History of Mascylla
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The area of what is now Mascylla was originally inhabited by a collection of Telmerian tribes, most notably the Therunds (Terunder), Falians (Fahlier), Aldens (Aldier) and Adhuins (Adhuiner) since classical antiquity. Following ill-fated attempts by the Cambran Empire to expand northward beyond modern-day Dulebia in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, and its subsequent collapse in the aftermath of the Migration Period by 300 AD, the newly founded Welbarian Kingdom annexed southern Mascylla while introducing Cambran innovations and customs to the region and developing a distinctive culture and language as the basis for modern Mascyllary culture.
The presence of the Welbarians prompted the slow creation of duchies and states from the Mascyllary tribes, and by 1000 AD most of Mascylla had been organized into a patchwork of petty kingdoms and duchies. Soon after, religious disputes and a prolonged series of dynastic disputes dominated Mascyllary politics in the Middle Ages, increasingly influenced by growing predecessors to the First Cuthish Empire and Loxstedt-Hoeveden Monarchy.
After the Adwinian Wars and War of Calaphay Succession in 1569 and 1603 respectively, two nations had emerged as regional powers, Aldia and Adwinia, vying for hegemony over the remaining Mascyllary states, with Aldia rapidly rising with a colonial empire it had acquired from Cuthland by the 1700s. The hostilities between both nations began to grow and, following the gradual dwindling of power of the Cuthish Empire in the latter 18th century that left a power vacuum in Mascylla's central provinces, three consecutive wars of unification were fought in the 1740s, 1760s and 1770s respectively. The epitome of violence would be reached in the War of the Five Kings from 1789 to 1793, with Aldia, leading a confederacy of states against Adwinia and ultimately emerging victorious. The subsequent Treaty of Lancaide negotiated the unification of Mascylla into a nation state with a continuation of the Aldian monarchy through Lukas I at its helm. The collapse of Cuthland and its slow periods of partition enabled Mascylla to vastly expand its Berean as well as Pamiran and Alvinian influence. Moreover, Mascyllary culture and commerce flourished by the turn of the 19th century, and the Aldian colonial system expanded into a global colonial empire that was the second largest by the 1830s. However, with the rise of the Second Cuthish Empire under Edwin III and following the Second Cutho-Mascyllary War (1839–41), Mascylla was utterly defeated and forced to cede pre-1758 Cuthish territories in Mascylla as well as a portion of its colonial possessions.
The ensuing antagonization by the Mascyllary populous and the mutual hateship between both countries that had developed over the last two hundred years was a decisive factor in the causing of the Great War (1911–16). As a major participant and ultimately victor of the war with the Armala Coalition, it set the terms of peace, crippling Cuthland's military, economy and territorial extent, as well as reshaping the geopolitical order through the establishment of the Assembly of Nations in 1917. War-torn conservative Mascylla however succumbed to increasing calls for reform by the worker class, with the Mascyllary Revolution overthrowing the to this point de facto absolute monarchy and instituting a democratic republic with a parliamentally regulated monarch in 1924. An unprecedented economic boom in the 1920s and 1930s quickly recovered the damaged economy while solidifying the recently introduced democracy.
The enmities left by the Great War proved to be pivotal in the later course of the 20th century, when a re-organized Cuthland leading the Mageiros League and X rivaled the western democratic nations united by the BDTA after 1944. While Mascylla kept clinging onto its colonial possessions, the Melasian Crisis from 1941 to 1943 triggered the slow decolonization of its empire as well as the beginning of the Great Game (1944–1990). The 1960s and 1970s saw civil unrest and dissatisfaction with the country's policies, and additional terrorist movements and scandals further coalesced into a national insurgency, culminating in the July 20 1991 terrorist attacks. After numerous attempts of reconciliation by the democratic and communist blocs and following the 1987 stock crash and financial crisis, the X collapsed, leaving Cuthland and Mascylla as the two remaining rivals of the former Great Game. Recent reapproachment with post-communist states beginning in the 1990s however kept diplomatic tensions between the two at bay.
Prehistory
The oldest evidence of the presence of the species Homo on Mascyllary territory date back atleast 500,000 years, and permanent presence to the south of the country is exptected to have begun 390,000 years ago. Homo geisahlensis is named after the city close to the site of its discovery. The atleast 200,000 years old Storßener Speere und Messer (Storßen Spears and Knifes) are the oldest entirely preserved hunting tools of humans yet discovered and marked a radical shift in the understanding of neolithic social development in the 1990s. The arrival of Homo sapiens, the anatomically modern human, having immigrated from Caphtora, marked the sudden dissapearance of all humans in Telmeria 14,000 years ago, though recent studies suggest all human species had joint descendants; this era also saw the zenith of the Upper Paleolithic revolution.
Coming from the Middle East and migrating through Dulebia to Telmeria, Neolithic farmers with their domesticated animals and plants slowly displaced the hunters and gatherers of the Mesolithic period in southern Mascylla by 5,500 BC. The cultures of hunters, collectors and fishermen to the north of the country remained resilient, but ultimately adopted the methods of the now sedentary, agricultural Western Linear Pottery cultures to the south in approximately 3,800 BC. With over 500 years of delay, the Bronze Age in Mascylla started 4,700 years ago and produced a wide range of artifacts and tools, most famously the Sky Disc of Halie discovered in 1990. The begin of the X period in 2000 BC marked the gradual end of Proto-Dentrian inhabitation and the rise of iron as the preferred working material. By 600 BC, the first considered modern Hesurianic cultures had already formed in northern Mascylla, and towns such as Falkenhall, Dalbeck, Rothnau, Bützow and Augusthal became the oldest continuously inhabited settlements in Mascylla. Ancient authors first used "Hesurians" as a ethnographic collective term in the 1st century BC.
Telmerian tribes and antiquity
The Cambran Empire organized and attempted numerous actions of expansion up the northern Telmerian peninsula between 100 BC and 300 AD, mainly from its positions in modern-day Dulebia on the River Dnistr. Provisional legion camps were initial seeds in the establishment of early centres of administration and society in southern Mascylla, namely Lansbruck (originally founded as Laneaum), Konreid (Conria) and Sudhaven (Hamentum). After the incursions of the Aldens and Welbarians in 320 AD the Migration Period put an end to the Cambran Empire, constituted the dramatic change from late antiquity to the Early Middle Ages and helped shape several historic tribes in Mascylla such as the Aldens, Chenians, Therunds, Warnons and Adhuins.
In the wake of the end of the Triumvirate of Cambra, numerous Hesurianic Cambran successor states formed on its territories, the most influential of which in Telmeria was the Welbarian Kingdom. While the centre of power and population was located in Dulebia, it had a significant influence on the Mascyllary tribes present, as it introduced late Cambran culture, judiciary and artwork and prompted them to merge into several proto duchies. From approximately 450 AD until the early 7th century AD, the areas west of the Lanne and south of the Blaugold belonged to the Welbarian Kingdom, and from 580 to 620 AD also parts of modern-day Elpsland (Nordmark) as well as most of today's Holnia. Cities such as Konreid, Pehlgau, Lannbruck, Lubbernau, Steglitz, and Sudhaven, which are among the oldest cities in Mascylla, date back to the Welbarians.
Tribal duchies and marches
After 700 AD, the Welbarian Kingdom dwindled in power following the separation of the Kingdom of Aldena and left a vacuum of power by which feudalism became the dominant policy and five principal tribal duchies Adwinia, Fahnicht, Folneria, Falia and Wenilia were formed.
The following three centuries saw the rise of territorial fragmentation of Mascylla ("Kleinstaaterei") and decisive defeats of the invading Pomorians, largely with the Battle of Moosfeld in 903.
Middle Ages
Regnum Cheniaticorum
In the 9th century AD, Pomorian groups migrated up to the Lahr-Lanne-line into the disputed settlement areas of Hesurianic tribes. The prestige win of Adwinian duke Adalbert II following the successful retalation against the Pomorians in 903 boasted a new Mascyllary dynasty of now kings which ruled over the individual duchies of the 1000s, named the Adalbertian dynasty (Adalbertanierdynastie). Though it gained enough traction to reign as sovereign of Mascylla, the Semitar church in Cambra awarded the entity the title of regnum Cheniaticorum ("Kingdom of the Mascyllary") but refrained from referring to it as an empire (Imperium) in order to relativize the claims of sovereignty from its Cambran successors. The title and kingdom was preserved until the 12th century and is generally seen as the origin point of the "modern" Mascyllary history.
Otto II of Mascylla claimed the royal dignity of Welbaria in 1020 and forcefully tried to unite his regnum Cheniaticorum with Imperial Rovina (Reichsrovinen) to the south, in hopes of establishing a western "Cambran" empire (Kämbrisch-Hesurisches Reich). Briefly, this empire grew to encompass a hegemonious position in Telmeria from 1000–1030. His military campaign proved disastrous however, and was forced to dissolve his kingdom in exchange for his ducal title of Adwinia by Aldena in 1039, ending any hopes of a unified Mascyllary empire of Cambran descent.
Fracturing and competition
Numerous feudal rulerships came at the cost of a regal imperial power in the form of territorial states, and thus made consensual rule impossible for much of the 12th and 13th centuries: Duke Richard II of Adwinia failed with an attempt to rule as Mascyllary emperor de iure uxoris as hereditary monarch of the Markiner dynasty. The gearing of worldly and spiritual power prohibited his actions through the imperial church system (Reichskirchensystem) which triggered the Regal Contest of 1217 between church and state. The devisive nature of the debate led to Richard's downfall and further diversitification of Mascylla's countdom after the interregnum of Adwinia's dukes. However, visions of a joint federation of states under an elective monarchy never ceased to infest policies of several influential dukes throughout the Middle Ages. The most notable conflict surrounding that debate arose when in 1262 King Dilisme I of Warnia attempted to force the Archbishop of Lancaide to concede to his claim on the imperial crown; the war left the lasting impression of Mascyllary familiarity and the Concord of Rothenthur in 1306 formally defined Mascylla's territories as an ambiguous "empire" or "Reich". Coinciding dynastic disputes expanded the conflict to Dilisme's War which ultimately ended in stalemate and was partially resolved with the Peace of Westmarke in 1297, which pardoned Dilisme of his actions, forced him to surrender his imperial crown, and ensured his kingdom would serve as regal protector of all of Mascylla (Reichsprotektor) as compromise throughout the 14th century.
The ensuing rivalry among Mascylla's major royal houses, the Salzlowers, Sohlnarers and Welsbachers, kept tensions between Mascylla's states high and provided for intricate plays of power. The 14th and 15th centuries Late Middle Ages were dominated by crises such as the Black Plague, agricultural mass mismanagement (Famines of 1339 and 1401) and the gradual rise of the bourgeoisie which led to the formation of free merchant cities (Freie Reichsstädte).
Kobmanse
Early modern Mascylla (16X–1793)
Renaissance
The transition to the Renaissance marked the end of the Salzlower family as paramount Mascyllary monarchs, the rise of the Welsbachers as Grand Dukes of Welsbach, and the entry of the House of Loxstedt-Hoeveden via the emerging First Cuthish Empire deriving its origins from Aldena and Dulebia of the 16th century. Through delicate maneuvering, it gained expansive territories in Mascylla as a Berean great power and eventually gained the title of Imperial Protector with the Edict of Konreid in 1658, putting the struggle of achieving unity under a Cambran Hesurianic sovereign to rest. Conflicts of dynastical interest intensified greatly, culminating in the War of the Eustrian Succession 1588–1605 and the Delcian War 1642–1653.
Rise of Aldia and Aldian-Adwinian rivalry
The Kingdom of Aldia sought to emulate the Købmandslaug and become a great and wealthy trading nation with Aldian Algaria in 1622, Wilhelmshafen in 1630, and the creation of the Aldian Caphtoran Company (AKK) in 1631. King John George II's efforts at encouraging seaborne trade made some headway and improved the troubling financial situation suffered from the Delcian War. King William Louis I intended to strengthen Aldia's international position by introducing a standing professional army in the 1650s, willing to make political concessions to his subordinate nobility in order to centralize military funding and leadership. By 1670, the Aldian army of approximately 30,500 soldiers was among the largest standing militaries in Telmeria.
The ambitious and opportunistic King George Charles I provided well-trained troops for the Grand Alliance of the War of the Cuthish Succession (1715–1740). When Edmund VII of Cuthland had his illegitimate son Edwin of Whitford crowned Emperor in 1715, his legitimate half-brother Edmund VIII contested his claim and sought Aldia's support, among that of Albert John I of Adwinia and Charles Frederick V of Shwesia. In return for his support, George Charles I demanded territorial concessions in the 1738 Treaty of Habernau and the First Partition of Cuthland, for which he gained enormous prestige and considerable wealth. The acquisation of Asary, Dorsace, and Elpsia, as well as the power vacuum left behind by a weakened Cuthland, brought Aldia into direct confrontation with the aspiring Duchy of Adwinia. The 1740 Treaty of Nyhavn largely initiated Aldia's and Adwinia's rivalry for supremacy in Mascylla.
In 1744, the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences was created. George Charles I intended to rule as an absolutist monarch, attempting to bring the Junker local nobility into his fold and further centralize state bureaucracy. One of his most notable reforms was the 1747 School Edict which expanded compulsory primary education throughout the realm. In the latter 18th century, Aldia's army grew considerably to a formidable size of some 90,000.
Age of Enlightenment and Elbgau Confederation
His successor, the prudent Frederick Albert II, was the principal advocate of Enlightened absolutism in 18th century Berea. Invading Grand Ducal Eustria in an effort to seize its army and wealth, and lessen the burden of combating Adwinia, he triggered the First Cutho-Mascyllary War and thus the Four Years' War against Cuthland. The war was initially successful for Aldia but as it dragged on, the conflict turned against it and its allies in the Valimian victory of the Battle of Kaiserswerder. Fortunately for Frederick Albert II, the benevolent Charles Frederick II of Valimia assumed control in 1776 and thus pulled out of the war without any additional demands. After X, Aldia and Cuthland agreed to the Treaty of Birchau, initiating the Second Partition of Cuthland.
He strengthened the rural economy by introducing mercantilism and tariffs within his realm, implemented policies to mitigate famines, and witnessed early industrialization through mechanized textile production in Elpsia. Aldia also played host to the Enlightenment to produce some of the most famous intellectuals of all time, such Albert Sahl and Lukas Wilhelm Hayder. Other Mascyllary thinkers and artists of this period include Wilhelm von Baerder, Amadeus Bertold von Rasling, and Matthias von Spaier. Agrarian reforms in northeastern Mascylla in the 1780s gradually abolished feudal duties and emancipated serfs, but would require another century to spread across the entirety of Mascylla. Particularly the Junkers held immense rural political and economic power through manorialism and actively resisted any attempts at reform.
With overlapping territorial aspirations following the Four Years' War, Albert William I of Aldia envisioned a new political unit to nurture friedship among its members in order to effectively tackle Adwinia together. The Edict of Rehnern in December 1785 concluded with the establishment of the idiosyncratic Elbgau Confederation, of which 11 sovereign states were initial members. While attempts had been made by Adwhin to establish a counterweight to the confederation with the remaining neutral Mascyllary states, efforts proved fruitless and led to a dramatic rise in tensions between Aldia and Adwhin. Furthermore, the rapid decline of the Cuthish Empire under Edmund IX destabilized the delicate balance of powers of Mascylla. With the onset of the Cuthish Revolution in 1789, the Elbgau Confederation gradually repurposed itself from an opportunistic alliance of sovereign states into an increasingly nationalistic project; Lucas I of Aldia spearheaded this development, recognizing its potential to amplify Aldian power in an united Mascylla on the grounds of increasingly popular Mascyllary patriotism and nationalism (Maskenfrage). However, he disapproved of the introduction of Enlightened liberalist and other revolutionary ideas.
War of the Five Kings and Mascyllary unification
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In March 1789, the Duke of Phalia-Lehpold, Charles IV, suddenly died but left no heir apparent and the throne vacant. Aldia quickly suggested an Ahnern candidate, Lucas's brother Leopold, as Phalia's successor, but Adwinia, recognizing the strategic significance of Phalya, aggressively objected and pushed for King Theodore's nephew, Prince Maximilian, to succeed Charles IV. The issue quickly evolved into a diplomatic fiasco, and on 4 September 1789, Adwinia issued to resolve the conflict through war.
While Adwinia quickly invaded Phalia, the Elbgau Confederation was able muster a larger standing army under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Fürst von Stenreck. The conflict quickly escalated into a full-scale war and it became apparent the Elbgau Confederacy and its allies would emerge victorious. After numerous victorious battles in Eustria and Phalia over the course of two years, the Battle of Auserburg in May 1790 was a decisive blow to the Adwinian armies protecting the fortress of Auserburg, completely eradicating the bulk of its land army and capturing King Theodore himself. While Aldia continued to advance further south, Franz Kohlner and a trail of thousands of petty soldiers, peasants and activists, collectively known as the "Expedition of the Thousand" (Zug der Tausend) and politically motivated by the Cuthish Revolution, marched onto and invaded Breisgau.
Shortly thereafter, Adwinia capitulated without any peace terms and representatives of 22 Mascyllary states and free cities gathered in the Congress of Lancaide. Lucas I of Aldia was chosen to ascend the title of Mascyllary King after the style of Emperor of Mascylla (Maskillischer Kaiser) was unanimously rejected, the Elbgau Confederation was dissolved, and its member states as well as the defeated nations were merged into a single Mascyllary state. Rigorous debate ensued in response to Mascylla's formation as an Enlightened absolutist monarchy, as intellectuals had hoped to implement Cuthish revolutionary ideals. The Treaty of Lancaide itself was signed and ratified on 18 May 1793 after months of negotiation. Subsequently, Lucas I was officially coronated in the St Michael's Cathedral in Lancaide to the largest audience of nobility in Mascyllary history.
While the war itself was brief, it left a devastating toll on the civilian population and southerly regions who suffered from looting during the conflict. The government was largely composed of war veterans, such as Wilhelm Fürst von Stenreck, who was appointed Mascylla's first Prime Minister. However, Adwinia and other southern states were deeply indebted, impoverished and virtually unrepresented politically, culminating in a series of strikes and riots in 1795 which were quickly put down by Aldian military forces.
Mascyllary Kingdom (1793–1923)
Cuthish Revolution and rise in power
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Mascylla initially resented intervening in other Telmerian conflicts concurrently with its unification, the most notable rejecting such ambition being Wilhelm von Stenreck. At first, Lucas I remained reluctant about whether it should intervene in the Cuthish Revolution at first. The execution of Edmund IX and the beginning of the Republican Terror in mid-1797 shocked Mascylla and especially Lucas, who reacted immediately with the build-up of troops in New South Aldia and public denunciation. Intellectuals celebrated and welcomed the desire for reform in Cuthland in domestic circles, but were similarly appalled by the repulsive violence.
However, when Algar III, brother to Edmund IX of Cuthland, offered his restoration as Cuthish monarch in exchange for concessions of its Berean and overseas territories, Lucas I pushed for a more prominent stance in Berean affairs. Lucas and Wilhelm von Stenreck agreed to the Ulich Agreement in February 1798, which saw the Mascyllary Kingdom and its reactionary nobility entering the Cuthish Revolutionary War as the fledging nation's first war. Cuthish revolutionary ideals were swiftly spread among the Coalition armies throughout Berea.
While the war was initially successful, with territorial gains in northern Cuthland for much of the conflict, Mascyllary cities such as Birchau and Vogtburg were sacked by forces of the First Cuthish Republic after the Battle of Crestwick in 1799. Nevertheless, the republic was overthrown (Coup of 30 June) in the wake of the Battle of Edgton, and the war concluded with Haltboruh restoration. The Treaty of Swithtun in 1800 initiated Cuthland's third and last partition, despite vocal Mascyllary objection. In 1801, the Grand Duchy of Lingburg was created as a buffer state. The war elevated Mascylla to the status of a great power in an instant and motivated imperialist politicians and nobility to argue for continuous colonial expansion and dominance of Telmerian politics, to the dismay of pro-Stenreck classical liberalists, who advocated to consolidate Mascylla's pre-existing power and limit its interventionist attitude.
Stenreck era and Lucanism
The Mascyllary Kingdom was the brainchild of King Lucas I and his Prime Minister, Wilhelm Fürst von Stenreck, upon its foundation in 1793. While the new state's government was instructed to establish popular sovereignty under constitutional monarchy, in reality, both collaborated in splitting political duties and exchanging policy proposals and ideas, significantly bolstering Mascylla's political efficiency and rapid rise in global power. However, Lucas' impulsive actions were checked and regulated by Stenreck, who relied on his expertise as statesman and later constituted an intricate foreign policy that would ensure Mascylla's security as a unified nation while exercising its geopolitical ambitions, commonly known as his "Ruhe, aber graule" policy ("Be calm, but growl" policy).
While considerably unpopular due to his hardline domestic conservative policies, he signed into law Linnderian models of education, was able to command enough respect in his government for him to largely shape Mascylla's political landscape throughout the first half of the 19th century, and supported the poorly developing economy amid the onset of the Industrial Revolution. The spirit of the Enlightenment became disillusioned after the Cuthish Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, increasingly diverging into Romanticism; censorship of the press was strictly enforced to slow the advance of revolutionary thought. During the 1810s and 1820s, the onset of the demographic transition became apparent through accelerating population growth.
With the deterioration of Stenreck's health by the 1820s, Lucas I assumed a more significant portion of the country's policymaking while increasingly viewing the Reichsrat as an advisory body instead of a legislature, further alienating his former liberal and reformist allies in the elected components of government. When he finally died in 1832, however, his more ambitious and impulsive son, Lucas II, ascended the throne and redefined many of Stenreck's previously delicately introduced policies. Aspiring to expand Mascylla's foreign and economic powers, he abandoned Stenreck's foreign policy, pursuing colonialist ambitions primarily in Pamira and Caphtora, which were largely absent of Berean colonial presence. While at first approaching Berean politics unilaterally, his successors sophisticated the expansionist ideals of Lucas II, while embarking on negotiations with Valimia and Tsarist Dulebia.
Colonial empire and the Gründerjahre (1800–1840)
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Over time, the political legitimacy of the monarchy and government had hardened, and politicians began experimenting with numerous courses for domestic and foreign policy. Lucas I staunchly rejected Stenreck's reserved approach toward Telmeria and favorited continuing what he described as a "continuous expansion of the Mascyllary nation," most notably in Pamira and Caphtora. Around this developing political objective, a group of conservative and monarchist politicians established the first political party of Mascylla, the National Party, a predecessor to today's National Democratic Union, which dominated Mascyllary politics for much of the 19th century. Relations with the Kingdom of Cuthland improved greatly during The Interlude. In 1816, the Duchy of Konreid became the first Mascyllary state to implement a constitution, followed by the Kingdom of Holnia and the Kingdom of Adwinia in 1818; Aldia and the Mascyllary monarchy continued to be defiant, however. The 1822 April Revolution and proclamation of the Second Cuthish Republic led to the Reichenbach Decrees (Reichenbacher Beschlüsse), attempting to repress liberal and revolutionary upheaval spilling over into Mascylla; despite fierce resistance, nationalist fraternities (Burschenschaften) and liberal newspapers were swiftly disbanded.
The Mascyllary colonial empire, formerly under Aldian control, developed from numerous attempts and stepstones: Caphtoran and Pamiran trade outposts and towns with little territorial extent and vaious Alvinian islands which had been explored and settled to establish plantations and mines. In the early 19th century, the colonies had almost no domestic political value and furthermore little economic importance; however, the accelerating growth of local populations (more than triple by 1850 than in 1810) soon challenged the weight of the metropole within the empire. Political interest also rose with an increased rivalry among Berean colonial powers over yet unclaimed territories which were further fueled by the X.
A series of small-scale wars and skirmishes with other colonial powers, most notably Falland and Sarrac, and numerous colonial tribes and petty kingdoms in Caphtora and Pamira dempered romanticism and prestige of an emerging colonial power, but were quickly compensated through successful and expansive campaigns in X and Mavronesia. The region gave rise to the largest Mascyllary colonial possession, Mascyllary Melasia, in 1832. In recognition of Mascyllary rule in Melasia, Lucas II adopted the style of Emperor of Melasia (Kaiser von Melasien) to satisfy his imperialist ambition and as an offer of compromise by the moderate Reichsrat. Lavaria emerged as the primal colonial enemy in the mid-19th century. Relations with the Second Cuthish Republic remained ambivalent but neutral, though they suffered a major setback during the 1827 Blaugold Crisis; nationalism expanded to become a mass movement in the aftermath of this particularly tense episode.
Although exerting a considerable strain on Mascylla's home economy and political capital, it soon acquired enough resources in natural wealth and man labor to bolster its economy, which doubled in size in the next twenty years from 1830 to 1850. The emergence of the Second Industrial Revolution in the early 19th century set in motion a thorough transformation of the Mascyllary economy. The sharp increase in manufactured goods from the metropole could be traded within the sprawling colonial empire in exchange for supplied raw resources. Mascyllary industry grew exponentially after the beginning of railway construction in 1839, the explosive development of the textile industry, and the rise of Mascyllary entrepeneurship. Despite this, Lucas II could not ease internal tension, resorted to increasingly repressive measures to silence his opponents, and advocated for clericalism and divine rule. Demands for abolitionism culminated in the end of slavery with the Slavery Act of 1840 (Sklavereiakte von 1840).
Alhstead Wars and 1847 revolution
King Lucas II debated whether to intervene in the 1830 Ahlstead Revolution and support the ultra-royalist military junta under Ecgfriþ Garfield, or to take advantage of the chaos in Cuthland. It quickly became apparent that Edwin III intended to assert claims on territories lost in the Revolutionary War, on the basis of nationalist and revanchist rhetoric. After Mascylla refused to cede territories and recall its armies from Lingburg, the newly formed Second Cuthish Empire triggered the Alhstead Wars in 1832.
The brief Second Cutho-Waldish War of the First Coalition was promising at first, but the Mascyllary invasion was surprisingly turned back at the Battle of Holstey. The scope of the conflict expanded greatly with the entry of Norden and Dulebia to the Second Coalition, each decisively knocked out of the war with the Cuthish victories of X and X during the 1834 Peninsular War and X campaigns, respectively. The Treaty of Ulich forced the Second Coalition to cease, securing major gains in Lesinia and Tambovia.
The Second Cutho-Mascyllary War of the Third Coalition in September of 1839 was quickly decided as Cuthland scored a row of military victories, dispersing a Mascyllary army and encircling another one at Augusthal. The bulk of Mascylla's standing army was defeated in the Battle of Vogtburg a month later, opening the opportunity to surround and besiege Königsreh in spring of 1840. In actuality, the hastily organized counter defenses were able to force the besieging army to disperse and capitulate after a crop failure and unrest in the Cuthish armies. However, these efforts were ultimately to no avail as Königsreh was forced to capitulate in early summer and a provisional government, seeing itself increasingly isolated, offered to sign a treaty of surrender at Marienfelde (Treaty of Marienfelde, Marienfelder Verträge). As a result of the negotiations, and formally confirmed by the 1841 Treaty of Alderport (Vertrag von Alderhaven), Mascylla was forced to pay reparations and indemnities of 4 billion karnings and cede Elpsland, Lingburg, Dorsace, and New Aldia to Cuthland, as well as several colonial concessions, primarily in Alvinia.
Following the disastrous outcome of the war, the current political establishment and the monarchy under Lucas II earned growing criticism and unfavorable review for the rising influence of the middle and lower class, anticipating a class conflict. The discomfort of the fiercely nationalistic populous, paired with a government that grew more authoritarian and conservative (March Laws of 1847), led to the rise of an insurrectionist movement originating in Königsreh, later known as the Cornflower Uprising of 1847 (Kornblumenaufstand von 1847). The bloody revolt, though ultimately unsuccessful at last, prompted other riots, especially within the country's military, to rise and seek the overthrow of Lukas II. The newly elected Reichsrat in September of 1847 was dissolved by Lucas II, exacerbating unrest even further.
The 28 October coup d'état, primarily supported by the peasantry and rogue military elements, deposed Lucas II as King, and despite fierce resistance by the government and elements of the coup initially seeking to overthrow the monarchy entirely, elected Sophia I as Queen. She suspended the government under Friedrich Anton Graf von Gäste, and later confirmed a cabinet of Emmanuel Heinrich Lyder. In 1848, Mascylla officially became a constitutional monarchy and Sophia rejected the style of Empress (Kaiserin) as had been offered by the Flussmund National Convention. The revolution, later known as the October Revolution (Oktoberrevolution) in Mascylla, primarily introduced further protections and rights for the socialist peasantry and bolstered support in the current administration after the coup.
Neuzeit
The Alhstead Wars left Mascylla, its political administration, and its military humiliated, which was previously considered one of the most well-equipped and organized Beream armies. The uneasy truce settled by the Treaty of Alderport, revanchism and the already significant popularity of an expansionist Mascylla further exacerbated the Cuthish–Mascyllary enmity; it became a crucial factor in Mascylla's foreign policy from 1842 onward, especially under Prime Minister Oswald von Göttinger. Therefore, Mascylla transformed dramatically from an isolated power to the center of a system of Berean alliances.
Queen Sophia attempted to foster relations between Berean states through marriage and betrothal in the 1850s and 1860s. Fearing an off-set of a Berean balance of powers, Mascylla enthusiastically supported Dulebia in the victorious Karsk Sea War in 1860–1863. Prime Minister Philipp Albert von Ahnern-Woltzar was convinced that good relations with Dulebia had to be maintained in order to surround Cuthland; additionally, Lavaria directly opposed colonial ambitions in Pamira following the Conference of Aniarro in 1870. However, the establishment of the Central Alliance between Cuthland and Dulebia in 1880 greatly soured relations, and the 1899 Third Dulebo-Gurkhan War urged Prime Minister Georg Schmidt to break ties entirely. A priority of Mascyllary foreign affairs in the latter half of the 19th century had been the preservation of the Chaghanid Empire and Valimian Empire (Ostfrage), fearing a potential scramble for its vast territories in Pamira by Lavaria. Adapting a more conciliatory stance to further Cuthish isolation, the Otimo Acordo was created between Mascylla and Lavaria in 1900 to ease tensions; the Auvergne Conference and Fallish-Mascyllary Alliance in 1901 and 1905 respectively secured improved relationships with Sarrac and Falland. The Armala Coalition of 1906 officially formalized collective security; its members would ultimately enter the Great War as Mascyllary allies.
The Neuzeit (lit.: 'new age') was a product of the renewed strength and prosperity from its alliances and continued peace in the late 19th century. Due to prolonged economic growth, relative stability, and cultural, political, and scientific innovation by its populous, Mascylla reinstituted a state of wealth and became a foremost Berean great power. Simultaneously, the invention and introduction of popular amusements brought about by scientists and innovative artists, most notably the motion picture and art styles of Impressionism and Art Nouveau, aided in Mascylla preserving its place as a center of arts and expression. The Universalausstellung of 1891 proved to be a vast success. The continuous industrialization of the economy was nurtured by Mascylla's efficient bureaucracy, government encouragement and stimulation. Mascylla became the world leader of the chemical industry and steel production.
The eras of Queen Sophia, King Frederick I, and Louis I were marked by increasingly rigorous political struggles and expanding imperialism. The awakened ambitions of the middle class and bourgeoisie in the midst of a static and inherently repressive three-class societal system, the rise of the lower class in the advent of the formation of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and Georg Schmidt's tenure as Prime Minister, the Anti-Socialist Laws, the separation of church and state (Kandyll affair), the worker's strike of 1891, and the movement for women's suffrage all were subject of major debate in society and politics from the 1870s to the 1900s. In 1902, Hermann Fürst von Martinsen introduced the formal abolition of child labor and the first Berean welfare state (Staatssozialismus) to appease socialist demands, but proceeded to outlaw the SDP party organization in 1904 undeterred.
Great War (1911–1916)
Mascylla did not expect war when the Great War came about; Prime Minister Hermann Wilhelm Fürst von Martinsen attempted reconciliation and political détente with the Lindenau Accords in 1904. However, he was met with fierce resistance by a vocal Reichsrat party opposition (primarily the SDP and DVP) and King Louis I himself, who openly advocated for direct confrontation and open hostility against Cuthland. Mascylla remained divided as to whether warfare with Cuthland should be anticipated, or if the improvement of relations should be facilitated; in contrast, Mascylla became very active in international affairs by intervening in the Third Dulebo-Gurkhan War in 1899–1902, and the X. Martinsen dismayed over these developments, witnessing a counteracting movement in foreign policymaking which simultaneously undermined his policies. Tensions within his cabinet grew, leading to the removal of Siegfried von Appeldorn as Minister of Foreign Affairs and a scandalous government crisis.
When the X triggered a complex network of alliances and treaties, it drew every Berean power, including Mascylla, into conflict within the first few weeks. While Mascylla was militarily superior in 1911, Cuthland was more efficient and effective at organizing its armies and planning a decisive strike on Mascylla's western defenses in Aldia (X Plan). In September of 1911, Cuthish forces under the command of X swiftly defeated the troops garrisoned at Saarow and Geißdorf, prompting the Mascyllary Kingdom to muster their defenses without prior tactical decision-making hastily. Therefore, the Cuthish could penetrate Mascyllary defenses at their border and sweep into the Fanian Plain, quickly gaining military control over critical industrial regions in Aldia, hoping to pressure Mascylla into non-conditional surrender. While the campaign was very successful within the first four months in utilizing their momentum and forcing the dispersed Mascyllary forces to retreat, such as in the First Battle of Augusthal in late 1911 and the Battle of Winden in 1912, the decisive Battle of Lückwalde proved the Royal Army under Friedrich von Gabig and Ehrhard von Belau could resist the Cuthish advance and save Königsreh from a siege.
Subsequently, the Northern Front began to solidify with the emergence of trench warfare and increasing war-weariness. Incidentally, the less intense fighting along the southern frontier toward Valimia and Cuthland became static in late 1913. The Royal War Navy imposed a naval blockade in the Cuthish Bight and Karsk Sea from early 1914 until 1916, obstructing the Cuthish navy from making a meaningful impact on the war effort as a whole and putting the Cuthish economy under severe scarcity strain.
From 1915 to 1916, however, after the assassination of Martinsen by Paul Debicki, the introduction of the tank, and improved war tactics were finally able to break the front stalemate. Still, intense but swift clashes often caused tremendous casualties and frequently pyrrhic victories. The Mascyllary were able to push beyond its borders and well into Cuthland, near Kingsham and Alderport, by the spring of 1916, before the Cuthish signed the Nordingen instrument of armistice on 29 May 1916, and Mascylla ended effective fighting three days later.
Interwar period
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The Armala Coalition imposed their terms on primarly Cuthland in the Treaty of Lehpold, hosted by Mascylla, in 1916–17, in which they intended on forcing Cuthland to pay exorbitant sums of war reparations, demilitarize heavily and abolish its monarchy. Mascylla had the prevailent say in the treatment of Cuthland in the negotiations, and opted to treat it harshly. It regained the territories of Elpsland, Dorsace, and West Aldia lost in 1840, received reparations in the form of war material, financial assets and industrial goods, and occupied Cuthland's Lake Sigismund region. Various Cuthish territories were ceded to create the independent state of Temaria, the Mandates of Konreid and Alderport, as well as Lilienburg. Furthermore, Mascylla received the Mandates of Northern Alvinia and Pandalam in Alvinia and Cancapore from the remains of the Cuthish colonial empire as well as the Mandate of Transappiria of the former Gurkhan Empire and Kenlong itself. The treaty laid out the framework of a genuine Berean peace under the established Assembly of Nations in 1917.
In the interwar years, Mascylla initially pursued a policy of Lake Sigismund security (occupation of Alderport in 1919). In the 1922 general elections, Rähner's cabinet lost its majority; a non-partisan "National Bloc" (Nationalblock), united in its hard-line policy against Cuthland, formed a minority government under Bernhard Graf von Loitsche-Heinrichsburg and governed until the end of 1922 before being defeated in a motion of no-confidence, following the Cuthish occupation of the Mandate of Alderport in November. Major elements of Loitsche-Heinrichsburg's foreign policy were the Cuthish war reparations and the development of the Kleinbund with Berea's post-war established states.
Mascylla emerged from the Great War with an initially strengthened geopolitical position. The most significant naval competitor had largely disappeared with the scuttling of the Cuthish high seas fleet at X, without Mascyllary naval resources having been used up to any great extent. The Weltreich was enlarged by the acquisition of formerly Cuthish and Dulebian colonies, and even more so by the remnants of the collapsed Chaghanid Empire. In addition, Tsarist Dulebia was eliminated as potential geopolitical rival after the 1916 January Revolution and subsequent civil war. The relationship with Lavaria was ambivalent. Mascyllary foreign policy remained uncertain in dealing with Aniarro, who they accused of attempting to establish hegemony over the continent. The attitude towards post-revolutionary Dulebia was even more conflicted. Although Mascylla supported the Tsarist White Movement, there was strong sympathy among the Mascyllary worker class for the DFSR. Support for the retreating Tsarist troops slowly dwindled while ties were cautiously established with the communist government. In 1920, the first trade agreement was signed, and in 1924, the first official diplomatic relations were established.
From 1920 onwards, the gradual inflation of the karning brought about by war funding became a matter of crisis. Friedrich Estermann's short-lived conservative government initially failed to stabilize the currency before his minister of finance Gustav von Röhm implemented a harsh policy of austerity. In addition, the conversion of the war economy, transport difficulties and the widespread devastation of rural regions led to social hardship of previously unknown magnitude. Civil strife for reform, acute food and coal shortages, and war-weariness continued to plague the country; the exceptionally severe winter of 1920–21 cost the lives of some 150,000 malnourished people.
Revolution of 1923
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Admittedly, the February Reforms (Februarreform) came too late to save the kingdom. The army order of March 12, 1923 (Heeresbefehl des 12. März 1923) for the partial mobilization of the Royal Army against Cuthland and to initiate post-war reconstruction in Aldia triggered the Augusthal and Weidenau soldiers' mutiny, which developed into the Mascyllary Revolution within the next few days. Workers' and soldiers' councils were founded in numerous Mascyllary cities and towns. Minister-President Johann Bartels proclaimed the Free State of Therundy in Karnitz. The revolution affected Königsreh by 8 May when Prime Minister Estermann, fearing a radical political overthrow, announced the abdication of the King on his own initiative and transferred his office to Erwin Georg Graf von Streecke. The government shortly thereafter constituted its resignation, and on 13 May, the Army Supreme Command (Oberkommando des Heeres, OKH) under Ehrhart von Belau and Karl Georg von Pritnitz declared itself to be neutral, thus leaving all of the Reichsfürste no other option but to abdicate voluntarily by 15 May. Louis I was urged to follow suit and abdicate by confidants in order to defuse the crisis and possibly save the monarchy. However, he delayed his decision. On 20 May, the King attempted to flee into exile in Valimia but was apprehended at the Bodemais–Philippsreut border crossing two days later.
Immediately after the execution of Louis I by members of the KPM had been made public, Friedrich Estermann proclaimed a republic with parliametary objectives on 23 May, 1923, at the Reichsrat building. An interim government consisting of three "People's Representatives" ("Volksbeauftragte") from the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the Independent Workers' Party (UAPM) was formed on behalf of the sovereign labor councils. The Mascyllary Council Congress (Reichsrätekongress) in Flussmund on 30 May paved the way for the gathering of the constitutive Marlau National Assembly (Marlauer Nationalversammlung) on 1 June, 1923.
The National Assembly was tasked with drafting and ultimately passing the Marlau Constitution, which came into force on 18 January, 1924, but also functioned as a provisional parliament to vote on laws and budgetary issues, elect Peter Zeschtemann as its presiding chairman, and form a broad coalition government, the so-called "Marlau Coalition". Negotiations with the desperately needed Reichswehr for their military support and political influence in the upper class culminated in the Zeschtemann-Gabig Pact on 2 June; previous revolutionary ideas of establishing a republic (the "May Republic") were reluctantly discarded in favor of a parliamentary monarchy, thus securing the approval and aid of the staunchly monarchist Supreme Command. With the help of irregular, right-wing Freikorps soldiers, the Red Uprising of the far-left KPM and the Mascyllary Soviet Republic was violently suppressed and their leaders Werner Pehring, Henriette Zeiner, and Emil Hiebert murdered. In return, Prince Justus of Holnia would act as regent and interim Prime Minister by the Reichswehr in the Fries Plot until the new constitutional instrument was ratified.
Crowned Republic (1924–present)
Post-revolution period and Goldene Zwanziger
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The general elections of 20 January, 1924, confirmed Peter Zeschtemann as Prime Minister with a narrow one-vote majority of the Centre/ABP, the DVP, and SDP in the Reichsrat. The SDP of Ernest Rähner and Linus Brühn was in government until 1964, before becoming the leading and traditional opposition party. Chairman of the MLP Norbert Frey became the first Prime Speaker of the Reichsrat. The Zeschtemann I cabinet, which emerged from the revolution, strove for social pacification and the conversion of the war economy to a peacetime economy under extremely difficult domestic and foreign post-war conditions. Socialization measures in certain economic sectors as well as the possibilities and extent of personnel renewal in administration, law enforcement, and the military in order to break with the Kingdom's socio-economic systems were initially controversial. In this regard, historians often use the term of the "incomplete revolution." For the time being, however, the introduction of the eight-hour day, the official recognition of the trade unions, and the Labor Council Law (Betriebsrätegesetz) with a policy of co-determination (Mitbestimmung) were universally well received.
Persistent political instability and anti-republican sentiment continued to plague the Crowned Republic well into the 1920s. In April of 1924, the Litten Putsch, initiated by opposition military forces, forced the Königsreh government to flee from the capital but ultimately failed due to determined resistance and a general strike of large portions of the populous. The 1925 Röhrn uprising of the Roter Waffenbund was suppressed by the government, and in 1926, minister of foreign affairs Wilhelm Gerion was assassinated by the Landeskorps Heinrich. The Pereuth uprising of 1927 was dominated by communist power struggles, and the KPM took part in the newly formed state governments of Aldia (Berdl cabinet) and Shwesia (Fröhneburg III cabinet).
Relative stability was finally achieved after 1927. This led to a drastically improved financial situation, contributing to infrastructure and Autobahn expansion, housing programs, state-organized social welfare in 1927, as well as the introduction of unemployment insurance and the liberalization of prices in 1929. New cultural innovations and the sophistication of the cinema, dance, and music styles, as well as the introduction of modern cultural dynamism and pragmatic lifestyle, defined the era for Mascylla. The stimulation of economic growth resulting from the readiness and ability of the lower and middle class to consume led to drastic increase in the country's economy previously unseen: within the 1920s the economy grew by more than a fourth of its original size; the ecomomic prosperity witnessed is famously referred to as the Goldene Zwanziger or Roaring Twenties. Mascyllary science and high culture blossomed in the 1920s and 1930s. Innovations such as the phonograph, radio, the telephone, and the motion picture spread rapidly.
The democracy of the early Crowned Republic was a party landscape that was strongly shaped and fragmented by classes and social milieus; in October of 1926, women gained the right to vote, and in 1930, an electoral threshold of 5 percent was introduced, despite harsh criticism. In late 1932, Zeschtemann's government coalition ("Blau-rot-gelb") was confirmed albeit with a reduced majority and with the participation of female electors for the first time.
In the Mascyllary colonial empire, local elites began to gain confidence in their identities. This movement was initially strongest in the Federated Melasian States by the end of the Great War, led by the Melasian National Congresses and most notably Wilhelm Keller. While the local colonial administration was mostly willing to make concessions, the government in the metropole demanded repression. Similar processes took place in Yudong and Caphtora by the 1920s. However, the development towards autonomy and eventually sovereignty reached a temporary climax after the Mascyllary Revolution: the Prinzenwald Statute of 1902, which stipulated the extensive self-governance of settler colonies as "Dominions" ("Herrschaften"), was overturned by the Fleicher Accord in May of 1929 which established the independent Republic of Melasia and formally separated it from the colonial empire; this marked the beginning of the gradual 20th century disintegration of the Weltreich.
The question of whether Mascylla should push ahead with its role as a foremost political power or return to a state of isolationism polarised the political landscape of the young democracy, forming the basis of two blocs of political parties opting for continued imperialism (Weltblock) or isolationist inclination (Heimatblock). Laissez-faire economic policy reforms and tight-knit cooperation with Lavaria and Falland solidifed support for the new political system. Mascylla rose to become an international economic powerhouse and political power, utilizing its heavy say in the Assembly of Nations and other multinational institutions.
The assumption of power by Wilfred Newbury in 1919 was regarded as Cuthland's "resurgence" by Mascyllary policymakers, who had expected this development since the end of the Great War. With the 1932 intervention of Cuthland in the Western War, Mascylla promised military support to Temaria in March and subsequently Lilienburg in April in the event of an invasion (1932 Guarantee Declaration). Mascylla had already deviated from its 1917 policy of disarmament by 1930 and set in motion modernization programs of the Army and Air Force from 1933 to 1936. In 1937, the Weichsel Statute modernized the Navy. In February 1939, facing impending military escalation, general conscription was re-introduced and diplomatic talks with Lavaria and Valimia opened. The growing political power of the worker class, the new rights of women, and the increasing calls for independence in the "Dominions" were slowly or insufficiently acknowledged by Zeschtemann's government.
Great Game (1944–1989) and decolonization
Peter Zeschtemann and his cabinet was subsequently not re-elected in September of 1940 and Ernest Rähner became the first SDP Prime Minister with a social democratic-liberal government (SDP-MLP). For the first time, the SDP succeeded in winning over middle-class voters on a large scale. Several industries and businesses, such as the Mascyllary Reichsbank, coal mining, transportation, heating and electricity, and most controversially steelmaking were swiftly nationalized. Rähner lifted restrictions on labor union work and introduced comprehensive social security legislation in 1941, as well as the national health service, the Reichsgesundheitsdienst (RGD). Almost all of his extensive economic policy projects focused on combating unemployment. Education policy that was supposed to raise the level of higher education and increase equal opportunity was also part of the reform program and was accompanied by the foundation of numerous new universities. At first, Rähner's reforms seemed to be successful: by the end of the 1940s, full employment had been nearly achieved, which aided him in his electoral victory in summer of 1948 despite the desastrous outcome of the Melasian Crisis. In December of 1950, the government devalued the karning.
Melasia left Mascylla's sphere of influence following the precarious Melasian Crisis and the Treaty of Königsreh (Königsreher Verträge) in mid-1943. Public opinion called for a swift end to the military operation in Melasia, and Mascyllary warfare doctrine had utterly failed. Formally articulated at the 1946 Cambra Conference (Kambra-Konferenz), a process of active decolonization began in which Mascylla, despite its position as a leading world power, gradually lost its remaining colonies. The Rähner cabinet resolutely pushed ahead with the establishment of the BDTA on 17 June, 1944. On 5 March, 1950, Mascylla achieved a successful nuclear weapons test (Ace) as part of Operation Whitehorse ("Operation Weißpferd") with Falland, becoming the first nuclear power in world history.
Rähner's second term in office as Prime Minister was dominated by the elimination of a housing crisis and the creation of the social market economy. Its driving force and leading advocate was Wolfgang Behrest, Rähner's minister of economics in his "red-yellow" cabinet. Behrest ultimately succeeded him as Prime Minister after the surprising formation of a revitalized grand coalition ("Blau-rot") in June of 1956. Sustained employment, growing prosperity, and the formation of a consumer society led to the economic miracle ("Wirtschaftswunder") of the 1950s. The economic dynamism benefitted broad sections of the population and is regarded by economists as the "heyday of modern Mascyllary capitalism." The Heisserer doctrine was established by Minister of Foreign Affairs Kurt Heinz Heisserer at the beginning of the looming Great Game; associated with this policy are the military principles of mutually assured destruction (GVZ) and the "Klippengang." Mascylla strived to ensure peace by deterring Cuthland and the X from attacking democratic Berea. In order to ensure its position as one of the most influential countries in the world, Behrest increased Mascylla's defense spending threefold. Mascylla supported the royalists in the Kenlongese War, Valimia in the Rovinan Civil War, and Chasun against the communist north in the Chasunese War with economic funding, military supplies, and advisers. In 1953, the DSA was founded.
Under pressure from the Assembly of Nations, Behrest's government released numerous colonies into independence or returned them to sovereign states (1946 Cunochuye, 1958 the Jewel Coast 1961 Diajiao, 1963 Tanjiong). A change of consciousness and values set in at the same time in parts of Mascyllary society. In contrast to "new" values such as emancipation, especially feminism, participation, and quality of life were those values functional in the context of industry and business, such as discipline, reliability, and obedience. The Civil Rights Act of 1962 (Bürgerrechtsakte von 1962) strengthened voting and civil rights for social minorities, abolished segregation, lifted the ban on interracial marriage, and took the first steps towards the decriminalisation of homosexuality; as a result of the Reichsrat vote on the bill on December 12, 1962, Behrest openly called into question the state of the coalition government due to the increasingly alienated and reluctantly partaking Centre Party under Anton Hoenscher.
Counterculture movement and international détente (1966–1981)
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A dramatic change took place at government level in November of 1964: the grand coalition of the Centre and SDP was dissolved for the first time in the history of Mascylla due to grave differences of opinion and the National Democratic Union (NDU) under Ulrich Werner managed to participate in government for the first time since 1914 in an overarching conservative coalition ("Grün-blau-gelb"), if only by an extremely narrow Reichsrat majority. The Mascyllary student movement of the 1960s, which rebelled against universities with slogans like "Unter den Talaren – Muff von 500 Jahren", quickly expanded to include a plethora of sub-movements and political ideas: comprehensive and radical social criticism against the capitalist system, the exploitation of third world countries by "western" and industrialized countries, and most notably Prime Minister Werner's controversial policies and legislation regarding the increased defense budget and education reforms on the matter of university and school curriculum regulations, as well as payment for access to these institutions. The most avid supporters of the protest movements were the so-called '66 generation (66er-Generation).
The death of student Alexander Schmitt in police custody during the protest of September 11, 1966 in Königsreh and the 1967 assassination attempt on Benno Gruhner, among the most integral thinkers of the movement, led to a radicalization of the Extra-Governmental Popular Opposition (Außerstaatlich-Völkische Opposition, ASVO) and the Social Student Association (Sozialer Studentenbund, SSB).
Effective crisis management was also demanded of Werner in terms of economic policy, especially with regard to dealing with the consequences of the 1967 oil price shock (Ölpreiskrise). After years of lush economic growth, Mascylla slid into economic recession in the late 1960s and early 1970s, amid rapidly rising unemployment. The Emergency Laws of 1940 (Notstandsgesetze), which had been considered earlier in the wake of the nation-wide protests, were now being enforced to combat the stunted economy, curtailing some fundamental rights (Grundrechte) in the process. However, Werner was unable to get the stagflation under control either by observing prices or by restricting immigration originating from the former colonial empire. Prime Minister Ulrich Werner ultimately lost a vote of no-confidence on 11 April, 1968, in the midst of the Kornbach scandal, thus ending his political career.
Deputy Prime Minister Konrad Dierck of the MLP succeeded him and hastily formed a social-democratic-liberal coalition government ("Rot-gelb"). He attempted to introduce a policy of détente with Cuthland and Dulebia via the Aichach Conference in March of 1969 and the signing of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty on 4 February, 1970. In October of 1970, Elfric Mendenhall visited Königsreh as the first Cuthish head of government in history, ushering in a brief period of political compromise and ease of tensions in the 1970s.
The 1968 movement dissolved after Werner's removal from office, branching off into a variety political directions. Various socialist sub-groups from the 1970s to the 1980s were forcibly disbanded by the controversial Extremism Decree (Extremismusbeschluss). The late-1967 Aurorahaus and Königsreh State Court arson attacks marked the beginning of RG terrorism, which eventually became a major challenge for the consecutive governments of the liberal Konrad Dierck and, beginning in 1973, the social democrat David Gehlgen. The terror wave of the RG peaked in 1970 with "Operation Revolution" and in 1972–73 with "Operation Rot." After the kidnapping and negotiated release of the Augusthal Zentrum politician Bertold Eckhardt, the 1972 Lansbruck State Court rulings, and the 1972 Mascyllary embassy bombing in Lilienburg, Prime Speaker of the Reichsrat Friedrich Ravensberg Prince of Loxstedt-Hoeveden-Sigairen and Anna Bärben, daughter of then-Minister of Justice Knut Bärben, were assassinated consecutively by the RG in March of 1973. On 13 November, 1973, Interflug Flight 113 "Estmar" was hijacked and, without responding to the demands of the RG, swiftly stormed by SOK units at Augusthal Airport without civilian casualties. Günther Wannsleben's killing spree on 29 February in Königsreh and the foiled assassination attempt on King Maximilian I in Flussmund on 25 March, 1975, represented attempts at retaliation.
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In the March 1973 general elections, Dierck's coalition was retained despite disappointing results for the MLP; SDP leader David Gehlgen was elected Prime Minister. After the pension reform of 1975, the SDP re-oriented itself under Gehlgen, pushing ahead the Lambsdorff Declaration to abandon the party's socialist ideals in favor of a market economy shaped by an expansive welfare state and social corporatism. His government succeeded in abolishing capital punishment through a reform of criminal law, partially renewing the Reichssenat, and implementing laws to further remove racial discrimination. In addition, the RAFöB was introduced, the voting age lowered from 20 to 18, and abortions were newly regulated. Numerous domestic and foreign policy reform projects were implemented under the motto "Ready to dare more" ("Bereit, mehr zu wagen"). The government had difficulties in realizing their ambitions, however; due to the conservative attitude of the High Court, several reforms had to be adjusted and weakened. In 1974, the exchange rate of the karning became floating, but Gehlgen was not able to solve the economic problems with price and wage controls.
On 31 March, 1974, an underground explosion and subsequent landslide destroyed the village of Hansingen, killing 98 miners and 130 other people. King Maximilian I personally visited the site and elevated the catastrophe to national relevancy and consternation. The 1976 coal strike fought for increased safety regulations and the preservation of the coal industry, but without success, despite major national power outages. An accident of comparable magnitude took place on 26 January, 1977, when a subway train derailed in the Königsreh U-Bahn station Hensbach, claiming 59 lives. In 1974, Mascylla hosted the X World Cup for the first time.
The Mascyllary peace movement grew dramatically following the BDTA Triple Resolution (BDTA-Dreifachbescluss) in January 1977, outlining efforts to build up arsenals of medium-range nuclear missiles in Berea. The decision was vehemently rejected by the SDP, despite Gehlgen advocating in its favor. These contradictory positions and growing national debt led to the alienation of the coalition parties and the resignation of multiple Reichsrat members in spring. Since Gehlgen's government was dependent on a slim majority in parliament, a motion of no-confidence was moved ahead in June of 1977 with the intention of electing then-Zentrum leader Walter Martin Seidel as Prime Minister. However, the vote failed because the necessary number of votes were not cast. Despite this result, the SDP-MLP government proceeded to call for snap elections. In the 1977 general elections, the SDP became the strongest Fraktion for the first time in its history, strengthening and unifying Gehlgen's government. Allegations of bribery by Zentrum MP Siegfried Wörner led to the Wörner–Schuman Affair. In late 1978, Maximilian I abdicated due to health-related issues; on 24 December, 1978, Lucas III was crowned as elected King.
Mayn era (1981–1989)
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A change of government came in 1980 when the MLP, led by Robert Egon Bachmann, supported the election of opposition leader Charlotte Mayn of the Centre Party as Prime Minister during a constructive motion of no-confidence. The Centre Party and MLP intended on confirming this change of government by new elections. For this reason, the Reichsrat, after extensive consultation the parties involved, officially refused the motion's result and announced snap elections. On 29 September, 1981, the social–democratic–liberal coalition government finally broke apart on the grounds of deviating perspectives on social and economic policy.
The general elections that followed in October of 1981 not only confirmed public support for the substantially neoliberal government in a landslide victory and an episode of political realignment, referred to as the "Herbstwende", but also saw the entry of the Greens to the Reichsrat for the first time. They represented the umbrella party for the New Left (Neue Linke), the feminist movement, peace activists, environmentalists, and the anti-nuclear movement, especially after the public protests against the Sortheim interim storage facility. The environmental protection policy that had already begun under the Gehlgen administration with the establishment of the Office for Environmentel Affairs (RSUa) was continued in 1984 with the creation of the Ministry for the Environment of the Realm (Reichsministerium für Umwelt, RMU) by the Mayn government.
The new Südpolitik initiated by the Gehlgen–von Ohnig government, which led to the diplomatic recognition of the status quo in regards to Cuthland, the FCPR, the PRD, and post-Barrault Sarrac, was only partially continued by the Mayn–Grau government. Nevertheless, it led to milestones such as the facilitation of travel and visitor traffic from, to, and within the X. This was also evident in Nikita Kamanev's visit to Mascylla in 1986, the first and only one by a X head of state; however, the joint Sigma space program between Mascylla and Dulebia was pushed ahead with the goal of a first manned lunar landing and ultimately realized with Sigma 5 on 2 May, 1981. In terms of foreign policy, Mayn initially propagated Mascylla's strength and superiority with direct threats to Cuthland (Mayn doctrine). In 1983, the Bunde party donation affair dominated political discourse, and in March of 1984, Mascylla spearheaded the creation of the Telmerian Union (TU), despite fierce internal resistance in the Centre Party. Haller Base, the only research station on the surface of the Moon and a major project of the MAOA, was active from November of 1987 to early 2009.
Mayn vehemently advocated for a strict supply-side economic policy of stock market liberalisation, industry privatisation, and the reduction of labor union rights, known collectively as Maynism. She continued to downsize government spending, reduce market regulation, and curb the top tax rate and inflation. However, these measures and a massive rearmament went hand in hand with a drastic increase in national debt due to deficit spending. Prime Minister Mayn's crackdown on inner-party critics had spawned numerous enemies within her government, and the Crash of 1987 brought about a surprising economic downturn, a surge in suppressed inflation, and enormous turbulence in the global financial system that forced Mascyllary policymakers to maintain a zero interest-rate policy until the mid-2000s.
Meilke era and Great Recession (1989–2000)
The weakened socialist world and Cuthland's allies at the end of the Great Game paved the way for a brief era of Mascyllary and BDTA global unipolarity. The sudden Great Recession suffered in 1987 put in jeopardy much of Mascylla's successful but fragile industries, culminating in the workers' strike of 1988. Most of the nation's major heavy industries, most notably coal and steel, suffered and were directly threatened by bankruptcy. Charlotte Mayn was ultimately not re-elected in 1989, in part due to her actions in attempting to strike down the year-long protests; Michael Meilke succeeded in forming a newly oriented SDP–MLP coalition.
Meilke's government implemented a model of modernization ("Aufbau Land"), overhauling transport infrastructure and renovating plants. Affected industries were handled by the Treuhandanstalt which liquidated unsaleable or unprofitable businesses if needed; the success varied regionally, and unemployment rates spiked dramatically from 1988–1995. Sporadic public protest coalesced into the major Thursday demonstrations from 1992–2000. The concentrated efforts and financial transfers that were used to equalize the living conditions in rural and de-industrialised areas brought with it a reform backlog that had meanwhile become apparent. Several reform projects by the national government were hindered by a Centre-Greens majority in the Reichssenat in the 1990s.
In the wake of the terrorist attacks on 20 July, 1991, combating domestic and foreign terrorism became a tenure-defining priority for Meilke. Mascylla faced increasing criticism due to allegations that they would violate international law. For example, the government was confronted with reported means of torture, such as Wasserbrettieren, wiretapping on and the mass surveillance of the population and numerous politicians, and the acquisition of personal information by intelligence agencies such as the DSA. Numerous allegations of human rights abuses have also been brought forward and repeatedly investigated by Reichsrat committees in 2003, 2004 and 2012 respectively. The rekindled Great Game come to a preliminary head in spring of 1994 with the Cuthish invasion of Ochoccola and the resulting Akawhk Crisis.
In response to the resurgent threat posed by geopolitical rivals in the 1990s, Mascylla took a more active role in the Telmerian Union to advance Telmerian integration: the Karnitz Accords established a single market (Telmerischer Binnenmarkt, Telmerian Single Market) between its member states and the Treaty of Aketerina to constitutionalize the TU's role in international law and the geopolitical system outlined by the Assembly of Nations, and to synchronize the members' foreign and defense policy.
In the 1997 general elections, the social democratic-liberal coalition under Prime Minister Meilke was confirmed by sufficient support from the public after having overcome the crisis in 1991 and 1994. The Centre Party, in parliamentary opposition, subsequently re-established itself as the Rehunion with the Lancaide Agenda in order to appeal to a more modern populous. The economic condition of Mascylla improved significantly in Meilke's second tenure, mostly due to the Digital Revolution. The Mascyllary colonial empire officially came to an end with the release of X into independence in 199X and the classification of the remaining colonies as Overseas Territories (Überseegebiete); the most populous and significant of which continues to be Akawhk since 1996.
Contemporary history (2000–present)
On 19 March, 2000, Michael Meilke was assassinated in a terrorist attack and succeeded in his office by Deputy Prime Minister Konrad Folln of the SDP; the Reichsrat was immediately dissolved. In late 2000, Meilke's government was replaced by a cabinet of the SDP and the Greens ("red-green"). As Prime Minister, Folln introduced job-creating programs and new minimum wages, but also practiced industry-friendly deregulation, including greater autonomy for the Mascyllary Great Bank. Controversially, the topic of ecology was emphasized more heavily with the start of the nuclear phase-out process (Atomausstieg) or with legislative initiatives to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The government also implemented landmark changes in social and pension policies ("Konzept 2000"). Folln's tendency towards unilateralism, which were expressed in his distrust of international and multilateral institutions, became apparent soon after he took office. Folln was critical of the Assembly of Nations which he refused to grant operational command over Mascyllary soldiers for peacekeeping. In addition, Folln believed that he would jeopardize his country's ability to act autonomously through binding obligations to comply with multinational agreements, as was the case with the 2002 Festunki Protocol.
With the state incomes from the eco-tax (Ökosteuer), it was now possible to reduce non-wage labor costs. With globalization becoming increasingly dominant, larger companies in particular relocated production capacities to low-wage economies, thus maintaining high unemployment rates in Mascylla well into the 2000s. In late 2005, Lucas III abdicated in favor of his daughter Dorothy. She was elected as Queen Dorothy I and crowned on 10 March, 2006, as the first female monarch since 1847. The 2006 Auroran Summer Games were rocked by a terrorist bombing, killing 21 people and injuring 109 others, among them the X group of Auroran athletes.
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Following a vote of no-confidence in June of 2008, Folln's red-yellow cabinet was succeeded prematurely by a revived great coalition of Lothar Obrecht of the Rehunion, having promised reforms and overhauls of public services; the Rehunion was able to participate in government for the first time since 1989. His cabinet raised taxes to increase spending on education and healthcare. He strove for reforms in the structure of the health care system and allowed hospitals increased financial freedoms. In addition, Obrecht liberalized the national rail network and allowed market competition between private public transit providers for the first time. However, there was controversy surrounding tuition fees. A law that permitted increases brought Lothar Obrecht to the brink of a Reichsrat motion against him in mid-2010. In 2009, the Common Berean Economic Area (CBEA) was formed together with the Berean Economic Community (BEC) in the Treaty of Toulogne, representing a major step towards Berean integration. In September of 2012, he also announced a referendum on the TU constitution, which he withdrew after Valimia surprisingly rejected the draft.
On 19 August, 2011, Queen Dorothea became the first Mascyllary head of state in history to visit Cuthland. Despite numerous political successes and near-constant public popularity, the Mascyllary monarch designated 2015 to be its annus horribilis after the fatal car accident of both of Dorothy's younger brothers, Louis, Hereditary Duke of Morleck, and Charles, Count of Taubach-Goldbach, as well as after the sinking of the royal yacht "Maskane".
In June of 2016, Kronenrat employee Hanno Bunsbüttel was exposed as a Cuthish spy. As a result, Lothar Obrecht resigned on 10 September because of alleged blackmailing susceptibility to the Bunsbüttel affair. Due to Deputy Prime Minister Rudolph Blaich's involvement in the scandal, the Reichsrat dissolved itself for snap elections instead of confirming Blaich as incumbent officeholder. In the general elections of September of 2016, the MLP, the favored and intended coalition partner of the Rehunion, narrowly failed to pass the electoral threshold of 5 percent; a renewed grand coalition under Rehunion member of the Reichsrat Thomas Falkner was formed instead, who was overwhelmingly elected as leader of the Rehunion in early October. Falkner emphasized the energy transition (Energiewende), the introduction of a national debt brake (Schuldenbremse), and efforts to aid Mascylla in its transition towards high-tech industry in his government since 2016.
