Tengarian language: Difference between revisions

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==Classification==
==Classification==
The Tengarian language is classified by almost every modern scholar as a Marolevic language. This fact is corroborated by the fact that the most important and fundamental root words from the language are known to be taken from proto-Marolevic roots, and that the Tengars are descended from Marolevic tribes. The language is thus categorized as a South-Marolevic language.
Historically, as the Tengars underwent integration into the Amathian Empire of Arciluco and interacted with Solarian, Vulgar Solarian and proto-Amathian. Early studies of the language during the Tengarian Golden age emphasise the connection with Solarian, especially with the work of Cornelius Lapidus, which also influenced the morphological and lexical development of the language. This lead to some scholars to insist that it is a fusion language, a view that was largely prominent in Tengarian scholarship until the beginning of the twentieth century.


==History==
==History==
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====Demonstrative pronoun====
====Demonstrative pronoun====


The third-person personal pronoun (he, she, it) is considered demonstrative.
There are three kinds of demonstrative pronouns: the weak demonstrative, proximal demonstrative and the distal demonstrative. Over time, the weak demonstrative eventually came to be used as third-person personal pronoun ("he, she, it") is considered demonstrative.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Third-person demonstrative pronoun ("he, she, it")
|-
|-
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! rowspan="2" | {{wp|grammatical case|Case}}
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|-
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|}
The proximal demonstrative pronoun (this):


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Proximal Demonstrative pronoun ("this")
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|grammatical case|Case}}
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|grammatical case|Case}}
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|-
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|}
The final demonstrative pronoun is the distal demonstrative pronoun (that):


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Distal Demonstrative pronoun ("that")
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|grammatical case|Case}}
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|grammatical case|Case}}
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Relative pronouns ("who, what which")
|+ Relative pronoun ("who, what, which")
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|grammatical case|Case}}
! rowspan="2" | {{wp|grammatical case|Case}}
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|-
|-
| {{wp|Instrumental case|INS}}
| {{wp|Instrumental case|INS}}
| colspan="2" | que
| qua
| que
|}
|}


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=====Special Verbs=====
=====Special Verbs=====


There are five verbs recognised as unique in Tengarian: ''Beti'' ("to be"), ''Dati'' (to give), . Sometimes considered as hese are unique because they have older archaic forms which have been perserved, and do not fall under the other verb conjugations.
There are five verbs recognised as unique in Tengarian: ''Beti'' ("to be"), ''Dati'' (to give), . Sometimes considered as hese are unique because they have older archaic forms which have been perserved, and do not fall under the other verb conjugations.  


{| class="wikitable  
{| class="wikitable  
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Non finite verbs include {{wp|Infinitive|infinitives}}, {{wp|Verbal noun|verbal nouns}}, and {{wp|Participle|participles}}.
Non finite verbs include {{wp|Infinitive|infinitives}}, {{wp|Verbal noun|verbal nouns}}, and {{wp|Participle|participles}}.


Infinitives have the common ending ''-ti'', and are usually formed by taking the vowel stem of the verb: ''stamo'' > ''stati'', ''nesamo'' > ''nesti'', and ''proso'' > ''prositi''. Certain words have other ways of forming the infintives.  
Infinitives have the common ending ''-ti'', and are usually formed by taking the vowel stem of the verb: ''stamo'' > ''stati'', ''neso'' > ''nesti'', and ''proso'' > ''prositi''. Certain words have other ways of forming the infintives.  


The verbal noun is retained in Tengarian from old proto-Marolevic, although it was conflated in form and in use with the {{wp|supine}}. It is formed by taking the infintive form but replacing the -i ending with a u-stem noun. For example, the infintive ''stati'' becomes ''statu, statui'', as is declined as a u-stem noun. Since they are u-stem, they are always considered masculine nouns. These verbal nouns are usually rendered as gerunds in Estmerish.
The verbal noun is retained in Tengarian from old proto-Marolevic, although it was conflated in form and in use with the {{wp|supine}}. It is formed by taking the infintive form but replacing the -i ending with a u-stem noun. For example, the infintive ''stati'' becomes ''statu, statui'', as is declined as a u-stem noun. Since they are u-stem, they are always considered masculine nouns. These verbal nouns are usually rendered as gerunds in Estmerish.

Revision as of 04:35, 1 October 2023

Tengarian language
Native toTengaria
Bistravia
Ravnia
Amathia
Native speakers
26.8 million (2020)
Early forms
Solarian
Apsinthian
Soravian
Official status
Official language in
Tengaria Tengaria
Recognised minority
language in
Regulated byImperial Academy of Languages
Language codes
ISO 639-3TEN
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For a guide to IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Tengarian language is a South Marolevic language spoken in southern Euclea, primarily in the country of Tengaria. It is one of Tengaria's official languages, and is the principal spoken language of the country. In addition, the language is also spoken by communities in Bistravia, Amathia, and Ravnia, and is a recognised minority language in these states.

It is one of the oldest attested Marolevic languages due to the proximity of the Tengars to the Empire of Arciluco, and was used as a basis for Old Church Marolevic, although the language itself was never written until the 15th century. The languange has very heavy influences from Solarian, Vulgar Solarian and Amathian, which have contributed significant loanwords to the language and influenced the development of its grammar. The language is also partially digraphic, with three historic alphabets- versions of the Solarian, Apsinthian and Soravian- as possible for the usage of the language, although the modified Solarian alphabet is predominant.

Classification

The Tengarian language is classified by almost every modern scholar as a Marolevic language. This fact is corroborated by the fact that the most important and fundamental root words from the language are known to be taken from proto-Marolevic roots, and that the Tengars are descended from Marolevic tribes. The language is thus categorized as a South-Marolevic language.

Historically, as the Tengars underwent integration into the Amathian Empire of Arciluco and interacted with Solarian, Vulgar Solarian and proto-Amathian. Early studies of the language during the Tengarian Golden age emphasise the connection with Solarian, especially with the work of Cornelius Lapidus, which also influenced the morphological and lexical development of the language. This lead to some scholars to insist that it is a fusion language, a view that was largely prominent in Tengarian scholarship until the beginning of the twentieth century.

History

The Tengars, as a Marolevic tribe, spoke a dialect of the Proto-Marolevic language, as they migrated into the lands which currently comprise the country of Tengaria in the 4th and 5th centuries. After the conquest and eventual assimilation of the Tengars into the Empire of Arciluco, the language continued to be spoken by Tengars, although the language of trade and administration was first Solarian before gradually giving way to Vulgar Solarian and Proto-Amathian. Solarian was also used for liturgical services, and as the scholarly language used by Arciluco. As such, it was not a Literary language, and no examples of its writing survive, although there are historical mentions to a language which the Tengars spoke and various words and phrases recording. The Empire later adopted the Apsinthian Alphabet for a time, but Tengarian was never a written language. This period of Tengarian is known as "Proto-Tengarian". Because they were part of the Empire, Amathian Missionaries used the language of the Tengars to develop Old Church Marolevic for the conversion of other Marolevic countries.

The Iconoclast schism in the late 14th saw great changes. The fall of Arciluco and the western half of the Empire becoming the Empire of Tengaria and claimant to the Empire's authority saw the centre of power shift from an Amathian speaking to a largely Tengarian speaking region. Although Solarian was upheld as the official language and continued to be used as both the language of scholarship and liturgy as part of a Solarianist revival, the spread of Amathian as a trading language began to decline. A scholar of the Tengarian Golden Age, a grammarian and Solarianist, named Cornelius Lapidus, studied the Tengarian language and published the first comprehensive grammatical text of the language in 1393, De Grammatice Linguae Tengaricae, in which he developed a Solarian alphabet to provide the first transcripition of Tengarian words. This, in combination with a glossary for those attempting to study Solarian in 1401, are seen as the foundational text for the Tengarian language.

Although Solarian continued to be the primary written and scholarly language for the next few centuries, writing in Tengarian venacular also increased, and it became the primary spoken language in the Empire. The language evolved and underwent modifications throughout the centuries, but the grammar remained largely the same, although the lexicon expanded and more words were added and developed over time. In 1847, the Imperial Academy of Languages was established to regulate Tengarian and its usage in schools, and remains the regulating body of the language. Alternative lexicons were proposed by Tengarian nationalists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to replace words Solarian origin, but were never adopted. In 1935, following the establishment of the Tengarian Republic, Tengarian became the official language used in all government matters, and remains the dominant written and legal language in the country to this day.

Alphabet

The first full script of the language is a script based on the Solarian script, introduced by Cornelius Lapidus in 1393. This is the predominant script of the language, although there are different scripts which are variously used. The Apsinthian Alphabet was invented by Amathian clerics to be able to better write in the languages of the Marolevic tribes before the peoples of Amathia adopted it to replace the Solarian alphabet. Because this script remained the primary system of writing before the collapse of the Empire of Arciluco in the 14th century, some early writers of the language employed its usage. In the 19th century, Tengarian nationalists and Pan-Marolevic supporters began to advocate for the adoption of the Soravian script, although it was limited and never became widespread. Although depending on region the alphabet use might differ- such as in areas proximate to the Amathian border, the use of Apsinthian is more common- making it technically digraphic, the primary alphabet used by speakers of the language in the Solarian alphabet.

The Tengarian alphabet has the following 30 Solarian letters and 29 Apsinthian and Soravian letters (the Soravian removing 4 letters and adding an additional 3):

Solarian Apsinthian Soravian Sound Name Pronunciation
А А /ɑ/ A a in "father"
Æ N/A /e/ Yae e in "red"
B Б /b/ Be b in "ball"
C К, Ч /k/, /tʃ/ Ce c in "scan"
ch in "choice"
D Д /d/ De d in "door"
E E /e/ E e in "red"
F Ф /f/ Fe f in "flag"
G Г, Џ /ɡ/, /dʒ/ Ga g in "goat"
g in "general"
H X /h/ Ha h in "aha"
I И /i/,/j/ I i in "machine"
y in "yes"
J Ж /ʒ/ Je s in "treasure"
K* К /k/ Ka c in "scan"
L Л /l/, /ʎ/ El l in "lamp"
М M /m/ Em m in "mouth"
N H /n/, /ɲ/ En n in "north"
gn in "gnocchi"
Solarian Apsinthian Soravian Sound Name Pronunciation
O O /o/ O o in "floor"
P П /p/ Pe p in "spot"
Q N/A /k/ Qu k in "kettle"
R P /r/ Er "r" as in "curd"
S C /s/ Es s in "song"
Ș Ш /ʃ/ Șe sh in "shopping"
Т T, Ц /t/, /t͡s/ Te t in "stone"
zz in "pizza"
Th Ѳ /θ/ The "th" in "thigh"
U У /u/, /w/ U oo in "boot"
w in "cow"
Ū Ъ /ɤ/ Ūr u in "turn"
V B /ʋ/ Ve v in "vision"
W* N/A /w/ Veve w in "west"
X К+C /ks/ Ix x in "six"
x in "example"
Y Ь /j/, /i/ Ye y in "yes"
i in "machine"
Z З /z/ Ze z in "zipper"

{*}Only used in more contemporary loanwords.

As noted above, the letters in Tengarian may be may pronounced different according to different general principles (when written in Soravian, these different sounds are sometimes written with other letters).

  • C: If C comes before E, I, AE or Y, it is pronounced /tʃ/, as in "choice". In all other cases, it is pronounced /k/, as in "cap".
  • G: If G comes before E, I, AE or Y, it is pronounced /dʒ/, as in "general". In all other cases, it is pronounced /ɡ/, as in "girl".
  • GN: GN together makes the sound /ɲ/, like in "gnocchi".
  • T: If T comes before I with a vowel following, it is pronounced /t͡s/, as in "pizza". In all other cases it is pronounced /t/, as in "stone".

Grammar

Nominal morphology

Tengarian nouns and adjectives possess grammatical case, number, and gender. Tengarian has six cases, one more than Solarian and one fewer than Old Church Marolevic: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instrumental and vocative (the locative of Old Church Marolevic was merged in with the instrumental case). Number is either singular (one) and plural (multiple). Nouns can be masculine, feminine, or neuter.

Nouns are divided into four categories based on the principal vowel used to determine an ending, called "stems". Although like Old Church Marolevic, the stems were once greater in number, over time they became reduced in usage. Certain dialects of Tengarian utilised some different morphologies for noun-endings until the language became more uniform from education in the 19th and 20th centuries.

O-Stems

O-Stems can be masculine or neuter, although the majority tend to be masculine.

Masculine ("town") & Neuter ("word")
Masculine Neuter
Case Singular Plural Singular Plural
NOM grad- grad-i verb-om verb-a
GEN grad-i grad-ū verb-i verb-ū
DAT grad-ov grad-omu verb-ov verb-omu
ACC grad-om grad-omo verb-om verb-a
INS grad-u grad-omu verb-u verb-omu
VOC grad-e grad-i verb-e verb-a

A-Stems

The vast majority of A-Stems are feminine, with only a few exceptions.

Feminine ("woman")
Case Singular Plural
NOM jen-a jen-e
GEN jen-e jen-ū
DAT jen-av jen-amu
ACC jen-am jen-ama
INS jen-a jen-amu
VOC jen-a jen-e

I-Stems

I-Stems can be variably masculine, feminine or neuter.

Feminine ("family") & Neuter ("guest")
Masc. & Fem. Neuter
Case Singular Plural Singular Plural
NOM gen-i gen-i gost- gost-a
GEN gen-i gen-ū gost-i gost-ū
DAT gen-iv gen-umū gost-iv gost-umū
ACC gen-im gen-imi gost- gost-a
INS gen-e gen-umi gost-u gost-umi
VOC gen-e gen-uje gost-e gost-uja

U-Stems

U-Stems can be variably masculine or feminine.

Masculine ("house")
Case Singular Plural
NOM dom-u dom-ovu
GEN dom-ui dom-ovū
DAT dom-uv dom-ūmū
ACC dom-um dom-umu
INS dom-ū dom-ūmi
VOC dom-e dom-ove

Pronouns

Pronouns match the case, number and gender of the ancendent. As a pro-drop language, demonstrative and personal pronouns are dropped when functioning as the subject of the verb because the person is contained within the grammatical form of the verb itself.

Personal pronouns

Case First Person Second Person Reflexive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
NOM eu mi tu vi -
GEN mi nasū ti vasū si
DAT mene namū tebe vamū sebe
ACC me te se
INS mene nami tebe vami sebe

Demonstrative pronoun

There are three kinds of demonstrative pronouns: the weak demonstrative, proximal demonstrative and the distal demonstrative. Over time, the weak demonstrative eventually came to be used as third-person personal pronoun ("he, she, it") is considered demonstrative.

Third-person demonstrative pronoun ("he, she, it")
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
NOM io ii ia ie ie ia
GEN ii ixū ie ixū ii ixū
DAT iov imu iav imu iov imu
ACC iom iomo iam iama ie ia
INS iu imi ia imi iu imi
Proximal Demonstrative pronoun ("this")
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
NOM ovo ovi ova ove ovo ova
GEN ovi ovū ove ovū ovi ovū
DAT ovev ovemu ovav ovamu ovev ovemu
ACC ovom ovomo ovam ovama ovo ova
INS ovu ovemi ova ovami ovu ovemi
Distal Demonstrative pronoun ("that")
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
NOM ono oni ona one ono ona
GEN oni onū one onū oni onū
DAT onov onemu onav onam onov onemu
ACC onom onomo onam onama ono ona
INS onu onemi ona onami onu onemi

Relative and Interrogatives pronoun

Whereas the other pronouns largely come from Marolevic origins, the relative and interogative pronouns are taken Solarian qui, quae, quod and quis, quod, although they influenced by the Vulgar Solarian forms which came after- such as the accusative "quene". The pronoun can render "who", "what", or "which", depending on the circumstances.

Relative pronoun ("who, what, which")
Case Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
NOM qui qui qua que quene qua
GEN cui cui cui
DAT cuiv quimu cuiv quamu cuiv quimu
ACC quene quomo quam quama quene quomo
INS cu quimi qua quami cu quimi
Interrogative pronoun
Masculine,
Feminine
Neuter
NOM quis quene
GEN cui
DAT cui
ACC quene
INS qua que

Adjectives

Adjectives in Tengarian agree in case, number and gender with the nouns which they modify. Adjectives are mostly declined as both a-stem (for feminine nouns) or o-stem nouns (for masculine or neuter) depending on the gender of the noun, although some i-stem adjectives exist as well. Notable exceptions include the masculine nominative singular for the o-stem, where an "-e" is added, such as "albe" for white. Adjectives usually come after the nouns which they modify (E.G. "domovu albi" instead of "albi domovu") and may also be used substantively if standing on its own- for example, Novi might be used to signify "[the] new [things]" with a noun being implied.

Comparative adjectives are formed by adding the letter j (/ʒ/) after the base vowel of the adjective and then supplying the proper case ending, such as "alboje", "albaja", "albojom". Superlatives are of two kinds: relative superlatives, which add the prefix "mai-" to the comparative adjective, such as "maialboje" or "mainovaja"; and absolute superlatives, which add the prefix "pre-" to the comparative adjective, such as "prealboje" or "prenovaja".

Verbal morphology and grammar

Tengarian verbs are highly inflected and conjugated, with verbal inspiration from proto-Marolevic with influence of Solarian and Amathian.

Finite Verbs

Finite verbs possess person, number, voice, aspect, tense and mood. Tengarian has first, second and third person verbs, which can also be singular or plural. Tense and aspect are sometimes grouped together into six tenses, but principally they are distinguished- tense signifies the time of the verb's action in the past, present and future, while aspect is considered progressive (sometimes called imperfective), signifying an ongoing action, and perfect (sometimes called perfective), signifying a complete action.

Tengarian verbs are divided into three categories, called conjugations, based on the letter which forms the stem for the verb form. Proto-Tengarian likely had more conjugations with greater variety, which by the 13th century had become more simplified and unified.

A-Stem
Stati, "To stand"
Voice Mood Tense & Aspect Number and person Estmerish
equivalent
(only sg. 1st)
Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Active
Indicative Past Progressive staneaxo staneasi staneastut staneaxomū staneaste staneastunt I was standing, I used to stand
Present Progressive stamo stasi statut stamū staste stastunt I stand, I am standing
Future Progressive stanamo stanasi stanastut stanamū stanaste stanastunt I will stand, I will be standing
Past Perfect staxovū staxovi staxovit staxovomū staxovoste staxovunt I had stood
Present Perfect staxū staxi staxit staxomū staxoste staxunt I stood, I have stood
Future Perfect stanaxū stanaxi stanaxit stanaxomū stanaxoste stanaxunt I will have stood
Imperative Present stani! stanate! stand! (2nd person only)
E-Stem
Nesti, "To carry"
Voice Mood Tense & Aspect Number and person Estmerish
equivalent
(only sg. 1st)
Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Active
Indicative Past Progressive neseaxo neseasi neseastut neseaxomū neseaste neseastunt I was carrying, I used to carry
Present Progressive neso nesesi nesetut nesemū neseste nesestunt I carry, I am carrying
Future Progressive nesamo nesasi nesastut nesamū nesaste nesastunt I will carry, I will be carrying
Past Perfect nexovū nexovi nexovit nexovomū nexovoste nexovunt I had carried
Present Perfect nexū nexi nexit nexomū nexoste nexunt I carried, I have carried
Future Perfect nesaxū nesaxi nesaxit nesaxomū nesaxoste nesaxunt I will have caried
Imperative Present nesi! nesete! carry! (2nd person only)
I-Stem
Prositi, "To ask"
Voice Mood Tense & Aspect Number and person Estmerish
equivalent
(only sg. 1st)
Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Active
Indicative Past Progressive proseaxo proseasi proseastut proseaxomū proseaste proseastunt I was asking, I used to ask
Present Progressive proso prosisi prositut prosimū prosiste prosistunt I ask, I am asking
Future Progressive prosiamo prosiasi prosiastut prosiamū prosiaste prosiastunt I will ask, I will be asking
Past Perfect prosixovū prosixovi prosixovit prosixovomū prosixovoste prosixovunt I had asked
Present Perfect prosixū prosixi prosixit prosixomū prosixoste prosixunt I asked, I have asked
Future Perfect prosiaxū prosiaxi prosiaxit prosiaxomū prosiaxoste prosiaxunt I will have asked
Imperative Present prosi! prosite! ask! (2nd person only)
Special Verbs

There are five verbs recognised as unique in Tengarian: Beti ("to be"), Dati (to give), . Sometimes considered as hese are unique because they have older archaic forms which have been perserved, and do not fall under the other verb conjugations.

Beti, "To be"
Voice Mood Tense & Aspect Number and person Estmerish
equivalent
(only sg. 1st)
Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Active
Indicative Past Progressive beaxo beasi beaset beaxomū beaste beașet I was, I used to be
Present Progressive esmo esi est esmū este sunt I am, I am being
Future Progressive bodo bodesi bodetut bodemū bodete bodotunt I will be, I will be being
Past Perfect bexovū bexovi bexet bexovomū bexovoste bexovunt I had been
Present Perfect bexū besi bestū bexomū beste beșet I was, I have been
Future Perfect beaxū beaxi beaxet beaxomū beaxoste beaxunt I will have been
Conditional Present - - sit - - sint It might be, It would/should be
Past - - bist - - bistet It might have been, It would/should have been
Imperative Present bodi! bodite! be! (2nd person only)
Non-Finite Forms
Infinitive beti To be
Verbal Noun betu, betui Being
Active Participle Present si (m,f) se (n) Being (adj)
Future bodi (m,f) bode (n) About to be
Passive Past byvū Has been, Makes other verbs passive
Dati, "To give"
Voice Mood Tense & Aspect Number and person Estmerish
equivalent
(only sg. 1st)
Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
Active
Indicative Past Progressive dadeaxo dadeasi dadeastut dadeaxomū dadeaste dadeastunt I was giving, I used to give
Present Progressive damo dasi dastut damū daste dastunt I give, I am giving
Future Progressive dadamo dadasi dadastut dadamū dadaste dadastunt I will give, I will be giving
Past Perfect daxovū daxovi daxovit daxovomū daxovoste daxovunt I had given
Present Perfect daxū daxi daxit daxomū daxoste daxunt I gave, I have given
Future Perfect dadaxū dadaxi dadaxit dadaxomū dadaxoste dadaxunt I will have given
Imperative Present dadi! dadite! give! (2nd person only)
Compounded Voice and Mood

In addition to forming verbs by morphological inflection of the word itself, Tengarian has several compound verbal poroperties which are formed by taking the inflected forms above with a compound.

The conditional mood (which also can fulfill the role of the optative or subjunctive in other languages), only truly present in the verb beti ("to be"), is formed by compounding the indicative form of the verb according to the number or tense of the verb in question. The present conditional is fromed by the base verb + sit (singular) or verb + sint (plural), while the past conditional is formed by verb + bist (singular) or verb + bistet (plural). Examples include prosisi sit ("you may ask") and nesastunt bistet (they would have carried).

All verbs above are listed above are in the active voice, but Tengarian verbs may also be in the passive voice. When coupled with the special past passive particple byvū (of the word beti), the word is changed into the passive voice, while keeping their tense, aspect mood and number the same. Examples include proso byvū ("I am asked") and stanaxoste byvū ("you all will have been stood").

Non-finite Verbs

Non finite verbs include infinitives, verbal nouns, and participles.

Infinitives have the common ending -ti, and are usually formed by taking the vowel stem of the verb: stamo > stati, neso > nesti, and proso > prositi. Certain words have other ways of forming the infintives.

The verbal noun is retained in Tengarian from old proto-Marolevic, although it was conflated in form and in use with the supine. It is formed by taking the infintive form but replacing the -i ending with a u-stem noun. For example, the infintive stati becomes statu, statui, as is declined as a u-stem noun. Since they are u-stem, they are always considered masculine nouns. These verbal nouns are usually rendered as gerunds in Estmerish.

Although historically there were more participles in Tengarian, there currently only remain two dominant forms- a present active and a past passive. However, certain exceptions remain of historical uses (most notably, bodi, bode, which is the future participle of "to be"). Generally speaking, the present active is created by adding a "-m-" plus the stem ending for the i-stem adjective, while the past passive varies in each conjugation but always ends with the o/a adjective endings. The notable exception to this is the passive past byvū, which functions as a particle to make a compound passive rather than a proper participle.

Voice A-Stem E-Stem I-Stem
Present Active Stanimi, Stanime Nesimi, Nesime Prosimi, Prosime
Past Passive Stave, Stava, Stavom Nesene, Nesena, Nesenom Prosine, Prosina, Prosinum

Tengarian names

The Tengarian naming system consists of a given name and a surname or family name, and largely matches the naming conventions of Euclea. In certain areas of the country, such as in the north, a direct patronymic is used in between the given and the surname.

Given names

Parents may give their children one or more given names. If more than one is used, the first is most commonly used without reference to the others, although the other names are required for official identification. Given names are prominently taken from three sources: Biblical and early Church Sotirian names, variously from Atudean and Piraean but often morphology influenced by Solarian and Amathian; Solarian and Amathian names; and names of Marolevic origin. Certain names were brought into the language more recently, including some by pan-Marolevs, most notable being Svetlana and Dimitri. Because Tengarian distinguishes between the nominative and the vocative (except for A-stem feminines), speaking to someone sees the use of a different inflection of the same name (E.G., Simeon to Simeone, Mattæ to Mattæe and Ioani to Ioane).

Masculine names are largely O-stem or I-stem nouns, with a handful of exceptions. Biblical and Sotirian names include: Andre, Angel, Ciril, Gabriel, Daniel, Georghi, Iacob, Ioani, Iosef, Laurenti, Luca, Mattæ, Mihail, Nicolæ, Paul, Petre, Simeon, Sotrian, and Stefan. Solarian and Amathian names include: Adeodat, Alexandre, Anton, Clement, Corneli, Constantin, Cyriac, Donat, Mari, Renat, Sergi, Solarian, Theodos, Valentin, Vasile, and Victor. Marolevic names include: Bogdan, Bogomil, Boian, Casimir, Dragomir, Dimitri, Lubomir, Milan, Stanislav, Vladimir, and Zlatan.

Feminine names are almost A-stem nouns, with a few exceptions. Biblical Sotirian names include: Ana, Andrea, Angela, Caterina, Eva, Ioana, Maria, and Veronica. Solarian and Amathian names include: Alexandra, Beata, Clara, Coroana, Daria, Florina, Gloria, Hippodalia, Lacrimiara, Margarita, Monica, Silvia, Sofia, Renata, and Valentina. Marolevic and Piraean names include: Anastasia, Bogdana, Bogomila, Cloa, Elena, Ludmila, Olga, Svetlana, Tatiana, Teodora, Vera, Violeta, and Zora.

Surnames

Traditionally, fixed family names did not exist for most class except for the nobility. In the later part of the 19th century, in accord with Euclean culture, the government supported the adoption of family last names. The most common way of forming this is through the use of patronymics, or in rare cases when a father could not be identified, through matronymics, although these were not the only methods of arriving at last names. Legally, surnames are passed down from the father in the vast majority of cases, although in certain cases they can be passed down from the mother. Wives take the surname of their husbands, although in a feminine form.

Most patroynmics are the same for both men and women. They are formed with the genitive form (using the prefix "a-", from the preposition a) were used, as in "Adragomiri", or 'from Dragomir'. With names that begin with vowels except i (such as Andre, Angel, and certain feminine names) an intervocalic 'i' and the /j/ sound is added, making "A-angeli" "Aiangeli" (ah-yahn-ge-li). In some cases where the name begins with vowels, the first "a" is dropped and only the i remains, such as "Iandrei" or "Iantoni". The rarer matronymics follow the same rule, except use the feminine a-stem genitive, such as "Amarie" and "Aieve". Pan-Marolevic supporters also proposed adding suffixes to make the names look more Marolevic; these partroynmics have a masculine "-v" or feminine "-va" added onto the end of the genitive, such as "Abogdaniv", "Aioaniva". Family names formed with Marolevic suffixes will be masculine or feminine depending on the sex of the person.

Besides patronymics as the basis for surnames, there are other ways to form them as well. The same formula use for patronymics can also be used for place of origin rather than names- for example, "Agarne", meaning 'from Garna', and "Arece" meaning 'from the river'. Feminine last names are more common here than with patronymics. Some names come from occupations, such as "Kovachev"/"Kovacheva" coming from the word Kovac, which is a word meaning "smith" with a Marolevic suffix, "Istine" coming from istina meaning "truth", or "Ursi" coming from Urs meaning "bear". The final source for surnames are those which come from adjectives- "Albe/Alba" coming from Alba signifying "white". Names from adjectives do not come from the genitive but instead agree with the gender, case and number of the name.