life may save other lives.
Historically, Sudŏk Chŏndo represented a fundamentalist form of Chŏndoism, and expressed virulent anti-Casaterran views due to their historical association of plague with Western trade ships. During the Myŏn dynasty, Sudŏk extremists were responsible for killing hundreds of Christian missionaries and forcing their converts to revert to traditional Menghean religions. Sudŏk fundamentalism also played a central role in Menghean propaganda during the Great Conquest War, and Sudŏk Chŏndoists made up most of the personnel in Imperial Menghe's suicide combat units.
In-gyŏm Chŏndo
In-gyŏm Chŏndo (인겸천도 / 仁謙天道) is an ascetic school of Chŏndoism which emphasizes the virtues of In and Gyŏm as especially vital to the well-being of the universe. In this vein, In-gyŏm Chŏndoists dress in the plainest of clothes and devote their lives to helping the poor and needy, by collecting and distributing alms, building shelters for the homeless, and performing other kinds of public service.
The first recorded reference to In-gyŏm Chŏndo dates to the 17th century, in a manuscript describing a group of monks who built a mountain path in Gangwŏn province so that a group of highland villages could reach the doctors and medicine-makers in the valleys below, but it is believed that the general practice of ascetic Chŏndoism dates back as early as the religion itself, and is deeply intertwined with older traditions of asceticism in Menghe.
Sŏnam Chŏndo
Sŏnam Chŏndo (서남 천도 / 西南天道), or "Southwest Chŏndo," holds a scattered presence in the three Semi-Autonomous Provinces of Argentstan, Uzeristan, and Daristan. It originated during the early 19th century as a minor movement that mixed elements of Chŏndoism and Shahidism, interpreting "Heaven" as the Meng understanding of Allah. Unlike Shahidism proper, it argued that correct behavior was sufficient to gain Allah’s good will, and it imported many Menghe concepts about ethics and religious identity.
Many scholars consider Sŏnam Chŏndo a separate religion, or even a fringe sect of Shahidism, rather than a sect of Chŏndoism proper.
Sŏn
Sŏn (선 / 禪) is a term broadly applied to a range of Chŏndo schools which emphasize meditation as a way of exercising self-denial and obtaining a clearer understanding of Heaven. This meditation is also known as "Sitting Sŏn" (좌선 / 坐禪, Jwasŏn). Sŏn schools tend to be more ascetic than mainstream Chŏndoism, and also more spiritual, aiming to look beyond the material world. Some require that practitioners commit themselves to full-time lives as monks, while others encourage meditation as an integrated part of one's everyday life.
The spiritual and meditative aspects of Sŏn schools have sometimes strained their relationship with mainstream Chŏndoism, which typically emphasizes worldly good behavior and views excessive spirituality as a distraction from this. Under the Greater Menghean Empire, the State-Chŏndoist government persecuted Sŏn practitioners, especially those who refused to show up for military service or work in arms factories. Today, the government has worked to maintain harmony between Sŏn and non-Sŏn sects, and pacifist Sŏn pupils are exempted from the draft.
Distribution and spread
The vast majority of Chŏndoists in Septentrion live in Menghe, where they make up nearly three-quarters of the population (but see below). Chŏndoism is also widespread in the Meng ethnic diaspora, and it has gained a limited following among non-Mengheans, especially in its meditative Sŏn form.
Because Chŏndoism is nontheistic and closely intertwined with other aspects of Menghean culture, it is difficult to pin down an exact estimate of the number of "believers." Many would-be Chŏndoists do not consider themselves religious, or may even report themselves as atheists, yet still consider the five virtues important and occasionally pray at shrines and Sŏngindan. There is also substantial overlap between Sindoism and Chŏndoism, and part-time practitioners of both may visit one another's shrines. In Menghe's 2015 census, 74% of the population placed themselves in the category of "Chŏndoism or no religion," running the full spectrum from devout Sudŏk Chŏndoists to cultural moderates like these. In the past, the Menghean government has deliberately played on the ambiguity of this category, using it to report a progressive degree of scientific thought or a wide embrace of Chŏndo traditions.