Tuachec Empire

Tuachec Empire
1250 - 1642
Imperial Tuachec banner
Capital	Tualcacán
Common languages	Quepec, Andyo
Demonym(s)	Tuachec
Government	Divine, absolute monarchy
Population
• Estimate	15,000,000-16,000,000
Today part of	Manamana Pecario

The Tuachec Empire was a pre-Colonial empire that extended its dominion over vast territories of Mesothalassa and southern Alharu. Known for its architectural, agricultural, and artistic innovations, the empire played a pivotal role in the shaping of the region's cultural landscape. At the peak of its power, the Tuachec Empire was a beacon of governance, religious expression, and social organization. The empire's expansive road networks, sophisticated irrigation systems, and imposing terraced fields showcased its advanced engineering capabilities. However, like many great empires before it, the Tuachec succumbed to internal strife and Iberic conquest.

Etymology

Historians do not know with certainty the origin of the name. The most common theory is that “Tuachec” potentially originate from two words from indigenous languages:

“Tua” could be derived from a word meaning “land” or “country”. And “Chec” could be a deformation of a term referring to “strength” or “energy” in ancient Quepec. Thus, “Tuachec” can be interpreted as “the land of strength” or “the land of energy,” suggesting the power and vitality of the empire.

Geography

The Tuachec Empire was one of the largest in Mesothalassa and southern Alharu. Many constraints are however linked to the geography of the empire, this extent and this mountainous character: slope, cold, altitude, without forgetting the coasts.

WIP

• Map with general outline of the empire, from oldest to greatest to final (if possible).
• Places known by name:
  • Tualcacán (present-day Santa Borbones)
  • Kallanka (fortress of Kallanka)
  • Marayana (cf. Battle of Marayana)
  • Wocaco (cf. Battle of Wocaco)
  • Valleluz (cf. Tuachec terraces in Valleluz)

History

Formation

Huayna Cápac, here drawn by Martínez de Murúo (17th century Iberian chronicler).

Upon their arrival in the Tualcacán region, the Tuachecs were just one tribe among others. These small regional powers engaged in local wars. The Tuachecs participated in a confederation with other groups, initially holding a subordinate rather than dominant position. They adopted the Quepec language, which they later spread throughout the territory.

First Tuachec leaders

Under Lloque Hanpaqui, they strengthened their position within the confederation. Thus, upon the death of the last chief of the Confederation, Hupac Yanqui seized control of the confederation, and the Tuachec imposed their laws on all tribes.

His successor, Rascar Chalec, was not as successful, and a conspiracy ended his reign. But around 1400, the Tuachec resumed their expansion under Huayna Cápac. Nevertheless, their territory didn't exceed a radius of 40 kilometres (25 mi) around Tualcacán.

Expansion and domination

With Huayna Cápac, the Tuachec Empire solidified its dominance over the region and expands its territory. However, towards the end of his reign, the Hoscos threaten the empire. In 1428, they invaded the lands around Los Picos and march towards the capital. Cápac abandoned the city and took refuge in the fortress of Kallanka. But his son, Pomatec, remains in the city and organizes its defense. After the failure of an initial assault (Battle of Marayana), Pomatec I pursues the Hoscos and, aided by a few allied tribes, decisively defeats them.

Pomatec, now emperor, recaptures one by one the cities conquered by the Hoscos. He completely drives them out of the eastern part of the empire by 1440, capturing several Hoscos cities along the way. A first peace treaty was signed, in which the Tuachec Empire gained several cities in the north of the Hosco territory.

Heyday of the Empire

Painting depicting Pomatec I.

Following the expulsion of the Hoscos from the eastern territories, Pomatec I turned his attention to consolidating his empire's newfound stability and implementing a series of significant reforms. The period between 1440 and 1453 was marked by both internal restructuring and strategic external alliances. Pomatec I recognized the need for a robust administrative system to govern the expanding empire. He divided the empire into several provinces, each overseen by a governor loyal to the emperor. These governors were responsible for tax collection, law enforcement, and the mobilization of local militias. Pomatec also introduced a standardized system of weights and measures to facilitate trade and commerce across the empire.

Understanding the importance of a strong military presence, Pomatec restructured the Tuachec military. He established a permanent standing army, trained in new warfare techniques inspired by the defeated Hoscos. Military academies were founded to train young nobles in strategy, combat, and leadership. This period also saw the construction of a network of fortresses along the empire’s borders, providing strategic defense points against potential invaders.

In an effort to secure his southern borders, Pomatec I sought an alliance with the Qipkhap tribe. Though the Qipkhap had remained neutral during the conflicts, they also feared the warmongering Hoscos. A treaty was signed between 1445 and 1450, ensuring mutual non-aggression and opening up trade routes between the Qipkhap and the Tuachec. This alliance allowed for the exchange of goods enriching both cultures.

Pomatec I sought to establish the Tuachec Empire as a dominant power through diplomacy. He sent envoys to neighboring kingdoms notably the neighboring Itza Empire, forging alliances and establishing trade agreements. These diplomatic efforts not only secured the empire’s borders but also opened new markets for Tuachec goods, leading to economic growth.

Reign of Pomatec II

In 1453, the son of Pomatec I, Pomatec II, raised an army and defeated a final Hosco incursion at the Battle of Wocaco (May 1453). These military successes can be attributed to the existence of a caste of highly trained young nobles and the establishment of a permanent army that could quickly reach all parts of the empire in times of trouble. Hostile populations were relocated within the country and replaced by loyal subjects sent as settlers.

The Tuachec integrated Hosco techniques of metallurgy, weaving, and mass ceramics production. Artisans and craftsmen from the Hosco lands were brought to the capital to teach their skills. They constructed new cities in the conquered territories to manage economic and military affairs. The emperor's administrators collected around 66% in taxes on agricultural and manufactured products (such as textiles and maize beer) and demanded forced labor for major projects (roads, irrigation, drainage, agricultural terracing, quarries, mines, construction of fortresses and new cities). Pomatec initiated several large-scale infrastructure projects to improve connectivity and economic prosperity. Major roads were constructed, linking distant parts of the empire and facilitating trade. Irrigation systems were expanded, increasing agricultural productivity. Canals were dug to connect major rivers, aiding in transportation and boosting commerce. These projects were often completed using forced labor from conquered peoples, integrating them into the empire's economic system.

Pomatec II was assassinated in 1465 after a series of continuous plots. He was succeeded by his son, Inti Huayna.

Seven Good Emperors

This era is often regarded as a golden age for the empire due to the wise leadership and successful policies implemented by these emperors. The Seven Good Emperors ruled from approximately 1465 to 1629, bringing notable advancements and achievements to the empire.

The empire experienced a great period of stability with the so-called period of the Seven Good Emperors. During their reign, the Tuachec Empire experienced significant cultural and technological growth. The emperors encouraged arts, literature, and architecture, leading to the construction of grand monuments, temples, and palaces. They also promoted the expansion of trade and commerce both within the empire and with neighboring regions, contributing to economic growth and the enrichment of the empire's resources.

One of the key aspects of the reign of the Seven Good Emperors was their emphasis on justice, law, and governance. They established a fair and efficient legal system, ensuring that all citizens, regardless of their social status, were treated equitably. This approach helped to reduce corruption and improve the overall well-being of the population.

Additionally, the emperors invested in infrastructure projects such as roads, bridges, and irrigation systems, which further facilitated communication, trade, and agricultural productivity. These developments contributed to the empire's stability and its ability to withstand various challenges.

• 1465-1489: Inti Huayna
• 1489-1512: Pomatec III
• 1512-1536: Huascar Túpac
• 1536-1560: Manco Vagra
• 1560-1595: Atahualpa Quispe
• 1595-1620: Chava Edonaq
• 1620-1629: Wayna Qhapaq

Iberic conquest, decline, and fall of the empire

Main article: Iberic conquest of the Tuachec Empire

The Fall of Tualcacán, the heart of the empire.

First contacts with the Iberics

Diego de Montega made first contact with the Tuachec Empire at Riomar in 1630, the southernmost Tuachec stronghold along the coast. However, they were not perceived as a threat at that time; quite the opposite. According to a Tuachec legend, the moon god Quilla was destined to return to Eurth to restore peace and stability. Montega was associated with this mythical figure and was welcomed without fear.

Capture of Pomatec IV

On 11 September 1631, after the capture of Tawantinsuyo by Montega's forces, Pomatec IV was taken captive by the Iberics. From that point on, the Tuachecs refrained from attacking them out of fear for their emperor-god's life.

While Pomatec IV was in the hands of the Iberics, Montega fueled disputes and encouraged rebellion among the peoples dominated by the Tuachecs, leading to the fragmentation of the empire. Nevertheless, the Tuachecs still held hope and wished to reclaim their emperor. Montega proposed a ransom: the room holding the emperor had to be filled with gold. The Tuachecs complied, but Montega didn't honor his promise and had the deposed emperor executed on 13 June 1633.

Last resistances

The Iberics then embarked on the conquest of the entire territory, supported by the rebellious peoples. After the fall of Tualcacán on 5 June 1632, they destroyed the city, founded Santa Borbones and placed Inti Yupanqui, the nephew of Pomatec IV, on the throne. However, Inti Yupanqui, who was aligned with the Iberics, was completely powerless in the face of the empire's downfall. He attempted to launch an insurrection in 1634, managed to regain control of parts of the country, but failed to recapture Tualcacán. The war persisted until 1647, the year in which he was assassinated.

The Tuachecs then retreated to Tuyus Wasi, a city protected by its geographical location in the mountains. A core of Tuachec resistance survived there until 1652. Resistance will have a resurgence in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the most significant episode being that of Juan Santos Pomatec in 1732, always with the thwarted goal of restoring the territory of the empire.

Consequences

The Indigenous population was dramatically affected after the fall of the Tuachec Empire. They were subjected to severe persecution by the Iberics. The natives endured numerous unjustified massacres, land and resource dispossession, as well as intense economic exploitation, particularly through the encomienda system. These combined factors led to a rapid decline in the indigenous population. By 1730, the indigenous population was recorded at 5 million compared to approximately 14 million in 1640.

Furthermore, the fall of the Tuachec Empire led to a significant political upheaval that reverberated beyond borders and Alharu. Some settlers extolled, through texts and letters addressed to the Iberic Empire, the discovery of new fertile and accessible lands. This resulted in several waves of migration to the kingdom of Pecario, The ensuing migratory boom, named "La Gran Peregrinación" (In Anglish : The Great Migration), caused a significant demographic upheaval among the native population.

Politics

(WIP. Government. Separation of powers. Who rules, how, and for how long? Political parties. What levels of government exist? How about the local level? Who makes the laws? Who deals out your justice? Which government services exist? What is the name of your police? How are the armed forces organised? Foreign affairs, alliances, membership of international organisations.)

Economy

Agriculture

Tuachec irrigation canal crossing the village of Oyatambo.

Tuachec terraces in Valleluz.

Despite their climate, these vast desert expanses were once fertile fields during the Tuachec era, whereas they have often reverted to desert in modern times. This was achieved through the extensive artificial irrigation system employed by the Tuachecs. Similarly to the arid coastal regions, the agricultural development of the highlands also heavily relied on irrigation due to the extended dry season and rapid evaporation of rainfall.

The intricate irrigation system developed by the Tuachecs included an immense network of stone-paved canals or carved into the granite of the Cordillera del Sol mountains, along with large elevated reservoirs constructed using cement. All of this was accomplished despite the significant challenges posed by the mountainous environment, which the Tuachec engineers had to navigate. The canals constructed by the Tuachec stand as one of the numerous architectural marvels of this civilization.

Tuachec Roads.

Similarly, from Huayna Cápac onwards, the Tuachec people understood the significance, in a highly mountainous country with a relatively dense population, of utilizing every cultivable space available. Hence, the development of arid lands through irrigation, as well as the utilization of even the steepest mountain slopes through the technique of terraced cultures, resulting in monumental and spectacular structures.

Infrastructure

However, among the foremost challenges of the empire, one can comprehend the difficulty of communication within an empire primarily composed of outlying regions. This necessity led to the expansion and intensification of an exceptional road network, the Tuachec Roads, constructed under the extreme conditions of a high mountain environment, alongside the refinement of a sophisticated irrigation system and various agricultural innovations.

Religion

Illustration that shows a Tuachec performing a worship ceremony to Xihuitl.

The myths and spiritual beliefs of the Tuachecs were passed down orally until the early Iberic colonists began documenting them. The Tuachecs believed in reincarnation, and their concept of the afterlife was complex and filled with challenges. Upon death, the soul embarked on a perilous journey toward the next realm, a process that required the guidance of a sacred condor to navigate treacherous spiritual terrains. Along the way, the spirit faced trials that could only be overcome through ritual invocations performed by the living. Most Tuachecs envisioned the afterlife as a harmonious reflection of the physical world—an idyllic paradise, complete with lush flower-strewn fields and majestic, snow-capped mountains. This afterworld was not just a place of rest but a new beginning for the soul, which continued to evolve spiritually.

Deities

The Tuachecs were polytheists who worshipped a variety of deities:

• Quilla, the god of the Mun and the Great Creator of the wurld.
• Zalanteco, the god of nature and wild animals.
• Xihuitl, the goddess of the seasons and the cycle of life.
• Cazlomac, the god of the stars and the cosmos.
• Tlalpochtli, the god of hunting and courage.
• Citlali, the goddess of beauty and love.
• Tzolkin, the god of time and fate.
• Fuczec, the goddess of music and art.
• Xilomi, the god of dreams and imagination.

Sacrifices and Offerings

The Tuachecs conducted various sacrifices to honor their gods and maintain cosmic balance. The most commonly used animal was a llama, with the choice of animals being subject to strict rules regarding the color of their fur. Human sacrifices were rare but significant. These sacrifices took place during pivotal moments, such as the death of a king or in response to natural calamities. For instance, upon the death of Pomatec I, it is said that as many as 2,500 attendants—servants, court officials, and concubines—were ritually sacrificed to accompany him into the afterlife, ensuring his successful transition to the next realm. The most revered sacrifices involved children, often chosen for their purity, and these occurred during times of crisis, such as a severe drought or famine. Such sacrifices were seen as essential to appease the gods and restore balance to the natural world. During these events, the Tuachecs believed that the souls of the sacrificed did not perish but became guardians of the people, overseeing crops, rains, and health from the spiritual realm.

Rituals and Divination

Divination was a central practice in Tuachec religious life. Priests, known as Shálecs, were believed to possess the ability to communicate with the gods through visions and omens. Before any significant event—such as a battle, a royal marriage, or even the construction of a new temple, divination rituals were performed to ensure the gods’ favor. One common practice involved reading the patterns formed by condor feathers scattered across a ceremonial mat, while another, more elaborate method, required interpreting the entrails of a freshly sacrificed alpaca. Through these rites, the Shálecs could decipher the will of the gods and provide guidance to rulers and warriors alike.

The Role of Achua

In Tuachec culture, natural landmarks such as mountains, rivers, and even specific trees were considered as Achua; sacred entities imbued with divine energy. These Achuas were believed to be homes of powerful spirits, and Tuachecs offered them frequent sacrifices, including food, crafted items, and even animals, to gain their favor. Some Achuas were so revered that entire villages were constructed around them, with the Achua serving as the spiritual heart of the community. These sites were often adorned with intricate carvings, and priests would hold annual festivals there, during which participants danced in elaborate masks representing different gods and ancestors.

Worship of Ancestors

The Tuachecs placed immense importance on the worship of ancestors, who were seen as intermediaries between the living and the gods. Nobles were buried in towering stone named Chullpas, constructed in high-altitude regions where the cold and dry air would naturally mummify the bodies. These funerary towers were not merely tombs; they were temples dedicated to the eternal presence of the deceased. Within the Chullpas, the dead were placed in fetal positions, symbolizing their rebirth into the next life. Mummified bodies were frequently removed from their resting places for religious ceremonies. During these rituals, the deceased were presented to the people, dressed in fine garments and adorned with jewels, so that the community could seek their blessings and wisdom.

Tuachecs believed that their ancestors remained actively involved in the affairs of the living. During special festivals, their mummies were carried in grand processions through the streets, where offerings of food, drink, and precious items were presented. It was thought that these offerings strengthened the spirits of the dead, allowing them to influence the weather, health, and prosperity of the community. In times of great trouble, such as war or famine, the most revered ancestors were consulted by the Shálecs, who interpreted their will through dreams or omens.

Burial customs

Tuachec stone funerary towers called Chullpas. They were built to protect and honor the mummified bodies of noble family members. Along with some personal belongings, the corpses were placed inside in a fetal position.

Mummification occurred naturally by desiccation. Mummification was chosen to preserve the body and to give others the opportunity to worship them in their death. The ancient Tuachec believed in reincarnation, so preservation of the body was vital for passage into the afterlife. Since mummification was reserved for royalty, this entailed preserving power by placing the deceased's valuables with the body in places of honor. The bodies remained accessible for ceremonies where they would be removed and celebrated with. The ancient Tuachec mummified their dead with various tools. The bodies were then stuffed with natural materials such as vegetable matter and animal hair. Sticks were used to maintain their shape and poses. In addition to the mummification process, the Tuachec would bury their dead in the fetal position inside a vessel intended to mimic the womb for preparation of their new birth. A ceremony would be held that included music, food, and drink for the relatives and loved ones of the deceased.

Rulers in Peru, such as the Tuachec ruler Pómatec II, were often mummified upon the time of their death, allowing for their bodies to be worshipped within the palaces. The Tuachec used to mummify their kings several times a year so they would be aligned in accordance to when they chronologically ruled in Tualcacán's plaza for the public to pay their respects. In the other parts of the year, the mummies were returned to the Tualcacán palaces and were worshipped privately by groups of visitors. Christano Davegga stated that “It was customary for the dead to visit one another, and they held great dances and feasts, and sometimes the dead went to the house of the living, and sometimes the living came to the house of the dead”. The kings were thought to have been able to speak back to the worshippers through the use of oracles, and even gave advice to the protection and ruling of the land. The ruling Tuachec was expected to seek advice from the mummies of his ancestors for important issues.

Upon the arrival of the Iberics, the Tuachecs started to hide the bodies of the kings and become more secretive with their worship. After being appointed, Paolo da Villadioz and his men found most of the mummified kings and took their bodies along with other ritualistic items or their statues. A popular thought is that da Villadioz had the bodies buried in or around Tualcacán in secret so that they would not be uncovered and worshipped again.

Art

Fashion

Tunics were created by skilled Tuachec textile-makers as a piece of warm clothing, but they also symbolized cultural and political status and power. Generally, textile-making was practiced by both men and women. Tunics could symbolize one's relationship to ancient rulers or important ancestors. These textiles were frequently designed to represent the physical order of a society, for example, the flow of tribute within an empire.

Ceramics, precious metals and textiles

Tuachec ceramic representing a llama.

Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals, birds, waves, and felines. In a culture without a written language, ceramics portrayed the basic scenes of everyday life, including the smelting of metals, relationships, and scenes of tribal warfare. Almost all the gold and silver work of the Tuachec empire was melted down by the Iberic conquistadors.

Cuisine

The Tuachecs revered the coca plant as sacred and magical. Its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work, but were mostly used for religious and health purposes. Coca leaves were also used as an anaesthetic during surgeries.