Taupo

Republic of Taupo Taup'io Auaoi
Flag
Taupo in the southeast Cantalle Ocean
Capital	Amosapeni
Official languages	Taupoese
Religion	96.2% Christian 2.1% Baháʼí 0.5% None 1.2% Others
Demonym(s)	Taupoan
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic
• Prime Minister	Ainalani Tupua
• Deputy Prime Minister	Setu Lotomau
Area
•	1,811 km2 (699 sq mi)
Population
• Estimate	320,160
GDP (PPP)	estimate
• Total	255 million
GDP (nominal)	estimate
• Total	187 million
HDI	0.630 medium

Taupo, also known as the Republic of Taupo, is an independent island nation in the southeastern Cantalle Ocean. The permanent population is over 320,000, more than half of whom live on Apeni atoll in the capital and largest city of Amosapeni. The state comprises 32 atolls and one raised coral island, Naio. There is a total land area of 1811 square kilometers (699 square miles) dispersed over 3.5 million km2 (1.4 million sq mi) of ocean. Taupo gained its independence from Quetana, becoming a sovereign state in 1949. The capital Amosapeni consists of a number of islets, connected by a series of causeways. These comprise about half the area of Apeni atoll. Prior to its independence, the country had exported phosphate; however, those mines are no longer viable with fisheries and export of copra driving much of the economy. Taupo is one of the least developed countries in the world and is highly dependent on international aid for its economy.

Taupo is a member of the Coalition Trade Organization and the Yuaneze-led Global Economic Cooperation Initiative, and became a full member of the Coalition of Crown Albatross in 1999 and also a member of the Cantalle Islands Forum. As an island nation, the islands are very vulnerable to climate change and addressing climate change has been a central part of its international policy, as a member of the Coalition of Island States. The country has suffered a string of political and civil unrest since 2011, which has seen two Prime Ministers assassinated and violent insurgencies battling local authority in often brutal clashes.

History

Early history

The area now called Taupo, mainly the 16 Ibert Islands, has been inhabited by Cantalle-Toyanan and West Ausianan peoples since sometime between 3000 BC and AD 1300. The area was not completely isolated; later, voyagers from Kalea and the Mist Carthara Islands introduced some of their cultural aspects, respectively. Intermarriage and intense navigation between the islands tended to blur cultural differences and resulted in a significant degree of cultural homogenisation. Local oral historians chiefly in the form of lore keepers suggest that the area was first inhabited by a group of seafaring people from the center of the ocean, who were described as being dark skinned, frizzy haired and short in stature. These indigenous peoples were then visited by early Ausianan seafarers from the east, believed to be either from mainland Yuan or Gangkou, orally described as being tall and fair skinned. Eventually, both groups intermittently clashed and intermingled until they slowly became a uniform population.

Around 1300 A.D, there was an exodus from Kalea leading to the addition of prominent Kalean ancestry into the mix of most Taupoan people. These Kaleans would later bring strong features of Kalean languages and culture, creating clans based on their own traditions and slowly intertwining with the indigenous clans and powers already dominant in Taupo.

Around the 15th century, starkly contrasting systems of governance arose between the Northern Islands, primarily under chiefly rule (oea), and the Central and Southern Islands, primarily under the rule of their council of elders (onimwpane). The island Apeni was an exception as the sole island that is known as maintaining a traditional egalitarian society. The name Apeni stems from the root phrase Ai-Pen-Ie meaning "chiefs are forbidden".

Colonial era

Chance visits by Adulan ships occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries, while those ships attempted circumnavigations of the world, or sought sailing routes from the south to north Cantalle Ocean. A passing trade, whaling, and labor ships visited the islands in large numbers during the 18th century, with social, economic, political, religious and cultural consequences. More than 9,000 workers were sent abroad from 1745 to 1795, most of them not returning. The passing trade gave rise to Adulan, Yuaneze, Euronian and other residents from the 1730s: they included beachcombers, castaways, traders and missionaries.

In 1792, local Taupoan authorities (an uea, a chief from the Northern Island Group, and atun te boti or head of clan) on each of the Taupoan Islands agreed to Captain Timoteo Ferreira declaring them part of a Quetanan protectorate, along with the Mist Carthara Islands.

Independence

The islands remained under Quetanan control for 150 years until they were granted independence as the Republic of Taupo on 12 July 1949.

In 1999, Taupo became a full member of the Coalition of Crown Albatross.

Political and civil unrest

The country has suffered a string of political and civil unrest since 2011, which has seen two Prime Ministers assassinated and violent insurgencies battling local authority in often brutal clashes.

Since 2016, the Kalean Democratic Forces have been involved in an ongoing intervention in the unrest. Originally, the intervention only came in the form of humanitarian aid such as food and shelter; however, that quickly changed as the volunteers began to be assaulted, kidnapped, and murdered by local insurgents. Military force was not used until November 2018 when five KDF soldiers sent as a guard detachment were murdered in a shootout by the insurgents. The Taupoan people were initially very welcoming of the aid, but that changed in the last few years after a group of KDF soldiers was recorded torturing an innocent Taupoan man. Protests have become commonplace among Taupoan refugees in Kalea, demanding that the Kalean government cease all military intervention and the KDF be withdrawn. On May 2nd, 2023, Kalean Co-President Noa Apekalmoa and Taupoan insurgent leader Arekantara met in Amosapeni after several months of a cease-fire. The meeting was called by the insurgency leaders after the additional KDF troops had been sent to Taupo in response to the coup in the Annaskermishilles, a request that went unanswered for a month and a half until threats were made against the troops. During the meeting, the insurgents demanded the complete withdrawal of Kalean presence in Taupo, and in return, the insurgency would stop fighting and begin peaceful negotiations to end the over-decade-long conflict. Apekalmoa refused this demand, instead offering a counter-proposal of keeping a garrison of KDF troops here in the military fort in the capital for the defense of both the Annaskermishilles and Kalea from Yuan, but that the KDF would cease all military intervention in the conflict but still provide humanitarian support to those that have been afflicted by it, and act as a mediator between the Taupoan government and the insurgency. Reluctant at first to accept, the insurgency leaders, after several hours of deliberation amongst themselves and reassurance from Taupoan government officials and Apekalmoa, agreed to this proposal, marking the end of almost 13 years of civil conflict to follow with negotiations for efforts towards a continued and lasting peace and a better future for all Taupoan people.

Geography

Taupo consists of 32 atolls and one solitary island (Naio). The groups of islands are:

• Naio
• Gilbert Islands: 16 atolls
• Phoenix Islands: 8 atolls and coral islands
• Line Islands: 8 atolls and one reef

Naio (or Ocean Island) is a raised-coral island. It was once a rich source of phosphates, but was exhausted in mining before independence. The rest of the land in Taupo consists of the sand and reef rock islets of atolls or coral islands, which rise only one or two metres above sea level.

The soil is thin and calcareous. It has a low water-holding capacity and low organic matter and nutrient content—except for calcium, sodium, and magnesium. Naio is one of the least suitable places for agriculture in the world.

Climate

Taupo has a tropical rainforest climate (Af). From April to October, there are predominant northeastern winds and stable temperatures close to 30 °C (86 °F). From November to April, western gales bring rain.

Taupo wet season (te Auu-Meang) also recognized as the Tropical cyclone (TC) (te Angibuaka) season starts from November to April every year. Taupo therefore typically experiences more extreme weather events associated with Tropical disturbances (TD) or Tropical cyclones during te Auu-Meang. But Tropical cyclones rarely develop where Taupo is located. However, based on past events, Taupo has been impacted from distant Tropical cyclone (TC) and the impacts were observed while the systems are in their development stages (Tropical Low/disturbance) or even before they reach Tropical cyclone category.

The fair season starts when Ten Rimwimata (Antares) appears in the sky after sunset, from May to November, when more gentle winds and currents and less rain. Then towards December, when Nei Auti (Pleiades) replaces Antares, the season of sudden westerly winds and more heavy rain discourages any far travel from island to island.

Taupo does not regularly experience cyclones but effects may occasionally be experienced during cyclone seasons affecting nearby island countries.

Precipitation varies significantly between islands. For example, the annual average is 3,000 mm (120 in) in the north and 500 mm (20 in) in the south. Most of these islands are in the dry belt of the oceanic climatic zone and experience prolonged droughts.

Ecology

Taupo contains a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecosystem.

Because of the relatively young geological age of the islands and atolls and high level of soil salination, the flora of Taupo is somewhat unhealthy. The Gilbert Islands contain about 83 indigenous and 306 introduced plants, whereas the corresponding numbers for Line and Phoenix Islands are 67 and 283. None of these species are endemic, and about half of the indigenous ones have a limited distribution and became endangered or nearly extinct due to human activities such as phosphate mining.

Coconut, pandanus palms and breadfruit trees are the most common wild plants, whereas the five most cultivated crops but the traditional Babai, Cyrtosperma merkusii, are imported Yuaneze cabbage, pumpkin, tomato, watermelon and cucumber. Over eighty per cent of the population participates in either farming or fishing.

Seaweed farming is an important part of the economy, with two major species Eucheuma alcarezii and Eucheuma spinosium introduced to the local lagoons from Ausiana in 1977. It competes with collection of the black-lipped pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera) and shellfish, which are dominated by the strombid gastropod (Strombus luhuanus) and Anadara cockles (Anadara uropigimelana), whereas the stocks of the giant clam (Tridacna gigas) have been largely exhausted.

Taupo has a few land mammals, none being indigenous or endemic. They include the Kalean rat (Rattus exulans), dogs, cats and pigs. Among the 75 bird species, the Bokikokiko (Acrocephalus aequinoctialis) is endemic to Taupo.

There are 600–800 species of inshore and pelagic finfish, some 200 species of corals and about 1000 species of shellfish. Fishing mostly targets the family Scombridae, particularly the skipjack tuna and yellowfin tuna as well as flying fish (Cypselurus spp.).

Dogs were already accompanying the first inhabitants but were re-introduced by Quetanan settlers: they have continued to grow in numbers and are roaming in traditional packs.

Environmental issues

Two small uninhabited Taupoan islets, Tebua Tarawa and Abanuea, disappeared underwater in 1999. Climate change scientists predict that sea levels will rise by about 50 cm (20 in) by 2100 due to global warming and a further rise would be inevitable. It is thus likely that within a century the nation's arable land will become subject to increased soil salination and will be largely submerged.

The exposure of Taupo to changes in sea levels is exacerbated by the Toyana decadal oscillation, which is a climate switch phenomenon that results in changes every 3-5 years. This has an effect on sea levels. For example, in 2000, there was a switch from periods of downward pressure on sea levels to an upward pressure on sea levels, which upward pressure causes more frequent and higher high tide levels. The Perigean spring tide (often called a king tide) can result in seawater flooding low-lying areas of the islands of Taupo.

Gradual sea-level rise also allows for coral polyp activity to raise the atolls with the sea level. However, if the increase in sea level occurs at a rate faster than coral growth, or if polyp activity is damaged by ocean acidification, then the resilience of the atolls and reef islands is less certain. Also, coral bleaching has occurred on more than 60% of the coral reefs in Taupo.

The Taupo Adaptation Program (TAP), started in 2003, is a Ḵ5.5 million initiative that was originally enacted by the national government of Taupo with the support of the Kalean government. The program aims to take place over six years, supporting measures that reduce Taupo's vulnerability to the effects of climate change and sea level rise by raising awareness of climate change, assessing and protecting available water resources, and managing inundation. At the start of the Adaptation Program, representatives from each of the inhabited atolls identified key climatic changes that had taken place over the past 20–40 years and proposed coping mechanisms to deal with these changes under four categories of urgency of need. The program is now focusing on the country's most vulnerable sectors in the most highly populated areas. Initiatives include improving water supply management in and around Tarawa; coastal management protection measures such as mangrove re-plantation and protection of public infrastructure; strengthening laws to reduce coastal erosion; and population settlement planning to reduce personal risks.

The government has taken specific action to ensure food security, as sea level rise, drought, and overfishing have created food and water shortages. This has involved diversifying food sources and ensuring existing resources are managed sustainably.

The issue of plastic pollution has also been a key challenge for Taupo as it hurts both its marine biodiversity and its economy that relies primarily on tourism and fishery.[107] As a result, the government of Taupo, more specifically the Environment and Conservation Division (ECD) which forms part of the Taupoan Government's Ministry of Environment, Lands and Agricultural Development, has made efforts to tackle this issue nationally through environment acts, and state policy papers. To a further extent, it has also recognized the global nature of plastic pollution, and consequently, has promoted international cooperation and multilateral solutions.

Politics

The Constitution of Taupo, promulgated 12 July 1949, provides for free and open elections in a parliamentary democratic republic.

The executive branch consists of a prime minister (te Beretitenti), a deputy prime minister and a cabinet. The prime minister, who is also chief of the cabinet, is directly elected by the citizens, after the legislature nominates three or four persons from among its members to be candidates in the ensuing presidential election. The president is limited to serving three four-year terms, and remains a member of the assembly. The cabinet is composed of the president, vice-president, and 13 ministers (appointed by the president) who are also ministers of parliament.

The legislative branch is the unicameral Maneaba ni Maungatabu (House of Assembly). Its members are elected and serve for a four-year term.

The constitutional provisions governing administration of justice ensures that the judiciary is free from governmental interference. The judicial branch is made up of the High Court and the Court of Appeal. The prime minister appoints the presiding judges.

Local government is through island councils with elected members. Island councils make their own estimates of revenue and expenditure and generally are free from central government controls. There are a total of 21 inhabited islands in Taupo. Each inhabited island has its own council. Since independence, Taupo is no longer divided into districts.

Taupo has formal political parties but their organisation is quite informal. Ad hoc opposition groups tend to coalesce around specific issues. There is universal suffrage at age 18. Today the only recognisable parties are the Boutokaan Taupo Moa Party, former Boutokaan te Koaua, and Tobwaan Taupo Party.

Foreign relations

Taupo maintains close relations with its island neighbours, an exception being the Annaskermishilles with the recent coup. Kalea provides the bulk of the country's foreign aid. Kalea also have specified-period licences to fish in Kiribati's waters.

Taupo is a member of the Coalition Trade Organization and the Yuaneze-led Global Economic Cooperation Initiative, and became a full member of the Coalition of Crown Albatross in 1999 and also a member of the Cantalle Islands Forum.

As one of the world's most vulnerable nations to the effects of global warming, Taupo has been an active participant in international diplomatic efforts relating to climate change. Taupo is a member of the Coalition of Island States, an intergovernmental organisation of low-lying coastal and small island countries. Established in 1990, the main purpose of the alliance is to consolidate the voices of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to address global warming.

Law enforcement and military

Law enforcement in Taupo is carried out by the Taupo Police Service which is responsible for all law enforcement and paramilitary duties for the island nation. There are police posts located on all of the islands. The police have one patrol boat, the Toyana-class patrol boat RKS Teanoai II. Taupo has no military and relies on both Kalea for its defence.

Male homosexuality is illegal in Taupo, with a penalty up to 14 years in prison, but this law is not enforced. Female homosexuality is legal, but lesbians may face violence and discrimination. However, employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is prohibited.

Demographics

The November 2020 census showed a population of 320,160. About 90% lived in the Gilbert Islands, with 52.9% of them in Amosapeni.

Until recently, people lived mostly in villages with populations between 50 and 3,000 on the outer islands. Most houses are made of materials obtained from coconut and pandanus trees. Frequent droughts and infertile soil hinder reliable large-scale agriculture, so the islanders have largely turned to the sea for livelihood and subsistence. Most are outrigger sailors and fishermen. Copra plantations serve as a second source of employment. In recent years, large numbers of citizens have moved to the more urban island capital of Tarawa, where Amosapeni is the largest town and South Tarawa reunites larger towns like Bikenibeu or Teaoraereke. Increasing urbanisation has raised the population of South Tarawa to 63,017.

Languages

The people of Kiribati speak Taupoese, a Toyanan language. English is the other official language, but is not used very often outside the island capital of Amosapeni. It is more likely that some English words are mixed in their use with Taupoese. Older generations of Taupoan tend to use more complicated versions of the language.

Many other loanwords have been adopted (like buun, spoon, moko, smoke, beeki, pig, batoro, bottle) but some typical Taupoese words are quite common, even for foreign objects (like wanikiba, plane – the flying canoe, rebwerebwe, motorbike – for the motor noise, kauniwae, shoes – the cow for the feet).

Religion

Christianity is the major religion in Taupo, having been lately introduced by missionaries, because of its remoteness and the absence of any significant foreign presence until the latter half of the 18th century. The population is predominantly Verdusan Catholic Christian (58.9%), with two main Protestant denominations (Taupo Protestant Church 8.4% and Taupo Uniting Church 21.2%) accounting for 29.6%. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (5.6%), Baháʼí Faith (2.1%), Seventh-day Adventist Church (2.1%), Pentecostals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and other small faiths together account for less than 2% (2020 census).

Education

Primary education is free and compulsory for the first 9 years, beginning at age 6. Mission schools are slowly being absorbed into the government primary school system. Higher education is expanding; students may seek technical, teacher or marine training, or study in other countries. Most choosing to do the latter have gone to Kalea to attend universities.

The education system is organised as follows:

• Preschool for childhood from 1 to 5 years;
• Primary school (Class 1 to 6) from 6 to 11 years;
• Junior secondary school (Form 1 to 3) from 12 to 14;
• Senior secondary school (Form 4 to 7) from 15 to 18.

Taupo Ministry of Education is the education ministry. The government high schools are Tabiteuea North Senior Secondary School and Melaengi Tabai Secondary School. 13 high schools are operated by Christian churches.

The other prominent schools in Kiribati are:

• the Marine Training Centre in Betio;
• the Taupo Institute of Technology;
• the Taupo Fisheries Training Centre;
• the Taupo School of Nursing;
• the Taupo Police Academy;
• the Taupo Teachers College.

Culture

Music

Taupoan folk music is generally based on chanting or other forms of vocalising, accompanied by body percussion. Public performances in modern Taupo are generally performed by a seated chorus, accompanied by a guitar. However, during formal performances of the standing dance (Te Kaimatoa) or the hip dance (Te Buki), a wooden box is used as a percussion instrument. This box is constructed to give a hollow and reverberating tone when struck simultaneously by a chorus of men sitting around it. Traditional songs are often love-themed, but there are also competitive, religious, children's, patriotic, war and wedding songs. There are also stick dances which accompany legends and semi-historical stories. These stick dances or "tirere" (pronounced seerere) are performed only during major festivals.

Dance

The uniqueness of Taupo when compared with other forms of dance is its emphasis on the outstretched arms of the dancer and the sudden birdlike movement of the head. Most dances are in the standing or sitting position with movement limited and staggered. Smiling whilst dancing is generally considered vulgar within the context of Taupoan dancing. This is due to its origin of not being solely as a form of entertainment but as a form of storytelling and a display of the skill, beauty and endurance of the dancer.

Cuisine

Traditionally, the staple diet of the Taupoan was the abundance of seafood and coconuts. Starch based carbohydrate sources were not plentiful due to the hostile climate of the atolls with only the northernmost atolls being viable for constant agriculture. The national crop bwabwai was only eaten during special celebrations along with pork.

To complement the rather low consumption of carbohydrates in their diets, the Taupoan processed the sap and fruit of the abundant Pandanus and Coconut trees into different beverages and foods such as te karewe (fresh daily sap of the coconut tree) or te tuae (dried pandanus cake) and te kabubu (dried pandanus flour) from pandanus fruit pulp and te kamaimai (coconut sap syrup) from coconut sap.

After the World War, rice became a daily staple in most households which is still the case today. Majority of seafood, fish in particular is eaten sashimi style with either coconut sap, soy sauce or vinegar based dressings in use often combined with chillies and onions.

Coconut crabs and mud crabs are traditionally given to breastfeeding mothers, with the belief that the meat stimulates the production of good quality breastmilk.

Sports

Taupo has competed at Summer Olympics since 2004. It sent three competitors to its first Olympics, two sprinters and a weightlifter.

Football is the most popular sport. Taupo Islands Football Federation (TIFF) is an associate member of the Ausiana Football Confederation, but not of the World Cup. The Taupo football stadium is Amosapeni National Stadium, which has a capacity of 2,500.

Economy

Taupo has few natural resources. Commercially viable phosphate deposits were exhausted at the time of independence. Copra and fish now represent the bulk of production and exports. Kiribati has the lowest GDP out of any sovereign state in Ausiana, and is considered one of the least developed countries in the world.

In one form or another, Taupo gets a large portion of its income from abroad. Examples include fishing licences, development assistance, workers' remittances, especially the seafarers issued from Marine Training Centre, and a few tourists. Given Taupo's limited domestic production ability, it must import nearly all of its essential foodstuffs and manufactured items; it depends on these external sources of income for financing.

The economy of Kiribati benefits from international development assistance programs. Its largest donor is Kalea.

In 1956, Gilbert and Ellice Islands established a sovereign wealth fund to act as a store of wealth for the country's earnings from phosphate mining. In 2008, the Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund (RERF) was valued at Ḵ400 million. The RERF assets declined from Ḵ637 million (420% of GDP) in 2007 to Ḵ570.5 million (350% of GDP) in 2009 as the result of exposure to failed banks. In addition, draw-downs were made by the government of Taupo to finance budgetary shortfalls during this period.

In May 2011, an assessment of the economy of Taupo stated that "After two years of contraction, the economy recovered in the second half of 2010 and inflation pressure dissipated. It is estimated to have grown by 1.75% for the year. Despite a weather-related drop in copra production, private sector activity appears to have picked up, especially in retail. Tourist arrivals rebounded by 20% compared to 2009, although from a very low base. Despite the rise in world food and fuel prices, inflation has bounced from 2008 crisis-highs into negative territory, reflecting the strong appreciation of the Kalean dala, which is used as the domestic currency, and a decline in the world price of rice. Credit growth in the overall economy declined in 2009 as economic activity stalled. But it started to pick up in the second half of 2010 as the recovery gained traction".

Ornamental fish

Taupo is a major exporter of hand-caught ornamental fish. There are eight licensed operators throughout Taupo. At the end of 2005, the number of pet fish exported was 110,000. All operators have a land-based facility but fish are kept in containers on the reef until the day before the shipment. This is to reduce the running cost and the mortality of pet fish to be exported. The flame angelfish (Centropyge loriculus) is the major species exported.

Transportation

Taupo has had two domestic airlines: Air Taupo and Coral Sun Airways. Both airlines are based in Tarawa's Amosapeni International Airport and serve destinations across the Gilbert Islands and Line Islands only: Banaba and the Phoenix Islands are not served by the domestic carriers.

Cassidy International Airport on Kiritimati has an international service provided by Kalea Airways: Amosapeni to Cassidy Airport and then to Heiau, Hema, Kalea.

Communications and media

The islands’ remote location in the Central Toyana spanning hundreds of miles north and south has meant that communications between them has always been challenging and conducted primarily by radio and print media. TV Taupo Ltd, was owned by the government operated between 2004 and mid-2012, but could not reach all of the Islands. Radio Taupo, based on Tarawa and operated by the government's Broadcasting and Publications Authority (BPA) on 1440 kHz AM is the only form of mass media that reaches all the major islands. Transmission hours are limited and local content in Taupoese is supplemented by English summaries. The BPA and a private broadcaster also operate FM stations accessible on Tarawa.

Inter-island communications for many years relied on a centralized shortwave radio network operated by Telecom Services Taupo, Ltd (TSTL) based in each Island's Council Headquarters. Numerous issues including low availability, maintenance, privacy, and only one per island led TSKL to adopt satellite-based telephones. However, the system is more expensive and still only located at Council Headquarters.

Print weeklies in Taupoese include the Te Uekara published by the government, Te Mauri published by the Taupo Protestant Church, and the Taupo Independent, published in English.